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Recommendations for
Improved Hydrologic Monitoring
May 2004
Table of Contents
1 Introduction............................................................................................................1
2 DWA Monitoring Programme and Context for ODMP.....................................2
3 Important Features in Monitoring Design...........................................................3
3.1 Hydrological and biophysical processes......................................................................... 3
3.2 Experience and lessons learnt from previous monitoring attempts ................................ 6
4 Monitoring Programme Objectives......................................................................8
5 Overview of Existing Monitoring Network .........................................................9
6 Assessment of Surface Hydrology Monitoring ..................................................10
6.1 Network status .............................................................................................................. 10
6.1.1 Water level measurements...................................................................................... 12
6.1.2 Discharge measurements ........................................................................................ 13
6.2 Dataflow, databases and data availability..................................................................... 13
6.3 Proposal for upgrading and rehabilitation .................................................................... 14
7 Assessment of Sediment Transport Monitoring................................................21
7.1 Existing monitoring ...................................................................................................... 21
7.2 Proposal for sediment transport monitoring ................................................................. 21
7.2.1 One year initial study at Mohembo ........................................................................ 21
7.2.2 Horizontal distribution and assessment of riverbed material.................................. 22
8 Assessment of Groundwater Hydrology and Water Quality Monitoring ......23
8.1 Monitoring network status............................................................................................ 23
8.2 Dataflow, databases and data availability..................................................................... 24
8.3 Proposal for groundwater monitoring........................................................................... 25
8.3.1 Delta peripheral monitoring holes .......................................................................... 25
8.3.2 Delta monitoring holes ........................................................................................... 27
8.3.3 Sedimentology ........................................................................................................ 29
8.3.4 Discussion............................................................................................................... 29
8.3.5 Costing for drills..................................................................................................... 30
8.4 Implementation ............................................................................................................. 30
9 Assessment of Water Quality Monitoring .........................................................32
9.1 Existing monitoring and assessments ........................................................................... 32
9.2 Need for Water Quality Monitoring ............................................................................. 33
9.3 Proposal for Water Quality Monitoring........................................................................ 34
Appendix
1 Discharge at Mohembo and Boro Junction and Precipitation.
2 Water level observations at selected stations.
3 Existing discharge measurement sites.
4 Existing water level measurement sites.
5 Existing precipitation measurement sites.
6 Existing sites where Data Collection Platforms (type STS) are installed.
7 Potential upgrade sites for automatic water level data loggers and precipitation gauges.
8 Surface water stations, tentative list.
9 Recommendations to upgrade the surface water monitoring network
10 Proposal and cost estimate for a monitoring/piezometer drilling programme using EUREKA
porta-rig
11 Planned methodology for groundwater recharge monitoring (Piezometry)
Table 3.1 - Major river systems in the Makgadikgadi basin and catchment areas (data
from Turton, 2003)
Figure 3.1 – Sketch of the delta area and surrounding pans (from Murray, 1997)
The Okavango Delta demarcated as a Ramsar site comprises 65,000 km2 in total, including the
15,844 km2 core area of the delta proper. The peripheral areas of terrestrial ecosystem are thus
some four times larger than the wetland site itself.
The Okavango River enters Botswana as a single broad river approximately 200 m wide and
with depths of around 4 to 5 metres. The river meanders through the floodplain of the Panhandle
before it branches into the alluvial fan of the delta. The delta consists of permanent swamps
sustained by the base flow from the Okavango River, semi-permanent channels and seasonal
swamps relying on the annual flood from the Okavango River and intermittently flooded areas
inundated to various degrees during periods of high rainfall in the region. Ecological zones and
habitats can be recognised in the delta. In the delta numerous lagoons and oxbows are found and
more that 150,000 islands that vary in size from a few metres to kilometres. The sub-stratum of
the delta comprises thick layers of sand deposits interspersed with silt layers.
The inflow to the delta from the Okavango River is on average approximately 10,000 Mm3 per
annum, while direct rainfall to the delta accounts for approximately one quarter of the water
budget. Evapotranspiration is the determining factor for the loss of water from the delta
although the exact amount is debatable as well as the recharge of the groundwater, making these
crucial parameters two uncertain terms in the water balance equation.
The annual variation in water flow upstream of the delta (Mohembo in the Panhandle) and the
southern part of the delta (eg at Boro Junction upstream of the confluence with the Thamalakane
River) is illustrated in figure (3.2). The inflow variation at Mohembo (the hydrograph) is fairly
gentle over the year. Flooding of the delta slowly propagates southward and the peak reaches
the distal part at Maun some 3 to 4 months later - if the inflow and rainfall has been sufficient.
800
700
600
500
Q [m3/s]
400
300
200
100
0
1978 1979 1980 1981 1982
Figure 3.2 – Variations in flow at Mohembo and Boro Junction in the period November
1977 to January 1982 (example).
The water level variation in the Panhandle is up to 2 m but the variation in water level in the
permanent swamps is not very distinct and in parts of the delta is as low as 10 to 15 cm over the
year. This is due to the water spreading out over a large area in the alluvial fan (Figure 3.3).
3.00
2.75
2.50
2.25
2.00
1.75
H [m]
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul
1992 1992 1992 1992 1993 1993 1993 1993 1993 1993 1994 1994 1994 1994
71.12 Mohembo, waterlevel 74.12 Boro junction, waterlevel
72.15 G aenga, water level
Figure 3.3 – Water level variation at Mohembo, Boro Junction and Gaenga, in the period
April 1992 to July 1994. Y-scale is 3 meter. Variations at 2.8 m at Mohembo, 1.2 m at Boro
and only 0.1 m at the Eastern delta station Gaenga (example).
The sediment transport into the delta in combination with dense vegetation in the inundated
floodplain, temporary blockages in channels due to build up of weeds, new tracks made by
hippopotami, peat fires in blocked and inactive channels, etc make the flow pattern dynamic and
ever changing. Tectonic disturbances altering the weak gradients are believed to add to the
dynamics of the water distribution in between the eastern and western channels.
In general, the flowing waters in the delta are fresh (low in salts) but in stagnant water pools,
peat and soil matrices in islands, salt accumulates through the processes of evaporation and
transpiration from the vegetation. The role of vegetation is a central and complex mechanism in
preventing the delta becoming a saltpan. Some of the mechanisms are illustrated in Figure 3.4
and Figure 3.5.
The monitoring programme of the hydrologic features has thus to take account of the
pronounced heterogeneity of the area (patchiness). The extreme variations and dynamics in the
processes are in no way fully understood. The monitoring programme of DWA is aimed at
keeping the broad hydrologic functions under observation and not entering into a detailed
assessment of process dynamics which are beyond a systematic and routine monitoring
approach.
Figure 3.4 - Diagram illustrating some processes in the permanent swamp vegetation
(from Murray)
Manual measurements at the field stations in the delta face risks from wildlife. Remotely
operated data collection platforms (DCP) are constantly subject to the threat of damage from
wildlife and theft of vital parts. Fieldwork has to face drawbacks and it will be too optimistic to
expect a smooth operation of the fieldwork even with thoughtful planning. However there is
room for improvements in procedures.
The lack of skilled staff in maintenance of advanced equipment, lack of staff to run the
laboratories, data processing and interpretation is another constraint that has to be balanced with
the vision of establishing a comprehensive monitoring programme.
1
Note: The data and the times series have not been subject to exhaustive data check and validation – this
is ongoing
Downstream of the Panhandle waters from the Okavango River are routed to the west to the
Thaoge River system that has gradually become blocked over the last decades although water
still trickles through the river system. The other major river system is the Ngoqa river flowing to
the east of the Boro. The Nqoga river system is further east divided into the Maunachira–Khwai
and Mboroga. The latter is diverted into in the Santantadibe and Gomoti Rivers.
#
Muhembo
rivers
Okava
# towns
roads
ngo
Sepupa
#
swamp
Seronga
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ga
chira
Mauna
Kh
Ja wa
o i
Etsha 6
#
G
Gumare
om
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i
Bo
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Nokaneng
#
Shorobe
Kun
#
e
yer
an
Matlapaneng
ak
#
e
Maun
al
#
am
oge
Th
N Tsau
Tha
# Bo
te
ti
Makalamabedi
Toteng
W E #
#
Sehithwa
#
0 40 80 Kilometers
S
Figure 6.2 – Automatic water level recorder (left) at station 7425 - Kwihum, (Jao-Boro
River) and gauge board 7154 - Duba on the Nqoga River. Both stations are located in the
permanent swamp area.
In 1995 eight DCP measurement stations of the type STS (from Space Technology Systems in
UK) were erected in the delta (and a further 12 stations elsewhere in Botswana). Six of the eight
DCPs were equipped with water level and precipitation sensors only. The last two stations were
extended with other climatic parameters namely air temperature, relative humidity, soil
temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, wind direction, conductivity, and turbidity. The data
are transferred to DMS by satellite and only distributed to DWA if requested.
Water level is measured based upon the pressure transducer principle where cables have been
wired from the station to the riverbank through PVC pipes. The transducers are located in the
riverbank. The transducers compensate the influence of the atmospheric pressure through small
air tubing in the cable. The systems can be very sensitive and precautions have to be made when
operating the transducers.
Despite securing the stations with electric fences several stations have been out of function due
to vandalism and some of the cables to the water level sensors have been dug up the ground by
animals. So far no usable data has been retrieved from the stations due to vandalism shortly
after installation or due to the fact that nobody has requested the data collected by DMS.
Figure 6.3 - The DCP station (left) at Moumo, Boro River in October 2003. The station
was in function until 2002 where the solar panel was stolen. The remaining equipment
seems to be in good order. The DCP station (right) at Xugana, Maunachira River in
August 2003
The discharge measurements are noted on specific discharge forms in the field, with information
of the instrument number, start time, end time, water level, distance from the bank, depth in
verticals, depth of measurement point, time of measuring, and rotations. When the measurement
is finished the discharge is calculated at the local office or immediately in the field. No standard
calculation programme is used for this operation and the calculation is made with a pocket
calculator. The final results of discharge, the mean velocity, the cross section area and water
level are forwarded to DWA in Gaborone but all other information is only kept in the paper
forms.
The charts from the mechanical chart recorders are brought to the local office where daily
readings are converted into a second form. These forms are mailed to Gaborone where an
operator manually keys these figures into the HYDATA database for storage.
The recorders shall be capable of storing data for at least one year, recording every hour, and
there shall be an easy data collection facility not sensitive to adverse and harsh weather
conditions.
One option would be to use a data logger type measuring the water level by the capacitive
principle. These data loggers are either a 1 metre or 2 metre unit in non-corrosive steel pipes. In
the top of the pipe, the data logger is located and a small lithium battery lasting for around 5
years of operation powers it. These data loggers could be installed inside a normal steel pipe
secured to the gauge board.
The field staff operating this system shall change the loggers monthly by reconnecting the
existing logger, fill in the necessarily forms and make sure that the logger is marked with the ID
of the actual station. In this way all data loggers can be replaced in a scheduled operation and
data can be uploaded to a computer at the Maun office.
The data loggers are easy to install, not very visible and tempting to vandalism and not
expensive compared to other water level systems. The only operational limit is that the range is
a maximum of 2 metres.
A second option could be to continue with the robust floating system. As an example OTT
makes an inexpensive logger with changeable 1.5-volt batteries. A display makes it easy to
operate. The disadvantage with the system is that the field staff have to bring a computer or a
special weather resistant PC notebook to collect the data in the field.
Paper recorders are not recommended even though they are well known as a robust recording
system. The reason is that all transformation of data has to be done manually or by digitising,
which is not available at the local offices.
No remote communication is recommended to the water level stations. The more valuable the
electronic devices installed, the higher the risk of vandalism. Therefore it is recommended to
keep the basis water level measurement as simple as possible, easy to maintain, robust and as
invisible as possible.
Add on flash memory cards to the stations can be an advantage so that they just have to be
replaced at every visit.
Tentative recommendations of some of the technical specifications for a water level logger are:
• Accuracy – 0.01 metre
• Power supply – battery
• Low power consumption
• Data storage – at least hourly recording for one year
• Data transmission – Replaceable Memory Card
• Operational temperatures within the possible range in the Okavango Delta area.
• Data display and keypad present
• Water level adjustment shall be possible without bringing a laptop
• The equipment has to be small due to proposed installation inside a stilling well or at a
gauge board.
• The sensor unit has to be easily replaced with a spare unit.
• The sensor unit has to be robust and not sensitive to shock or humidity.
Finally it is imperative that the water level recording has to be done to datum level and
corrected to the same benchmark. All benchmarks in the area have to be tied to a reference
datum level.
The Department of Surveys and Mapping (DMS) has levelled the majority of the existing gauge
boards in 2004 (almost complete by April 2004). The gauge plate zero and the coordinates are
included in Appendix 8.
As an overall estimate and for budget estimate, a total of 15 automatic water level recorders are
recommended.
DCP stations
Information on DCPs and recommended upgrade is summarised in Table 6.1.
Name River Comments and recommendations
Mohembo Okavango The DCP from Space Technology Systems is not in operation. No
vandalism is reported but there is no output from the station. The parallel
DCP operated by SADC-Hycos transmits data to the office in Pretoria.
There is no reporting of data quality. Data can be obtained from the
website www.sadchyco.pwv.gov.za and it can be seen that the station is
actually in operation (October 2003). A quick review reveals that some
parameters seem reliable while others are dubious. DWA should pay
special attention to the sensors at this station.
Comments: The STS DCP can be removed and equipment in good
condition can be used at other locations as spare parts. The SADC-Hycos
needs a service visit.
Guma Thaoge The DCP is of TYPE A. This station has been vandalised twice shortly
after installation. First the solar panel was stolen and after replacing this,
Lagoon
there was a break-in where the new solar panel was stolen together with
the battery and all cables were cut into pieces.
Comments: The station has to be moved to a nearby lodge. DWA should
inquire of the owner to find out if this can be realised.
Kwihum Boro The DCP is of TYPE B: Vandals irreparably damaged the DCP equipment
a month after installation. The stilling well at the site has not been
vandalised.
Comments: This station has to be relocated and new cables, solar panel,
batteries and some sensors have to be procured.
Gaenga Ngogha The DCP is of TYPE A: This DCP has never been disturbed since it was
installed. The only problem at this site is flooding during high flows but
this is not affecting the equipment in any way, though it is reported that
the field staff get electric shocks from the fence. The raingauge is not in
order and is an older version from SIAP Bologna in Italy. The raingauge
model is phased out and no spare parts are available.
Comments: The site seems suitable and alternative sites are not obvious.
As a tentative strategy it is recommended to keep the station where it is
and some security precautions taken in floods. A new raingauge has to be
procured. The final decision shall be taken based on a site survey.
Xo-Flats Boro The DCP is of TYPE A: This DCP site is one off the most reliable with
respect to human disturbance because the site is difficult to access both by
boat and vehicle. Elephants or buffaloes have trampled the water level
transducer.
Comments: This station can be continued but a stilling well and a new
water transducer has to be procured.
Dxaba Santantadibe The DCP is of TYPE A: The logger unit usually transmits out of its time
slot. The site is good. The water level transducer has been destroyed.
Comment: Stilling well has to be installed.
Xugana Maunachira The DCP is of TYPE B: The DCP is located on the edge of the lagoon.
The site is suitable.
Comments: Construct a stilling well and make a connection pipe to the
river. Make sure that the pipe from the well to the station is well below
ground level preventing animals digging it up.
Moumo Boro The DCP is of TYPE A: This DCP is located at a suitable site. The solar
panel was stolen in 2002. The water level sensor is irreparably damaged
by animals.
Comments: although the solar panel has been stolen this station seems to
be well located. One new solar panel has to be procured. Instead of using
ordinary bolts one could either use torx-bolts or weld the panel to the
frame. This should be considered as a preventive strategy for all DCPs
Notes: TYPE A – DCP stations comprising two remote sensors: Rainfall and Water Depth (measured with pressure transducer).
TYPE B – DCP stations with more than two sensors: Rainfall, water depth, wind velocity, wind direction, combined temperature
and humidity, barometric pressure, solar radiation and soil temperature.
Table 6.1 - Overview of DCP stations and actual status as per October 2003 (based on
interview with Charles Letsholathebe (DWA) and additional comments concluded from
meetings with DWA)
DWA in Gaborone and Maun must have direct access to the data from the DCP stations. The
solution with DMS as sole data provider is not durable and shared data access shall be
implemented with a dual system between DMS and DWA.
DWA has to procure software, field test kit and other devices for the DCP stations securing
proper test and data retrieval to DWA office PCs. The DWA's technical person in charge,
Charles Letsholathebe, should be able to arrange this set up. DWA needs additional personnel
backup for operating the DCPs.
Discharge Measurements.
In general well functioning, regularly calibrated current meters have to be available for the field
measurements. Related equipment such as rods, winches, counters and other devices are part of
the packages. At least one complete set for each field team is necessary, and at least one extra
set has to be accessible within reasonable transport time. Essential equipment and inexpensive
items such as counters should always be included as spares when the field team is operating.
For the time being it seems that there is no reason to change the routines of operating the
discharge measurements although there are more sophisticated instruments on the market, eg
acoustic Doppler profilers for discharge measurements, electronically measurement books, etc.
An attempt could be made at Mohembo to improve the discharge measurements. To enable a
review the discharge measurements have to be scrutinised for minimum, mean and maximum
discharges. One option could be to reduce discharge measurements to every second day. The
days in between could be occupied calculating rating curves.
The recently installed cableway at Mohembo may facilitate more intensive measurements in
additional verticals and still save operation time.
In parts of the delta the fluctuation of the hydrographs is rather gentle and therefore it might be
acceptable with two discharge measurements per month. In other parts the hydrographs are
highly seasonal with low flow or no flow for months where discharge measurements might be
meaningless (or impossible) while flood periods will raise the flow and water level rapidly. This
will require intensive discharge measurements on the rising limb and around the peak with a
frequency of say one to two measurements per week (this is carried out at a limited number of
stations).
The optimal strategy has to be assessed for the individual stations based on time series to be
established as part of the modelling unit. The working document on hydrology data (EHES,
November 2003) will serve as a start on this assessment.
If rating curves shall be established at least daily water level measurements have to be carried
out. It is likely that vegetation in and bypass of adjacent flood plains might influence the
hydraulic conditions at many stations. Standard rating curves might not be usable and as an
alternative dynamic rating curve calculations have to be introduced if continuous daily records
are needed. The assessment will be part of detailing the implementation of the improved
monitoring programme.
Dataflow
It is recommended that the results from the current meter measurements are stored in a database
with profile information, velocity values, instruments, calibration functions and other
information. This will give an excellent opportunity to monitor both sediment deposition and
erosion in the profiles, and it will give a significant quality control opportunity when data are in
digital form.
There are software programs on the market capable of current meter calculations and data
storage and it is recommended to use these and relate it to the HYDATA software and database.
All data shall be subject to routine backup functions carried out as daily operational procedures.
It is also recommended that all field staff involved in monitoring operations shall be acquainted
with the background for the monitoring and a broader understanding of the context of the
monitoring and the further interpretation and use in modelling. In this way the best commitment
of all persons are secured and eventually increase the data reliability.
At the local offices there shall be computer and software facilities so that the staff closely
related to the measurements and the locations are able to carry out quality control of incoming
data as soon as they arrive at the office. The local offices shall transmit electronic discharge data
and water level data to Gaborone within a fixed period (monthly or quarterly).
Existing and readily available data from past recordings in the delta have been subject to
gathering and systemised review in 2003/2004 as part of the Hydrology component. Various
checking procedures and validations have revealed shortcomings and recommendations in
improved data handling are suggested in the report Hydrology Data (EHES, April 2004). The
recommendations are for easy reference for the continued approval procedure and steps forward
in the implementation approach summarised in the following text box:
Recommendations on improved data handling quoted from the working paper prepared by
Prof Francis Sefe – EHES (November 2003/update April 2004):
• The practice of manual gauging means that data cannot be collected continuously throughout any
particular season, unless the site is fitted with an automatic water level recorder. Thus there is always a
long gap between the actual gauging. These gaps are filled with “m” in the database indicating missing
data, which is strictly not correct. It is recommended that some of the gauging sites be automated so as
to provide continuous flow records during the flow season. The selection of such sites should be done
in such a way as to achieve adequate spatial representation. Additional recommendations will be made
in this regard.
• The practice of filling the intervening period between gauged flows by linear interpolation and then
incorporating the interpolated values into the primary database should be stopped. The primary
database should contain the actual field observations only.
• In regard to the above, DWA should institute a programme of routine processing of the primary data to
obtain such secondary or derived data such as rating curves, cross-sections, evaluating outliers and
trends, etc. That is the creation of secondary database, as distinct from the primary database.
• The structure of the information in the database needs to be revised to incorporate the names of the
watercourses. It is not adequate to give only the name of the site only.
• The data entry clerk needs closer supervision of her work.
• Review the primary database and remove all interpolated and estimated values.
• A hydrological research exercise should be undertaken to quantify the flow that misses the Mohembo
gauging station. This will help in devising a correction factor to be applied at the Mohembo gauging
site. This is necessary because it is now too late to move downstream to another site as a permanent
cableway has now been constructed at Mohembo.
• As a matter of urgency, “official” rating curves should be established for all gauging sites in the
database. The process should be under the control of one senior officer and amendments effected
annually after the flow season has ended.
• Zeroes or the words “Ceased-to-flow” or “no flow” should be used to indicate a situation whereby
although the river had water, there was no flow to measure because the water had become stagnant
while the word “Dry” is used to depict a situation of a river drying up completely.
• Periodic training given to the data gathering personnel in the field would go a long way toward the
alleviation of some of the operational difficulties identified. Such training should include instrument
handling and storage techniques.
• Closer supervision of the field staff by senior staff is required.
• There is a clear morale problem at the outstations. There is the feeling by some of the field-based staff
that they have been banished into professional oblivion. This perception is encouraged by the absence
of regular visitation from staff at headquarters.
remedial actions shall be implemented in parallel with the new equipment installed. In costing
the improved monitoring programme a budget line is included for various additional equipment
and tools that will ease the logistic constraints and streamline the data reliability and data flow.
The bed load transport sampling should be supplemented with grab sampling of the river bed
material at eg 5 to 10 positions in the cross section at Mohembo at regular frequency and
analysed for grain size distribution.
Analysis of suspended solids and dry weight of the bedload samples is fairly easy and can be
carried out in the Maun DWA laboratory. Grain size distribution analysis is routine in
geological laboratories. Transport of the samples can be coordinated with the water quality
programme (see Chapter 9).
As an initial assessment it is proposed to carry out a one year sediment transport study at
Mohembo in a collaboration between DWA and HOORC. The option has been discussed at the
Technical Committee Meeting in January 2004 (commenting the November version of this
report) and Piotr Wolski, HOORC in May 2004 has reconfirmed the interest. The contribution
from HOORC would be planning and instructions in the methodology and equipment
selection/description, occasional supervision of the field staff, and data interpretation.
The DWA contribution would be field sampling carried out by the permanent staff located in
Mohembo, transport and analysis of samples (suspended sediment analysis, dry weight, grain
size analysis, etc) and manufacture of the bedload sampler at the DWA workshop (or alternative
procurement). The water sampler shall be procured (part of the water quality programme – see
section 9).
Based on a one year sediment transport assessment (full flood period) a long term programme
will be decided. It will be assessed whether downstream stations should be included in bedload
monitoring in flood periods (eg North Gate, Khwai River and Boro Junction) although it is
doubtful the two stations carry significant amounts of bedload transport.
7.2.2 Horizontal distribution and assessment of riverbed material
Data on riverbed material composition (sand, loam, clay) and the horizontal distribution in the
delta is vital for the hydraulic sediment transport capacity assessments by the hydrologic model
(in the second half of 2004). It is recommended to plan and carry out a one off campaign in the
2004 post flood period assessing these aspects. The sampling shall comprise riverbed material
(grab or core sampling) from cross sections in the frequently visited discharge stations in the
delta (around 20 stations).
The sampling is straightforward and can most likely be fitted into the tasks of the field staff
carrying out the routine discharge measurements. The grain size distribution analysis shall be
carried out in a laboratory having experience in soil analysis.
Data interpretation will as part of the hydraulic modelling direct a long term monitoring
programme of sediment transport, in conjunction with the one year initial study at Mohembo.
# #
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0 50 100 Kilometer
S
Figure 8.1 - Boreholes in the area of the Okavango Delta and fringe area
Monitoring of water levels in some of the boreholes has been carried out by DWA since the mid
1980s and time series are stored in the database WELLMON. The monitoring has to distinguish
at least three definable groundwater aquifers namely a shallow unconfined aquifer, a leaky
semi-confined aquifer and a third underlying aquifer recognised to contain brackish water at
depth. Under extended pumping stress regimes these aquifers seem to interact through leakages
into one another.
The largest numbers of water level monitoring boreholes are installed in well fields surrounding
the Maun area (Shashe river valley, Thamalakane, Kunyere, Gomoti and Boro area) and time
series can be established from 1985. The monitoring of water levels in this area is a mixture of
impact from local abstraction of groundwater resources and overall fluctuations of the
groundwater replenishment due to climatic variations.
From the various groundwater studies it is deemed possible to gather and present an overview of
spatial variation in rest water levels (RWL).
All water chemistry data provided from any groundwater resource study is entered in the
AQUABASE and the main determinants are cations, anions, TDS, Conductivity (EC) and pH.
only the change in surface water level be monitored but also the relationships of the upper
shallow aquifer with the deeper aquifers. It is known, for example (WRC 2002, 2003) that there
are three aquifers, an upper, shallow, sandy aquifer below which lies a semi-confining fresh
water aquifer from about 35 to 70 m. Below this, lies a saline water aquifer (Figure 8.2 a).
Figure 8.2 - Thamalakane valley aquifers. 1 – Fresh rapid annual recharge from river, 2 –
Fresh slow recharge, 3 – Saline. For further explanation see text.
The present tentative indications are (Linn, Water Resources Consultants, personal
communication) that although the shallow aquifer recharges very rapidly when there is surface
flow, the response of the lower aquifers is sluggish, with the suggestion that they are in a state
of disequilibrium, probably having been equilibriated to the good recharge of the 1970s. The
danger is that fresh water abstraction from the lower of the two fresh water aquifers may lower
the water level below that of the saline water adjacent to the recharge zone, with the result that
the higher head of the saline water will cause saline underflow up below the zone off fresh
water abstraction.
Two nested systems are envisaged; each being a cluster of three pipes which sample different
levels within the water body. Water quality sampling at 1 m intervals during drilling will allow
determination of the dimensions of the aquifers and identify suitable depths for ongoing
monitoring. The choice exists between three closely spaced separate pipes (ie 3 x 2 = 6 drills) or
three pipes emplaced together within a larger single hole (ie two drills with larger diameter).
The eastern/north eastern flank of the delta has very few boreholes. The groundwater scenario
is virtually unknown here and to complete the encirclement of the delta it is proposed that a
system of monitoring holes be emplaced, similar to that on the south/south west side, to give a
transect from the proximal to distal end of the delta, together with short traverses at right angles
to this line. A tentative estimate is for 6 to 8 holes.
Conclusions for the delta fringe area are thus to search for existing boreholes suitable for long
term monitoring, ie without impact from existing or likely abstractions nearby and supplement
these with a tentative estimate of 5 dedicated monitoring boreholes at the western fringe, 2
nested monitoring boreholes in the southern part (2 x 3 drills or 2 larger diameter boreholes) and
6 to 8 dedicated monitoring boreholes in the eastern/north eastern part.
Water level readings – either manual or automatic – shall be carried out at adequate frequencies
to capture variability in water level within the dry and flood seasons and trends from year to
year. In-situ measurements of conductivity (less frequent than water levels) shall be part of the
programme.
8.3.2 Delta monitoring holes
The study by Dincer and others (1976) used a small catchment bounded on the east by Beacon
Island in a seasonally flooded area. It was essentially a one cell model representing the whole
delta. Weirs at the entry and exit points were used to determine inflow and outflow. Piezometers
were installed at the edge of the flooded area, to establish losses to groundwater, rainfall gauges
emplaced and evapotranspiration estimated. The study concentrated on determination of water
balances and volume-area relationships (in the event, the flood water failed to reach the
catchment soon after the system was installed, terminating the monitoring programme).
The extension of the water budget to the entire delta was rightly criticised. It is only
representative of a particular type of terrain unit within a mosaic of different units. It is
proposed that a satellite image study is conducted to divide the delta into terrain units, and
similar small catchment studies be made in each of the units in the seasonally flooded area in
order to provide a more representative statement regarding water budgets within the delta as a
whole. Because the groundwater level is high in such situations, obviating the need for drilling,
it is a relatively inexpensive way of accessing, in significant quantity, important hydrogeologic
and hydrologic data representative of the different terrain units within the delta mosaic. Thus
such small catchment studies offer good prospects for more representative water budget
estimations. HOORC’s catchment study adjacent to Chief’s Island already provides one further
example.
In the southern part of the lower delta, ‘broad tract’ valleys occur (eg the Xwaaqa, Xudum,
Marsiba). These are wide and flat, with small channel form features developing in the lower
reaches as the surface flow becomes integrated towards the Nxaragha and Kunyere, ultimately
flowing to Lake Ngami. Flooding of these valleys has generally retreated and melapo cultivation
accordingly reduced and eventually abandoned. Hand dug wells on the valley floors have been
progressively deepened to access the lowering groundwater level. Running sand is depth
limiting for such efforts. The situation has become critical for settlements in these valleys and
north of the buffalo fence the flood fed riparian woodland is increasingly stressed.
From casual observations, the groundwater level appears to be lowering at a rate of about 1 m
each year in the absence of flooding. It is imperative to monitor this situation and to make clear
statements regarding the effects of diminished flooding in the lower delta. (There is a tendency
for the pro-development/abstraction lobby to be of the opinion that upstream abstraction will
only have a miniscule effect, mainly in the lower delta (present writer’s emphasis), without full
appreciation of the reality, ie that the effects of flood reduction are progressively amplified
towards the distal areas).
It is proposed that one long profile of a valley be monitored to quantify clearly the effects of
flood retreat. This can be done at relatively low cost using piezometers in the upper reaches
where the groundwater level is higher (hand drilled with bailer, then jetted where the water level
is deeper and declining more rapidly). Downstream where levels are deeper and declining more
rapidly, small holes drilled with a lightweight rig (eg Water Surveys Botswana “Eureka Porta-
rig” are appropriate for the completion of the long profile transects - see Appendices 10 and 11
for details).
A similar long profile transect should be placed in a morphologically comparable valley on the
north side of the delta to provide adequate comparisons.
In the lower reaches of the ‘broad tract’ valleys described above and in the Nxaragha and
Kunyere valleys, there is a clear need for examining and monitoring cross sections of the
system, where a potentially serious situation is evolving with respect to groundwater levels and
quality. This is happening under the natural conditions of diminishing flooding. The
groundwater level is dropping below the valley floors (reaching around 15 m in the lower
Kunyere). The levels are dropping even faster below the transpiring riparian woodland (Figure
8.3 a).
Figure 8.3 - Lower Kunyere aquifers. 1- Fresh, 2 – Saline. More explanation, see text.
They have lowered to the extent that the level of the saline water in the interfluve areas,
formerly lower than the fresh water levels, is now approximately the same. Further lowering of
the fresh water levels (Fig 8.3b) will result in a saline head, expected to lead to a situation in
which the saline water underlying the fresh will be driven to underflow upwards into the valleys
and riparian zone (Linn, Water Resources, personal communication). The ecological
implications are disturbing. “Miniscule” reduction in flooding can effectively tip the balance
towards major deleterious changes.
It is proposed that two cross sections be monitored, with drilled holes – one in the saline
interfluve area on either side, one in the riparian woodland on either side and one in the centre
of the valley.
A similar system should be placed in a northern ‘broad tract’ valley, to provide the contrast.
To complete the data spread, monitoring piezometers should also be placed for monitoring
where groundwater levels are already known to be very stable, both in areas of saline and fresh
water.
8.3.3 Sedimentology
While the importance of the effects on river and flood advancement of varying depths of the
unsaturated zone are now generally appreciated, albeit as yet unquantified, the importance of
surface and near surface sedimentology has lacked attention. At the simplest level, a sequence
of satellite images tracking flood and river extension clearly shows great irregularity, fast in
some places, slow in others. This expresses changes in the surface sediments. Where they are
sandy and permeable, losses to groundwater are rapid and flooding or river extension slow.
Where the surface material is less permeable silts and clays, there is rapid flood and river
advancement and correspondingly less water enters the groundwater system.
A good example of this was provided by the Nxaragha/Kunyere system following the extremely
good wet season of 2000. This resulted in extensive flooding in these valleys to the north west
of the Kunyere Fault, with drainage to Lake Ngami, filling it to an estimated 60% of its area. It
was said, in 1983 by Shaw, that the lake “plays an important part in the economy of northwest
Botswana. It supports a small but growing commercial fishing industry, whilst visitors come to
observe, or in some cases to shoot, the abundant bird life. The surrounding lake flats support in
excess of 30,000 cattle…”. The lake had been completely dry for at least a decade prior to the
impressive 2000 flood. The ease with which the water reached the lake is clearly attributable to
the several metres of silty clay which caps the underlying more permeable sand. This allowed
the flood waters to travel fast without much loss to the substrate (in desperate need of recharge,
as described above). This is in complete contrast to the Thamalakane valley where flooding is
slowed down by rapid recharge into the permeable, sandy surface horizons, up to 35 m thick
(resulting in up to 10 cm rise of groundwater level per day; Lynn, personal communication).
Clearly the surface or near surface sediments play an important role in the extension of the
surface water and the recharge of the substrate. Drilling or augering provides an essential
opportunity to gain clear knowledge of the nature of the sediments, knowledge which is
essential for the interpretation of the groundwater monitoring results.
8.3.4 Discussion
The programme of monitoring proposed above is comprehensive. It provides a comprehensive
data spread for modelling, it addresses key issues both scientific and socio-economic and it
entails an appropriate range of technological levels with considerable emphasis on low cost
piezometry and lightweight drilling. Prioritisation in terms of the timing of the installations
requires consideration.
While continuous monitoring resulting in unbroken data series should be targeted, past
experience has shown that complete continuity of data is unlikely to be achieved for a variety of
reasons. There is recent understanding of the cost-effectiveness of automated systems.
Conversion of key existing monitoring sites presently with manual reading to automated
recording can provide a substantial increase in the data at low cost. Upgrade of automated
recording to more interference-proof systems would be similarly cost-effective at essential sites.
It may be possible to increase the protection of vulnerable piezometric systems by education of
the local communities and their involvement with recording (periodically monitored by DWA
staff). Nevertheless some data losses are to be expected and must be accommodated. Evaluation
of the data points becomes important with respect to the level of protection.
In areas where flooding is protracted, the difficulties of monitoring are logistically severe.
Concession holders in these areas (often fly-in localities) already have excellent capability with
respect to logistical issues. They are well placed to offer secure sites. Environmental monitoring
is invariably a necessary component of tenders for concession management. There is a strong
emphasis on vegetation and wildlife observational monitoring. Rainfall and water levels are
sometimes monitored out of general interest, but this is unsystematic, uses varying methodology
and is discontinuous as the concessions change hands. There would seem to be considerable
scope for the acquisition of low-cost data from concession camps, data which would be very
valuable if (a) there was systematisation of data collection (rainfall, water levels, piezometry),
(b) provision and installation of equipment/systems by DWA and (c) this monitoring were made
a compulsory component of the environmental monitoring by concession holders. Collaboration
with DLUPU and Land Boards would be needed in order to introduce such monitoring
requirements from the holders.
8.4 Implementation
The implementation requires thorough consideration and dedicated effort throughout the phases
of evaluating suitable existing boreholes to be converted to long term monitoring sites, detailed
site planning of new and additional boreholes in the peripheral areas of the delta and the
network of piezometry drills in the delta proper, design of drills and casings, tendering of
drilling operation, supervision of contractor and final implementation of the programme.
A well considered approach utilising local experiences from the groundwater and geological
surveys and lessons learnt from previous groundwater monitoring programmes will be essential
for long term sustainability of the monitoring programme.
The implementation will have the character of an iterative process. Consequently a flexible
approach will be imperative. It is recommended to mandate a small task force the responsibility
of working intensively with the implementation of a cost-effective programme within the frames
of the overall budget. The task force shall be supported with technical assistance from the
consultants. The setup is further discussed in section 13 of this report.
The most uncertain part of the budget is the cost of drilling. Through consultations with the
DWA groundwater section in May 2004, new drills would be decided among offers from
private contractors based on a tender comprising technical design and specifications prepared by
the task force. If the offers are found unacceptable in technical and economic terms, DWA will
be able to carry out the drills through their own drilling section.
Whenever the monitoring boreholes are established and the monitoring is entering a routine
mode with modest frequencies of site visits including automatic water level recorders in the
most remote places, the additional workload might add up to a fairly limited number of
additional man months per year for the field staff. The cost cannot be estimated for the time
being but most likely it can be accommodated within a modest budget for operational costs
compared to the cost of implementation.
It is recommended that DWA management shall prioritise the long term sustainability of the
programme through an adequate operational budget and logistic support, otherwise an ambitious
investment in establishing the programme will be wasted.
At present a DWA staff person is dedicated to carry out the existing monitoring programme of
the Maun wellfields and his responsibility might be expanded to cover the ODMP monitoring
tasks.
The main characteristics of the water quality findings from the Okavango Delta from the various
studies are condensed into Table 9.1 below.
Parameter Typical values/ characteristics of water chemistry in the Okavango
Delta
Basic Parameters pH in surface water is in the range of 5.6 – 7.7 (but higher in the
groundwater - in Maun up to 9.8)
Surface water temperature in the inflow varies between 17-18 0C in July
and 29 0C in January and 3-4 degrees higher at the southern fringe part of
the delta
Dissolved Oxygen is close to saturation in flowing waters but can be
substantially lower in stagnant pools and wetlands reflecting various
natural conditions. Reported fish kills in Guma Lagoon might have the
root causes in natural induced flushing of organic rich waters from the
Papyrus mats into the lagoon (RAP 27)
Salts (anions/cations) The surface waters in the delta are fresh with low content of salts in the
order of 20 mg/l of TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) and Conductivity of 3 -
8 mS/m but gradually becoming slightly more salty southwards and
considerably higher in isolated pools of stagnant water due to
evaporation. Salt aggradations are found in soil matrices in islands and
constitutes a complex interaction with vegetation and evaporation
Nutrients The Okavango River and open waters are low or even very low in
nutrients (N and P) with levels recorded to be in the range of 0.4 – 1.5
mg/l of Total N and 0.02 – 0.08 mg/l of Total P. The content of inorganic
N (NO3-N and NH4-N) indicates a fast biological uptake.
Heavy metals A few scattered analyses of heavy metal contents in surface water have
been done. Due to the pristine conditions of the catchmemt area, the
content is low and likely to reflect natural geological conditions. Analysis
of low levels of heavy metal in water samples will require significant
experience and laboratory skills in providing reliable results
Persistent and toxic Spraying with insecticides combating the tsetse fly (eg in 2001) and the
compounds introduced as herbicide paraquat (1974-82) against infestation of the Kariba Weed
anthropogenic chemicals (Salvinia) has taken place. Some specific investigations are done in order
to determine residues in the environment.
essential water quality parameters at Mohembo including basic parameters, anions/cations and
nutrients.
A similar long term programme could be of value in the southern most part of the delta at the
Boro River (Junction) near to Maun as well as the North Gate at Khwai River indicating the
water quality as a function of a number of processes in the delta.
The monitoring shall be carried out in parallel with the discharge measurements enabling mass
flux calculations of the main constituents through the delta.
In the delta itself, high evaporation rates and subsequent precipitation of inorganic solutes are
the main chemical processes and of utmost importance to the ecological functions. The solutes
in the surface water enter the aquifers and eventually determine the groundwater quality also in
the fringe area, which is of vital interest to the domestic water supply. The integrated hydrologic
model can indicate the overall flow patterns and thus supplement the assessment of the main
distribution of solutes in the delta area.
There is a well founded reason for determining the salt content in the surface water through
easy-to-conduct in-situ measurements of conductivity and temperature. Conductivity is a robust
parameter indicating the salt content. Furthermore pH is proposed to be included as a parameter.
The locations for in-situ measurements shall coincide with routine monitoring of water levels
and flow discharge.
It could be considered to include dissolved oxygen as a parameter. Oxygen probes in hand held
equipment are sensitive to handling habits and rough conditions (as the actual conditions in the
delta). Most likely oxygen probes will introduce a rather proportion of uncertain or even
misleading results. As an alternative, field measurements using the oxygen field test kit
(Winkler titration) could be considered, but are left out of the proposed setup in the delta in
order to keep the monitoring manageable for the DWA field staff.
Mohembo Water sampling + lab. pH, O2, TSS, twice a month Mohembo shall collect the
analysis in Maun TDS, WQ water samples in parallel with
standard* , TN, in situ measurements. The
inorganic-N, samples are transported to the
TP, ortho-P laboratory in Maun
Boro Junction Water sampling + lab pH, O2, TSS, twice a month DWA staff to collect water
(7412) and analysis in Maun TDS, WQ samples in parallel with in-
Khwai River - standard* , TN, situ measurements. The
North Gate inorganic N, samples are transported to the
(7545) TP, ortho-P laboratory in Maun
Note *) WQ standard is usually parameters for water supply analysis (cations and anions)
Table 9.2 – Proposal for a systematic monitoring programme on water quality parameters
to be carried out by DWA
Water sampler for Mohembo 1 Water sampler is needed for Mohembo due to
the depth of the river. At the Boro Junction and
the Khwai River the sampling shall be carried
out by a simple bucket
Dissolved Oxygen Meter (O2) 3 1 instrument (or field kits) for the Mohembo
(hand held instrument) or staff + 1 for the Boro Junction/Khwai readings
alternatively a oxygen titration field + 1 backup
kit
Flasks, cool boxes for water 8 sets Exchange of the field sets between the field
sampling at Mohembo / Boro staff and the laboratory will ease the logistic
Junction / Khwai River North Gate arrangements and transport constraints
Table 9.3 – Outline of additional equipment and activities as part of the proposed water
quality programme
Table 9.4 – Overview of major staff requirements introduced as part of the water quality
programme
The water quality programme has the advantage that the staff resources and facilities are to a
large extent in place and the programme fits into the existing DWA field activities and logistic
setup. In other words the water quality programme has the character of an add-on activity rather
than a burden of new procedures and duties hampering the implementation of the programme.
The field staff will need basic training in handling the instruments for water quality sampling
and readings. The training can be carried out as short courses and refresher courses.
The amount of laboratory work will be extended but will not be overwhelming compared to the
number of similar analysis and thus not critical for the setup. The DWA laboratory in Maun is
not be able to handle the full range of analysis for the time being. It is recommended to request
HOORC to carry out the analysis until the DWA laboratory is upgraded and extended.
In conclusion, the water quality programme can be introduced in a cost effective way and it is
recommended to launch the programme as soon as possible.
the sensors are permanently damaged new climatic sensors shall be procured and installed at the
Xo Flats DCP.
In this way there will be two stations in the delta with extended climatic parameters
supplementing the DMS stations both north and south of the delta. This is sufficient and it is not
advisable to erect more specialised stations before the existing ones are in operation and have
demonstrated that usable data can be derived.
The precipitation monitoring network covers the fringe area and most of the delta well. There is
a lack of raingauges in the south western part in the dry valleys and gaps in areal distribution.
It is proposed to distribute 8 raingauges as a secondary network. The exact location shall be
determined with a preference for secure sites (near lodges where arrangements for supervision
shall be made) and access to the site.
A tentative proposal for locations is depicted in Appendix 7. The total network and
recommendation on upgrade of hydro-climatic stations is summarised in Table 10.1.
Stations Raingauges Evaporation (direct
measurements or derived on Ep
– Penman)
Total 20 4
12 Cost Estimate
With reference to the recommendations and tentative equipment list an outline cost estimate has
been compiled. The cost estimate is based on procurement of instruments and drills for
groundwater monitoring only.
The additional time consumption and cost internally for DWA to man the expanded monitoring
programme is not estimated at this stage. The programme is designed to fit broadly into the
ongoing field activities of DWA, and to make the ongoing activities more efficient and ease the
time required for logistics. The majority of the activities shall not add an overwhelming burden
of workload when the programme enters routine mode.
In the implementation phase considerable man power consumption from DWA must be foreseen
in preparing tender documents, evaluation, procurement, installation, training and coordination
and QA.
Technical assistance in the order of 3 to 4 man months in planning, designing and
implementation can be allocated from the international and national staff under the ODMP
component 2 and 3. Additional assistance from national specialist(s) might be required and shall
be engaged directly by DWA if shortcomings are ascertained in the course of the
implementation.
In Table 12.1 the main components are listed together with an estimated price for each theme.
No attempt in this review has been made to prepare detailed estimates of the cost of the annual
maintenance and repair. All the sites are vulnerable to damage, and there is a need to balance
installation and maintenance costs. In all circumstances the latter will be relatively high. As an
indication of the magnitude, the repair and maintenance costs might be in the order of 10 to 20%
of the total procurement cost of the instruments (excluding drilling costs). Taking this value as
indicative the amount will add up to some 30,000 USD to be allocated as annual running costs.
Sediment transport 1 bed load sampler, 1 suspended load sampler, 1 bottom 5,000
grab sampler, flasks, sample containers, etc.
Groundwater drills Drills and supply goods for approx 18 boreholes in the 75,000*
delta peripheral areas (900 m boreholes) assuming light
- fringe areas
drill equipment used (the Eureka porta rig type) and
minor costs to rehabilitate existing boreholes for
monitoring if feasible
Groundwater drills Drill and supply goods for approx 40 boreholes in the 60,000*
delta area for piezometry assuming handheld equipment
- delta proper
drill (depth up to 20 m) in combination with additional 8-
10 boreholes with the Eureka type for drills in deeper
layers
Groundwater Instruments for water level recordings of the dipper type 40,000
instrumentation for manual readings (~4) and automatic recordings in
remote areas/the delta piezometers (~40); EC and pH
instrument for in-situ measurements with sufficient cable
length; protection means against damages/vandalism, etc
Contingencies and unallocated budget for unforeseeable expenses and local 25,000
contractors for assistance in field work in case DWA workshops and field staff
are unable to support implementation
Table 12.1 - Cost estimate of equipment specified in Chapter 6-11. The cost of
groundwater monitoring (*) is very uncertain and based on quotations using light
equipment as indicated in Appendices 10 and 11.
13 Implementation Strategy
The main steps in implementing the recommendations are summarised below. In total, a period
of 12 months is foreseen to make the setup fully operational. The implementation plan is
depicted in Figure 13.1.
The conclusions and recommendations in this report are intended to be presented for perusal and
scrutiny of the Technical Committee of the Hydrology and Water Resources component in June
2004. Anticipating an approval of the overall framework of the monitoring outline and the
recommendations by DWA shortly after, the implementation shall commence by July/August
2004 and be concluded within approximately one year.
In order to achieve fast implementation it is proposed to work in parallel and separately within
the four categories of
• Surface water hydrology, equipment procurement and sediment sampling
• Water quality analysis equipment
• DCP installations and upgrading
• Groundwater drillings and monitoring
In case one of the categories is delayed for whatever reason the others can continue without
delays. Groundwater monitoring is particularly complex, and needs more detailed consideration
and time to implement.
Kalaote Kalaote
(Project
Director)
Alasdair
Macdonald Support from the ODMP Component 2 and 3 consultants allocated to the task forces within
(team leader) the approximately themes and man-time (to be approved):
Additional support of 1 to 2 man months may be allocated (based on discussion and approval) from
Component 2 - Data Management under the headline of Specific studies to enhance wetland
management and monitoring. Assistance allocated to eg preparation of an Annual Monitoring Report
on ODMP in a conceptual outline and sediment transport studies.
In the beginning, the two task forces shall be assigned to prepare a detailed staff task–time
schedule (roster) in order for all involved to have a clear view of who is doing what when with
what equipment. This will highlight any need for additional human and equipment resources.
2. The recommendations in this report shall be circulated to the sections in DWA directly
involved in the future programme, and through a consultative process invited to comment
and forward ideas for adjustments. The experience from present monitoring (field work,
data transmission, data storage, etc) shall be utilised avoiding mistakes and constraints in
the logistic arrangements.
3. The proposed setup and recommendations shall be further detailed and technical
specifications of the equipment developed in sufficient detail to make a tender
announcement. The technical specifications shall be tailored to the site specific
requirements.
4. The technical specifications and tender documents shall be divided into lots as
appropriate. The equipment will probably have to be procured from international
suppliers. The surface water hydrology part and the DCP upgrading might also face the
need for fieldwork and construction work to be carried out by national contractors or by
DWA field staff.
5. The groundwater monitoring programme will require thorough planning and site
selection. It is expected that the site selection shall rely on a thorough analysis of the
geological features and present monitoring boreholes before the best monitoring sites can
be settled. Specification on drilling depths, drilling techniques, casings, sealing,
piezometry and data loggers shall be specified. It is envisaged that the drills shall be
contracted with private companies but DWA can take on the task if required.
6. Following the rules of GOB the procurement of equipment over an assumed value of
10,000 BWP shall be based on tender usually taking about 4 weeks from calls to final
selection. The successful tenderer is evaluated on financial proposal in combination with
technical criteria. Tender documents are prepared by the DWA task forces.
7. The selected supplier is contracted and the delivery of equipment can probably be within
1 to 2 months. In case fieldwork is needed local contractors are called in for quotations.
The technical specifications, site selection and procurement of equipment are foreseen to be in
place at the end of 2004, although the groundwater monitoring site selection might be extended
a few additional months.
11. The water quality programme needs instruction to field staff in sampling, storage and
filling in data logs and data flow, and data storage and interpretation.
12. The DCP stations will require a fairly high level of maintenance skills both in the field,
in data retrieval and storage.
13. The drilling of the groundwater monitoring boreholes needs close supervision in the
drilling period securing the correct casing, sealing and installation of piezometry pipes.
The regular monitoring of the existing boreholes to be included in the network shall be
included in regular logistic routes for the field staff and data entries in the database
established.
14. The entire setup of the monitoring programme and continuous follow up in the routine
mode needs coordination and supervision from the dedicated task forces in DWA.
A total of 8 automatic and remotely operated Data Collection Platforms (DCP) was installed in
the delta in 1995. The data are transferred to DMS by satellite and only distributed to DWA if
requested. Seven of the DCP stations are installed with equipment for water level recordings
and all 8 stations are equipped with raingauges. Two DCPs in the delta have several extra
sensors for hydroclimatic parameters. The DCPs are out of order due to elephant damage (3
stations), thefts of the solar panel (3 stations), vandalism and instrument failures or a
combination of these. In Mohembo, an extra DCP is installed (SADC-Hycos) measuring several
water parameters and hydroclimatic parameters. Data are available from the internet.
Precipitation is also measured by DMS at Maun, Shakawe, Gumare and Sehitwa, all in the
fringe area of the delta.
All monitoring is handled from the local DWA offices in Maun and Gumare.
Water level and discharge data are stored in the HYDATA database located in Gaborone. The
original measured data and corrected and interpreted data are sometimes mixed. This should be
avoided. Previous data series have to be scrutinised and corrected in the further process of
setting up the hydrologic model.
The following are the conclusions and recommendations on the surface water hydrology
• The existing network of water level and discharge stations seems sufficient to
cover the delta dynamics in a reasonable way
• It is recommended to install robust automatic water level recorders at
approximately 15 of the water level gauges where manual readings are carried
out today or old chart recorders are not dependable. Inexpensive but robust data
loggers are available and can easily be installed on the sites. Together with the
DCP water level recorders this monitoring network will cover and uniformly
represent the main river system Mohembo, Jao and Boro (10) and Xudum–
Kunyere (2). The Thaoge river is covered by 2 stations while the Eastern rivers
with uniform and rather small water level variations are covered by 6 automatic
level recorders. The final positioning of the stations will depend on the
individual needs of spatially distributed data, eg modelling, topographic
mapping etc. Any future changes in river routing will influence planning and
reconsideration of the locations might be necessary.
• All water level gauging sites shall be linked to the national datum level
• Although the existing experience with the DCPs is not encouraging, efforts
shall be directed towards bringing the DCP stations into function and data
received and stored properly. It is recommended to upgrade 6 or 7 of the 8 DCP
stations. The extra DCP at Mohembo can be used as spare parts. Stilling wells
and proper trenching of the pressure transducer shall be carried out at all
stations and solar panels and batteries shall be installed by devices reducing the
possibility of simple theft.
• It is impossible to make the gauging stations fully animal and theft proof. It will
be necessary to carry out occasional repairs and replacement of parts
• At least two persons have to be trained in maintaining the DCP stations and
collect data from these
• Based on a spot test of one discharge instrument and discharge calculation form
only it is the impression that the discharge measurements and calculations are
carried out satisfactorily and no urgent upgrade of the equipment is needed
Sediment transport
No systematic monitoring of quantities of sediment (bed load and suspended particles) entering
or within the delta is in place. The sediment transport is of vital importance to the dynamics of
the delta.
It is recommended to commence systematic sediment transport monitoring at the Mohembo
station in order to assess the variation and the annual load of sediment entering the delta. The
monitoring can be carried out by the permanent staff in Mohembo and shall be closely linked to
the discharge measurements. A one year initial assessment prepared as a joint project between
DWA and HOORC could be valuable and the results evaluated to determine a long term
programme.
It is also recommended to carry out a one off (initially) post flood campaign in 2004 to sample
bed material throughout the delta.
Groundwater Monitoring
Approximately 1,000 boreholes are present within the ODMP area and groundwater abstraction
is intensifying in the Maun area and at the western fringe areas. Some of the new groundwater
well fields have established dedicated monitoring boreholes and water level variations
recordings are carried out to some extent.
In order to monitor long term trends in groundwater aquifers both as a function of the
abstraction of groundwater resources and long term fluctuations in areas outside the area
directly impacted, it is proposed to implement a dedicated and well considered groundwater
monitoring programme. The sequence of implementing the monitoring will require detailed
planning and assessment of the geological structures. The conceptual approach is proposed to
contain the following elements
• Along the western side of the delta a monitoring system has to be designed
based on existing boreholes. A small number of new boreholes may be required
to fill geographical gaps.
• In the southern part of the delta more attention has to be given to existing
monitoring boreholes to obtain continuous records of data.
• To improve knowledge of the relationship between the upper shallow aquifer
and the deeper aquifer, two nested systems are recommend for installation in the
southern abstraction area.
• In the north eastern and eastern flank of the delta a tentative estimate of 6 to 8
new boreholes is recommended
• In the Delta, a number of monitoring boreholes has to be drilled in different
terrain types selected from analysis of satellite images and aerial photos
• In the southern part of the lower delta it is recommended that a long profile of a
‘broad tract’ valley be monitored to quantify clearly the effect of flood retreat.
A similar profile is recommended placed in a morphologically comparable
valley on the north side of the delta.
• In the lower reaches of the ‘broad tract’ valleys described above it is proposed
that two cross sections be monitored in each valley.
• To complete the data spread, monitoring piezometers should also be placed
where groundwater levels are known to be very stable, both in areas of saline
and fresh water.
Hydroclimatic monitoring
Precipitation data are measured at five DMS stations in the fringe area of the delta. Inside the
delta six DCP stations have to be revitalised for precipitation to be measured.
Climatic data are measured at two DMS stations in the area. The spatial distribution can be
improved when the two or three extended DCP stations are back in operation. Potential
evaporation (Ep) calculations can be made from the climatic parameters.
• Six or seven of the 8 DCP stations from STS have to be made operational and
upgraded. The eighth station at Mohembo can be used as spare as there is
installed a new DCP SADC Hycos station.
• New sensors, solar panels, batteries, etc have to be procured.
• Eight new precipitation gauges should be positioned in the delta mainly in the
western part to fill area coverage gaps
• Necessary software and field testing kits have to be procured so DWA are
independent of DMS.
• Contact has to be made to DMS to secure that they will continue operating the
relevant precipitation and evaporation stations.
Remote sensing
Remote sensing and analysis of annually procured satellite images in flood periods and dry
periods may add to the interpretation of the hydrologic variation and supplement the land based
monitoring.
It is recommended on a routine basis to acquire images (eg MODIS, Landsat) as support to the
hydrologic monitoring programme.
Cost estimate
The cost of upgrading the equipment and carrying out the groundwater monitoring drills is
estimated to be 300,000 US$. The cost estimate for groundwater monitoring comprises 60 % of
the total cost and is the most uncertain part, depending on the actual drill costs in the area. The
annual cost of maintenance and repair of the equipment is estimated to be within 10 to 20 % of
the capital cost. The overall upgrading should not be implemented until it is assured that this
latter cost can be met from the revenue or other budget
In addition to the procurement cost, DWA manpower in implementing the proposed monitoring
programme will be required. The monitoring programme itself will to a large extent fit into the
normal routine of the DWA field staff functions and will not expand the workload dramatically.
In case one of the categories is delayed for whatever reason the other issues shall continue as
planned.
The outline of the equipment and location has been based on the findings at the beginning of a
comprehensive process. Data on hydrology and climatic parameters are gathered and shall
gradually be interpreted, all adding to a deeper insight of the hydrologic function. A flexible
approach from the outset shall be the basis for the future process of specification and site
selection. Thus the programme shall be considered an outline for further refinements. It is
proposed to dedicate two task forces with the responsibility for implementation. One task force
shall be charged with the responsibility of surface water monitoring, upgrading the DCPs, water
quality and sediment transport monitoring. The second task force shall be charged with
groundwater monitoring.
The technical specifications, site selection and procurement of equipment are foreseen to be in
place at the end of 2004 although the groundwater monitoring site selection might be extended
some additional months.
The installation of the equipment and the effort bringing the monitoring procedures into a
routine mode are planned for the first half of 2005. The operational procedures will require
instruction and training but essentially the monitoring instruments proposed are fairly easy to
operate (except the DCPs). The challenge is to have the dataflow, storage and quality assurance
in a well established procedure.
Data dissemination
Data provided by improved monitoring is without any use in the wider perspective of ODMP if
the information is entered into databases without easy access and announcements of the options
of using the data for other stakeholders. It is suggested that an easy to overview annual
monitoring report on the Okavango Delta Monitoring shall be prepared.
The report shall be available within say 4 to 5 months after the last data on the monitoring year
are gathered. The report shall contain an overview map of the monitoring stations on surface
water hydrology, dedicated groundwater monitoring locations, water quality sampling stations
and climatic stations. The annual results shall be presented and illustrative time series on
selected parameters commented. Model results from the integrated hydrology model might
support the conclusions and findings whenever the model is operational.
15 References
Becker, Frederick: Water Demand, Supply and Resource Development (Namibian and
Botswana Sector). Specialist Report prepared for OKACOM, March 1998
Dincer, T., Heemstra, H.H. and Kraatz, D.B. 1976 The study of hydrological conditions in an
experimental area in the seasonal swamp. Tech. Note No. 20. UNDP/FAO: BOT/71/706.
EHES. ODMP – Hydrology and Water Resources. ‘Hydrology Data’ (Working Document,
November 2003 (Draft)
Gieske, A. 1997 Modelling outflow from the Jao/Boro River system in the Okavango Delta,
Botswana. J. of Hydrology, 193, 214-239.
GCS (Geotechnical Consulting Services) 2001. Monitoring. Department of Water Affairs,
Gaborone.
GOB (Government of Botswana) 2002. Groundwater Resources Investigation in the Boteti
Area. Hydrogeo (Pty.) and Water Surveys (Botswana). Final Report.
GRAS (April 2004). Topographical Model of the Okavango Delta. Draft Technical Report.
GRAS – Geographical Resources Analysis & Sciences Ltd. April 2004
Huntsman-Mapila, P. & Wolski, P. Transport and accumulation of the synthetic pyrethroid
Deltamethrin in Different Habitats of the Okavango Delta.
Mabua, I.D. ODMP - Report on Hydrology and Water Resources – Hydrogeology. Draft Report
23 September 2003.
Murray-Hudson, Mike and Parry, Dave: Biophysical Environment (Botswana Sector). Specialist
Report prepared for OKACOM, October 1997.
Naidu, C K: Improved Monitoring of Okavango Delta, DWA Maun, draft May 2004
RAP 27. A Rapid Biological Assessment of the aquatic Ecosystems of the Okavango Delta,
Botswana: High Water Survey. Editors: Leeanne E. Alonso and Lee-Ann Nordin. 2003.
Scudder, T., Manley, R.E., Coley, R.W., Davis, R.K., Green, J., Howard, G.W., Lawry, S.W.,
Martz, D., Rogers, P.P., Taylor, A.R.D., Turner, S.D., White, G.F. and Wright, E.P. 1993 The
IUCN (World Conservation Union) Review of the Southern Okavango Integrated Water
Development Project. IUCN Switzerland, 543 pp.
Sethebe, K.M & Letshwenyo, M. and Huntsman–Mapila, P. Seasonal Variations in Water
Quality in the Okavango Delta.
SMEC (Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation) 1990. Southern Okavango Integrated
Water Development Technical Study, Department of Water Affairs, Gaborone, Botswana
(unpublished).
Turton, Anthony, Ashton, Peter & Cloete, Eugene (editors): Transboundary rivers, Sovereignty
and Developments: Hydropolitical Drivers in the Okavango River Basin, 2003
UNEP-WHO, Water Quality Monitoring – A Practical Guide to the Design and Implementation
of Freshwater Quality Studies and Monitoring Programmes. Editors Jamie Bertram and Richard
Balance, 1996
Warmeant, Poul: ’Review of Water Chemistry and Water Quality in the Okavango Delta’.
Specialist Report prepared November 1997 for the OKACOM.
WMO (Pub. 680), Manual on Water Quality Monitoring, Operational Hydrology Report no. 27.
World Meteorological Organisation, 1988
WMO (Pub. 686), Manual on Operational Methods for Measurement of Sediment Transport,
Operational Hydrology Report no. 29. World Meteorological Organisation, 1989
WRC (Water Resources Consultants) 2002 Maun Groundwater Development Project Phase 2,
Project Review Report 1, Department of Water Affairs, Gaborone.
WRC (Water Resources Consultants) 2003 Maun Groundwater Development Project Phase 2,
Project Review Report 2, Department of Water Affairs, Gaborone.
900
800
700
NB [mm]
600
500
400
300
200
1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
700 80
70
600
60
VNF [m3/s]
VNF [m3/s]
500
50
400 40
300 30
20
200
10
100
0
1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
71.12 Mohe mbo, discha rge 74.12 Boro Junction, discha rge
Appendix 1
60 3
40 2
VNF [m3/s]
VST [m]
20 1
0 0
1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
60 3
40 2
VNF [m3/s]
VST [m]
20 1
0 0
1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
60 3
40 2
VNF [m3/s]
VST [m]
20 1
0 0
1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Appendix 2
#
Muhembo
$ discharge
rivers
# towns
roads
Sepupa
#
Seronga
swamps
#
$
$
$
$$
$ $ $
Etsha 6
$
#
Gumare
# $
$$
Nokaneng
$ $
# $
$ Shorobe
#
$
Matlapaneng
Maun #
$
#
$
N Tsau
#
Makalamabedi
W E Toteng
$# #
Sehithwa
#
0 50 100 Kilometers
S
$#
$
Muhembo $ hydrometric (proposed)
$ DCP
$ hydrometric
rivers
# towns
Sepupa
#$
Seronga
roads
$ $$
$
#
swamps
$
$ $
$ $$$
$ $
$
$ $ $$$ $
$ $$ $
$ $ $ $$ $$$
$$ $
Etsha$6 $ $
#
$ $$ $
Gumare# $ $
$
$$
$$
$$ $ $ $
$ $$
Nokaneng
# $
$ $
$ $ Shorobe
#
$
$ $ $ $
$
Matlapaneng
$
$Maun# #$
$ $$
$ $
Tsau $
N $
# $
Toteng Makalamabedi
#
$#
W E Sehithwa$ $
# 0 50 100 Kilometers
S
Appendix 4. Existing and proposed hydrometric water level measurement sites
$#
Muhembo $ raingauge (potential)
$ $ DCP
$ climate
$ raingauge
$ rivers
Sepupa # towns
#
Seronga $ roads
$
#
$ swamps
$
$ $ $
$ $
$
$ $ $
Etsha$6
#
$
Gumare $
$
#
$ $
$ $
$
$
$
Nokaneng
$
#
$
$ Shorobe
#
$
$
Matlapaneng
Maun #
#
$
Tsau
$
#
N
Toteng Makalamabedi
# #
W E Sehithwa
$
#
0 40 80 Kilometers
S
$#
Muhembo
$ DCP
rivers
# towns
Sepupa
roads
#
Seronga
#
swamps
$
$ $ $
Etsha 6
#
Gumare
#
$ $
$
Nokaneng
#
Shorobe
#
Matlapaneng
Maun #
#
N
Tsau
#
W E Toteng Makalamabedi
#
#
Sehithwa
S
# 0 40 80 Kilometers
Appendix 6. Existing sites where DCP, Data Collection Platforms, type STS, are installed.
$#
Muhembo
$ hydrometric (auto)
$ DCP
rivers
# towns
Sepupa
roads
# $ swamps
Seronga
$
#
$
$ $
$
$$ $
$
$ $
Etsha 6
#
Gumare
# $
$
$ $
Nokaneng $
# $
Shorobe
#
$
Matlapaneng
#
Maun
#
Tsau
N #
Makalamabedi
Toteng #
W E $#
Sehithwa
# 0 40 80 Kilometers
S
Appendix 7. Potential upgrade sites for automatic water level data loggers and
precipitation gauges.
Notes on Recommendations
(1) Recommendations are based on a brief analysis of the network without detailed knowledge
to the locations and access possibilities. Alterations in the final setup can be expected.
(2) A detailed and updated programme on frequency of discharge measurements (Q) and water
level (H) readings shall be carried out based on analysis of previous time series and
established rating curves
(3) A number of 8 existing raingauges exists. Some will be redundant when the DCPs are in
operation. The raingauges are outdated and eight new raingauges will be installed in the
delta in order to obtain a fair rainfall area distribution. Site selection to be determined with
a view to utilising sites under supervision
Water Surveys Botswana (WSB) propose to use the Eureka rig for the construction of the
monitoring and piezometer boreholes within the Okavango area. WSB have completed several
projects on behalf of the Department of Water Affairs with the Eureka rig, these include the
DWA 1999-2000 Sand Rivers Investigation of the North East District during which some 336
tubewells and monitoring boreholes were constructed into the alluvium. The Eureka rig was also
used during the 2000-2001 DWA Hydrogeological Impact Assessment of the Sewage Ponds at
Gweta when some 33 piezometers were constructed.
The benefits of using the Eureka rig compared to a conventional large drilling unit are not only
economic but also environmental in that since no large vehicles are involved there is little
impact on the environment. The equipment is simple there is no need of large quantities of fuels,
materials, oils, chemicals etc to be kept on site. Repairs can usually be carried out on site or at
village level and above all operations are simple, anyone can learn to operate the rig following
basic on site training. Ancillary drilling staff will be recruited and trained locally from the
nearest village thereby creating employment locally.
Productivity with the Eureka is good, upto two 20m piezometer boreholes can be completed in a
day, provided that the sites are located in relative close proximity and that no hard rock layers
are encountered. The deeper monitoring boreholes will take upto one day each to complete.
WSB propose to line the piezometers and monitoring boreholes with 50mm diameter uPVC
pipe manufactured by Flo-Tech Pipes in Lobatse. The 50mm diameter well lining will allow for
the installation of automatic water level recorders if required, alternatively they are well suited
for the insertion of manual water level dippers.
The piezometers and monitoring boreholes will be drilled using the mud-rotary drilling
technique. Muds employed will be bi-degradable and HTH will be jetted into the completed
hole with water to accelerate mud degradation. Well screens will be slotted by Flo-Tek in
Lobatse with 0.5mm slot size. Borehole diameters will be 4 - 4½” with the exception of the
multiple piezometer borehole when a 6” drill diameter will by necessity be employed. The only
problems forseen are:
• the availability of water for drilling (an estimated 5000 litres are required per monitoring
borehole) and in some instances transport distances may be large.
• intersection of hard silcrete or calcrete layers within the unconsolidated Kalahari Group
succession.
Transport of water may cause some delay to the drilling operations. If calcrete/silcrete layers are
encountered the tricone bit will be replaced with a sharp drag bit, the swopping and changing of
drill bits will slow down the drilling process as the drill stem has to be removed each time the
bit is changed.
For the multiple piezometers the deepest screen will be gravel packed from the bottom of the
hole to just above the top of the screen, thereafter bentonite pellets are inserted to form a seal
between the layers. A similar gravel pack and seal process will separate the upper screen from
the central one.
Mild steel caps and threaded dipper access points will be emplaced on all holes together with a
concrete block of 1x1x1m dimension.
1 1 1 1 1 1 Fi 2 B i L t f Pi t T t
Figure 1 – Basic lay out of a piezometer transect station
As indicated in Figure 1, the transect station primarily consists of a series of shallow (in the
order of 2 to 5 meter depth) piezometers extending from the river channel to within the riparian
woodland. The spacing of the piezometers will be determined by site characteristics. In some
locations (i.e. near the channel), the piezometers will be installed as nests to assess the vertical
head gradients. One piezometer will be drilled to the base of the shallow aquifer (approximately
20 meters) to determine its total thickness and allow monitoring of groundwater head in the
lowest section of the shallow aquifer. A stilling well will be set up in the centre of the channel
with its screened section extending above ground surface to allow continuous monitoring of
river stage. Most piezometers are planned to be installed using manual methods
(augering/bailing and jetting).
The purpose of the transects will be to collect data which are necessary to determine: (a)
infiltration losses from the river to the aquifer and (b) definition of the vertical groundwater
flow regime.
jetting (augering may also be used if feasible). Driven well points may also be used for shallow
installations to reduce installation time. The planned methods are described below.
A11.2.1 Augering
Augering is basically the use of a manually operated drilling bit to excavate small diameter
boreholes. As boreholes extend below the water table, bailing is used as well to deepen the
borehole. The piezometer assembly is installed after the drilling is completed.
Above the water table, augering is carried out using a riverside or edelman auger head (drilling
bit) attached to a series of extensions (Figure 4). The bit is advanced by manually turning the
auger bit until it is full, at which point it is taken to the surface and emptied. Representative
samples and detailed lithologic logs can be obtained during augering, while undisturbed soil
samplers (i.e. split spoon type) can also be obtained during augering. In the unsaturated zone,
the borehole stays open without collapse even in clean sand horizons.
A11.2.2 Jetting
For deeper piezometers, installation by jetting is planned to speed the drilling process. Jetting
involves the use of water pressure to excavate a borehole. The basic system involves the
connection of a water pump and delivery line (wash pipe) to the casing and screen assembly,
with a special fitting that allows removal of the wash pipe after the required depth is reached.
The basic system is indicated in Figure 6.
piezometers, the screen will be a slotted section of the pipe covered with a geotextile membrane.
Stainless steel wire wrap (Johnson type) screens will also be used on piezometers where slug
tests are planned. The wash pipe will be a 30 mm GI pipe fitted either with a left hand thread
end or bayonet type fitting to allow easy removal after drilling is completed.
The drilling fluid will be plain water. Prior to jetting, augering will be completed to the water
table and a 110 mm temporary PVC casing installed to reduce water loss to the unsaturated
zone. Return water will be re-circulated through a settling pit.