High Way Manual

Highway & Traffic Engineering Lab Manual 2018
Table of Contents
EXPERIMENT NO 1 ................................................................................................................ 9
Layout of Highway & Traffic Engineering Lab ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
................................................................................................................................................ 9
List of Laboratory Apparatus ............................................................................................... 10
Core Cutter Apparatus ......................................................................................................... 10
Los Angeles Abrasion Testing Machine .............................................................................. 11
Ductility Testing Machine ................................................................................................... 11
Open Cup Flash & Fire Point Apparatus ............................................................................. 12
Marshal Stability Apparatus ................................................................................................ 12
Penetrometer ........................................................................................................................ 13
Pycnometer .......................................................................................................................... 13
Asphalt Centrifuge Extractor ............................................................................................... 13
Flakiness & Elongation Index Apparatus ............................................................................ 14
Screen Shaker....................................................................................................................... 14
Sieve Shaker......................................................................................................................... 15
Water Bath ........................................................................................................................... 15
Sample splitter ..................................................................................................................... 15
EXPERIMENT NO 2 .............................................................................................................. 16
Determination of the flakiness and elongation index for the given aggregate sample. ........... 16
Code: .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Scope & significance: .......................................................................................................... 16
Related Theory: .................................................................................................................... 16
Shapes of Particles: .............................................................................................................. 16
Preferred use of each shape: ................................................................................................ 17
Apparatuses: ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Flaky: ................................................................................................................................... 18
Flakiness index: ................................................................................................................... 18
Elongated particles: .............................................................................................................. 18
Elongation index: ................................................................................................................. 18
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 22
Precautions: .......................................................................................................................... 22
Performance: ........................................................................................................................ 22
Sieve Analysis:..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Calculations for flaky particles: ........................................................................................... 23
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 1

THE UNIVERSITY OF LAHORE
Calculations for elongated particles: .................................................................................... 23

Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 24
EXPERIMENT NO 3 .............................................................................................................. 34
Standard test method for resistance to degradation of coarse aggregates by abrasion and
impact in Los Angeles abrasion machine. ............................................................................... 34
Scope & Significance:.......................................................................................................... 34
Notes: ................................................................................................................................... 34
Related theory: ..................................................................................................................... 34
Abrasion: .............................................................................................................................. 35
Pounding action: .................................................................................................................. 35
Los Angeles abrasion value: ................................................................................................ 35
Apparatus: ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 35
Notes: ................................................................................................................................... 36
Performance: ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Grading of test sample (Los Angeles abrasion test): ........................................................... 37
Observations & Calculations: .............................................................................................. 38
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 38
EXPERIMENT NO 4 .............................................................................................................. 42
Penetration Test on Bituminous Materials. .............................................................................. 42
Penetration: .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Grades of Bitumen: .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Scope: ................................................................................................................................... 42
Specifications: ...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 42
Procedure: ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Test Specifications: .............................................................................................................. 43
Report:.................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Calculation and Observation: ............................................................................................... 44
Precautions ........................................................................................................................... 44
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 44
EXPERIMENT NO 05 ............................................................................................................ 39
Specific Gravity Test on Bituminous Materials....................................................................... 39

Specific Gravity: .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 39
Procedure: ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Preparation of Sample: ......................................................................................................... 39
Calculations: ........................................................................................................................ 41
Observations & Results: ...................................................................................................... 41
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 41
EXPERIMENT NO 6 .............................................................................................................. 29
Determination of Angularity Number for the Given Aggregate Sample. ................................ 29
Objectives: ........................................................................................................................... 29
Related Theory: .................................................................................................................... 29
Shapes Of Particles: ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Angularity: ........................................................................................................................... 31
Angularity Number: ............................................................................................................. 31
Significance: ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Apparatus: ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 32
Calculation & Results: ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Method – 1 ........................................................................................................................... 31
Method – 2 ........................................................................................................................... 31
Notes: ................................................................................................................................... 32
Computations & Results: ..................................................................................................... 32
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 33
EXPERIMENT NO 7 .............................................................................................................. 25
Specific Gravity (Relative Density) and Water Absorption Test for Aggregates. .................. 25
Related Theory: .................................................................................................................... 25
Specific Gravity: .................................................................................................................. 26
Water Absorption: ................................................................................................................ 26
Coarse Aggregates: .............................................................................................................. 26
Fine Aggregates: .................................................................................................................. 26
Saturated Surface Dry (S.S.D.) Condition: .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Oven Dried Specific Gravity: .............................................................................................. 26
Saturated Surface Dry (S.S.D) Specific Gravity:................................................................. 26

Apparent Specific Gravity: .................................................................................................. 27

Types Of Crush Available In Pakistan: ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Sargodha Crush .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Margalla Crush..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Sakhi Sarwar Crush.............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Significance: ........................................................................................................................ 25
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 25
Sample: ................................................................................................................................ 25
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 27
Observations: ....................................................................................................................... 27
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 28
EXPERIMENT NO 08 ........................................................................................................... 45
Softening Point of Bitumen ..................................................................................................... 45
Softening Point: ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 45
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 46
A) - For Materials Having Softening Points 80°C Or Below ............................................ 46
B) - For Materials Having Softening Points Above 80°C: ................................................ 47
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 47
EXPERIMENT NO 09 ............................................................................................................ 48
To Perform Ductility Test on Asphalt ..................................................................................... 48
Code: .................................................................................................................................... 48
Related Theory: .................................................................................................................... 48
Ductility: .............................................................................................................................. 48
Importance of Ductility: ....................................................................................................... 48
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 49
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 49
Testing: ................................................................................................................................ 50
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 50
EXPERIMENT NO 10 ............................................................................................................ 51
Flash And Fire Point Test For Asphalt By Cleveland Open Cup ............................................ 51

Code: .................................................................................................................................... 51
Related Theory: .................................................................................................................... 51
Flash Point: .......................................................................................................................... 51
Fire Point:............................................................................................................................. 51
Asphalt Cement (AC): ......................................................................................................... 52
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 52
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 52
Precautions: .......................................................................................................................... 53
Calculations and Report: ...................................................................................................... 53
Flash Point of Different Grades of Asphalt: ........................................................................ 54
Viscosity Grades: ................................................................................................................. 54
Graph: .................................................................................................................................. 55
Results:................................................................................................................................. 55
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 56
EXPERIMENT NO 11 ............................................................................................................ 57
Marshall Method of Mix Design.............................................................................................. 57
Code: .................................................................................................................................... 57
Introduction: ......................................................................................................................... 57
Outline of Method: ............................................................................................................... 57
Selection and Combination of Aggregates: ......................................................................... 57
Mineral Aggregate And Mix Composition: ......................................................................... 58
Sieve Analysis Of Aggregates (Percentage Used For Experiment)..................................... 58
Design Bitumen Content: ..................................................................................................... 59
Preparation Of Test Specimens:........................................................................................... 59
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 60
Test Procedure: .................................................................................................................... 60
Marshall Stability Value: ..................................................................................................... 61
Flow Value: .......................................................................................................................... 61
Computations: ...................................................................................................................... 61
Percentage Air Voids, Va: ................................................................................................... 61
Percentage Of Voids In Mineral Aggregates, Vma: ............................................................ 62
Percentage Of Voids Filled With Bitumen, VFB: ............................................................... 62
Observations And Calculations: .......................................................................................... 62
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 63

EXPERIMENT NO 12 ............................................................................................................ 64
Design of Flexible Pavement by Group Index Method ........................................................... 64
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 64
Related Theory ..................................................................................................................... 65
Sieve Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 65
Atterberg Limits ................................................................................................................... 66
Shrinkage limit ..................................................................................................................... 66
Plastic limit .......................................................................................................................... 66
Liquid limit .......................................................................................................................... 66
Plasticity index ..................................................................................................................... 67
Liquidity index ..................................................................................................................... 67
AASHTO classifications of soils ......................................................................................... 67
AASHTO Classification Chart ............................................................................................ 67
Coarse Grained Soils............................................................................................................ 68
Fine Grained Soil ................................................................................................................. 68
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS ...................................................................... 70
Results from Sieve Analysis ................................................................................................ 71
%age of Various Fractions ................................................................................................... 71
Liquid Limit ......................................................................................................................... 71
Plastic Limit ......................................................................................................................... 72
Design of Thickness of various Layers of Flexible pavement ............................................. 72
With Sub-base ...................................................................................................................... 72
Comments ............................................................................................................................ 73
EXPERIMENT NO 13 ............................................................................................................ 74
Design of flexible pavement by California bearing ratio method............................................ 74
Code: .................................................................................................................................... 74
Objectives: ........................................................................................................................... 74
Need and Scope: .................................................................................................................. 74
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 74
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 74
Definition of CBR ................................................................................................................ 74
CBR Test Procedure 1: ........................................................................................................ 75
CBR Test Procedure 2: ........................................................................................................ 76
Undisturbed specimen .......................................................................................................... 76
Dynamic Compaction .......................................................................................................... 76
Static compaction ................................................................................................................. 76

Procedure for Penetration Test............................................................................................. 77

Observation and Recording.................................................................................................. 77
For Dynamic Compaction .................................................................................................... 77
For static compaction ........................................................................................................... 77
For penetration Test ............................................................................................................. 78
Comments: ........................................................................................................................... 78
Experiment No 15 .................................................................................................................... 79
Standard test method for use of dynamic cone penetrometer in shallow pavement applications
.................................................................................................................................................. 79
Scope: ................................................................................................................................... 79
Significance and Use: .......................................................................................................... 79
Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................ 79
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................ 80
Testing a Surface Layer: ...................................................................................................... 80
Testing Below a Bound Layer: ............................................................................................ 81
Testing Sequence: ................................................................................................................ 81
 Dropping the Hammer .................................................................................................. 81
 Depth of Penetration ..................................................................................................... 81
 Refusal: ......................................................................................................................... 81
 Extraction ...................................................................................................................... 81
Data Recording: ................................................................................................................... 81
Calculations and Interpretation of Results: .......................................................................... 82
Comments ............................................................................................................................ 82

Table of Figure
Figure 1 (Core Cutter Apparatus) ............................................................................................ 10

Figure 2 (Los Angeles Abrasion Testing Machine) ................................................................. 11
Figure 3 (Ductility Testing Machine) ...................................................................................... 11
Figure 4 (Open Cup Flash & Fire point Apparatus) ................................................................ 12
Figure 5 (Marshal Stability Apparatus) ................................................................................... 12
Figure 6 (Penetrometer) ........................................................................................................... 13
Figure 7 (Pycnometer) ............................................................................................................. 13
Figure 8 (Asphalt Centrifuge Extractor) .................................................................................. 13
Figure 9 (Flakiness & Elongation Index Apparatus) ............................................................... 14
Figure 10 (Screen Shaker) ....................................................................................................... 14
Figure 11 (Sieve Shaker) ......................................................................................................... 15
Figure 12 (Water Bath) ............................................................................................................ 15
Figure 13 (Sample splitter) ...................................................................................................... 15
Figure 14 (Rounded aggregates) .............................................................................................. 17
Figure 15 (Angular shape) ....................................................................................................... 17
Figure 16 (Flaky & Elongated) ................................................................................................ 17
Figure 17 (Length/Elongation Index Gauge) ........................................................................... 18
Figure 18 (Performance) .......................................................................................................... 22
Figure 19 (Sieves) .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 20 (Los Angeles Abrasion Apparatus) ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 21 (Performance) .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 22 (Bituminous materials) ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 23 (Types of Crush) ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 24 (Apparatus) .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 25 (Briquet Apparatus) ................................................................................................. 49
Figure 26 .................................................................................................................................. 63
Figure 27(Sieve Test) ............................................................................................................... 65
Figure 28 (Plastic Limit) .......................................................................................................... 66
Figure 29 (Casagrande) ............................................................................................................ 66
Figure 30 (Layers of Flexible Pavement) ................................................................................ 72

EXPERIMENT # 1
To Study the Layout of Highway & Traffic Engineering Lab

List of Laboratory Apparatus

 Core Cutter Apparatus
 Los Angeles Abrasion Testing Machine
 Ductility Testing Machine
 Marshal Stability Apparatus
 Open Cup Flash & Fire Point Apparatus
 Penetrometer
 Pycnometer
 Asphalt Centrifuge Extractor
 Flakiness & Elongation Index Apparatus
 Screen Shaker
 Sieve Shaker
 Water Bath
 Sample Splitter
Core Cutter Apparatus

To cut/drill sample cores from flexible of rigid pavements mainly for test sample extraction
purposes. It uses diamond bits to cut through the structure and collect sample cores in core
barrel. The apparatus includes drilling equipment, core barrel, core retrieval tool &
compaction.
Figure 1 (Core Cutter Apparatus)

Los Angeles Abrasion Testing Machine

The Los Angeles (L.A.) abrasion test (Figure 1) is a common test method used to indicate
aggregate toughness and abrasion characteristics. The machine consists of a rolled steel drum
having an inside dia. of 711 mm and internal length 508 mm. The drum is rotated by a speed
reducer driven by an electric motor at a speed of between 31 and 33 r.p.m.
Figure 2 (Los Angeles Abrasion Testing Machine)
Ductility Testing Machine

The device is used for determining the ductility of bituminous materials by measuring the
elongation of briquette mold with molten bitumen in it. It is designed for testing 3 specimens
simultaneously. Internal tank is made of stainless steel. The Internal tank is made of stainless
steel. The bath is fitted with an immersion heater in order to obtain (in normal conditions),
the 25°C test temperature.
Figure 3 (Ductility Testing Machine)

Open Cup Flash & Fire Point Apparatus

Measuring a flash point using an open cup method is, as the name suggests, conducted in a
vessel which is exposed to the air outside. The temperature of the substance is gradually
raised and an ignition source is passed over the top of it, until it reaches a point at which it
“flashes” and ignites.
Figure 4 (Open Cup Flash & Fire point Apparatus)
Marshal Stability Apparatus

The test is applicable to hot mix designs using bitumen and aggregates up to a maximum size
of 25mm. In this method, the resistance to plastic deformation of cylindrical specimen of
bituminous mixture is measured when the same is loaded at periphery at 5 cm per min. This
test procedure is used in designing and evaluating bituminous paving mixes.
Figure 5 (Marshal Stability Apparatus)

Penetrometer
An instrument used for determining the consistency or hardness of a substance by measuring
the depth or rate of penetration of a rod or needle driven into it by a known force.
A penetrometer is a device to test the strength of a material.
Figure 6 (Penetrometer)
Pycnometer
The pycnometer is a flask with a close-fitting ground glass stopper with a fine hole through it,
so that a given volume can be accurately obtained.
Figure 7 (Pycnometer)
Asphalt Centrifuge Extractor

Centrifuge Extractors are used for quantitative determination of bitumen content in paving
mixtures. These units require a relatively short processing time, which includes weighing the
asphalt sample, heating the sample slightly until it starts crumbling, cooling the sample,
placing it in the centrifuge extractor's rotor bowl and then adding solvent.
Figure 8 (Asphalt Centrifuge Extractor)

Flakiness & Elongation Index Apparatus

The Flakiness and Elongation Index Test Gauges is used to estimate the applicability of
coarse aggregate used in the cement and concrete mixture, it can determine the percentage of
the aggregate that over than 4.75mm size (needle or flake). Aggregates which are flaky
and/or elongated will often lower the workability of a concrete mix and may also affect long
term durability. In bituminous mixtures, this apparatus can test the thickness and length thus
to check flakiness and elongation index of the aggregate respectively.
Figure 9 (Flakiness & Elongation Index Apparatus)
Screen Shaker
A screening machine consist of a drive that induces vibration, a screen media that causes
particle separation, and a deck which holds the screen media and the drive and is the mode of
transport for the vibration. It is used for aggregate separating it into multiple grades by
particle size.
Figure 10 (Screen Shaker)

Sieve Shaker
A sieve shaker is a machine designed to hold and agitate a stack of sieves for the purpose of
separating a soil or other granular material sample into its component particles by size. The
stack of sieves is composed of sieves of different sizes.
Figure 11 (Sieve Shaker)
Water Bath
A container of water heated to a given temperature, used for heating substances placed in
smaller containers.
Figure 12 (Water Bath)
Sample splitter
Sample Splitter is the most universally used sampling device for preparing representative
splits of dry, free-flowing granular product. The technique is rapid and the equipment is
economical.
Figure 13 (Sample splitter)

EXPERIMENT # 2
Determination of the flakiness and elongation index for the given
aggregate sample.
Standard BS-812
Scope & significance:
This test is used to determine the particle shape of the aggregate and each particle shape
being preferred under specific conditions.
The significance of flakiness & elongation index is as follows;
 The degree of packing of the particles of one size depends upon their shape.
 Due to high surface area to volume ratio, the flaky and elongated particles lower the
workability of concrete mixes.
 Flaky and elongated particles are considered undesirable for base coarse construction as
they may cause weakness with possibilities of braking down under heavy loads.
 BS-1241 specifies a Flakiness index not exceeding 30% irrespective of the aggregate
size.
 Maximum permitted Elongated index is 35, 40 or 45% for aggregate sizes
2 ½’’ – 2’’, 1 ½’’ – ¾’’ & ½’’ – 3/8’’
 Both Flakiness and Elongation tests are not applicable to sizes smaller then 6.3mm i.e.
¼’’ sieve.
Apparatus:
1. Flakiness Index
2. Elongation Index
3. Weighing Balance
4. Sieve Sets
5. Sieve Shaker
Related Theory:
Shapes of Particles:
1. Rounded (river gravel)
2. Flaky (laminated rock)
3. Elongated
4. Angular( crushed rock)

Preferred use of each shape:

Rounded aggregates are preferred in concrete roads (rigid pavements) as the workability of
concrete increases due to the less friction between the surfaces.
Figure 14 (Rounded aggregates)
Angular shape of the particles is desirable in granular base coarse(flexible pavement) due to
better interlocking and increased stability.
Figure 15 (Angular shape)
Flaky and Elongated particles are considered as a source of weakness.
Figure 16 (Flaky & Elongated)

Flaky:
 A flaky particle is the one whose least dimension (thickness) is than 0.6 times the mean
size.
 These are the materials of which the thickness is small as compared to the other two
dimensions.
 Limit of flaky particles in the mixes is 30%. If the flaky particles are greater than 30%
then the aggregate is considered undesirable for the intended use.
Flakiness index:
It is the percentage by weight of flaky particles in a sample.
Figure 17 (Flakiness Index Gauge)
Elongated particles:
These are the particles having length considerably larger than the other two dimensions and it
is the particle whose greater dimension is 1.8 times its mean size.Limit of elongated particles
in the mixes is 45%.
𝑾𝑬
E.I = x 100
𝑾𝑻
𝑾𝑰.𝑬
I.E.I = x 100
𝑾𝑹
Elongation index:
It is the percentage by weight of elongated particles in a sample. The Elongated index is
calculated by expressing the weight of Elongated particles as percentage of total weight of the
sample.
Figure 18 (Length/Elongation Index Gauge)

Different types of aggregates and their use based on shape
We know that aggregate is derived from naturally occurring rocks by blasting or crushing
etc., so, it is difficult to attain required shape of aggregate. But, the shape of aggregate will
affect the workability of concrete. So, we should take care about the shape of aggregate. This
care is not only applicable to parent rock but also to the crushing machine used.
Aggregates are classified according to shape into the following types
 Rounded aggregates
 Irregular or partly rounded aggregates
 Angular aggregates
 Flaky aggregates
 Elongated aggregates
 Flaky and elongated aggregates
Rounded Aggregate
The rounded aggregates are completely shaped by attrition and available in the form of
seashore gravel. Rounded aggregates result the minimum percentage of voids (32 – 33%)
hence gives more workability. They require lesser amount of water-cement ratio. They are
not considered for high strength concrete because of poor interlocking behavior and weak
bond strength.
Uses
It is used where the more workability is required. It gives good workability for the given
amount of water and hence needs less cement for a given water cement ratio
Figure 19 Rounded Aggregates

Irregular Aggregates
The irregular or partly rounded aggregates are partly shaped by attrition and these are
available in the form of pit sands and gravel. Irregular aggregates may result 35- 37% of
voids. These will give lesser workability when compared to rounded aggregates. The bond
strength is slightly higher than rounded aggregates but not as required for high strength
concrete.
Uses
The interlocking between aggregate particles is better than rounded aggregate but not
adequate to be used for high strength concrete and pavements subjected to tension.
Figure 20 Irregular Aggregates
Angular Aggregates
The angular aggregates consist well defined edges formed at the intersection of roughly
planar surfaces and these are obtained by crushing the rocks. Angular aggregates result
maximum percentage of voids (38-45%) hence gives less workability. They give 10-20%
more compressive strength due to development of stronger aggregate-mortar bond. So, these
are useful in high strength concrete manufacturing.
Figure 21 Angular Aggregates

Flaky Aggregates
When the aggregate thickness is small when compared with width and length of that
aggregate it is said to be flaky aggregate. Or in the other, when the least dimension of
aggregate is less than the 60% of its mean dimension then it is said to be flaky aggregate.
Figure 22 Flaky Particles
Elongated Aggregates
When the length of aggregate is larger than the other two dimensions then it is called
elongated aggregate or the length of aggregate is greater than 180% of its mean dimension.
Figure 23 Elongated Aggregates
Flaky and Elongated Aggregates
When the aggregate length is larger than its width and width is larger than its thickness then it
is said to be flaky and elongated aggregates. The above 3 types of aggregates are not suitable
for concrete mixing. These are generally obtained from the poorly crushed rocks.
Figure 24 Flaky and Elongated Aggregates

Procedure:
 Perform the sieve analysis on the given aggregate sample/
 The aggregates are then arranged in the into a number of closely limited particle size
groups -stored on the test sieves into a number of closely limited particle size groups – 2
½’’ – 2’’, 1 ½’’ – ¾’’ & ½’’ – 3/8’’
 Each group (fraction) is weighed and tested for thickness on appropriate opening of the
thickness gauge by passing each particle through slot of specified thickness along least
dimension.
 The weight of particles passing the thickness gauge is recorded for each fraction. This is
the weight of flaky particles.
 The flakiness index is calculated by expressing the weight of flaky particles as a
percentage of total weight of the sample.
Precautions:
 While sieving, care must be taken that the particles that are chocked in the sieve must not
be forced down into the next sieve. Such particles should be pushed back into the same
sieve.
 While placing different fractions on the table, place them some distance apart so that no
two fractions may get mixed.
 Be careful while selecting the opening of the flakiness and elongation gauges for any
particular fraction.
Performance:
Following images were taken during the performance of experiment in laboratory.
Figure 25 (Performance)

Calculations for flaky particles:

Sieve size Sieve size Weight Percentage Weight of Individual Flakiness
Passing Retained Retained Retained Flaky Flakiness Index (%)
(inch) (inch) (gm) (%) particles Index (%)
(gm)
2.5 2
2 1.5
1.5 1
1 3/4
3/4 1/2
1/2 3/8
3/8 1/4
∑= ∑=
Calculations for elongated particles:

Sieve size Sieve size Weight Percentage Weight of Individual Elongated
Passing Retained Retained Retained Elongated Elongated Index (%)
(inch) (inch) (gm) (%) particles Index (%)
(gm)
2.5 2
2 1.5
1.5 1
1 3/4
3/4 1/2
1/2 3/8
∑= ∑=

Comments:

EXPERIMENT # 3
Specific Gravity (Relative Density) and Water Absorption Test
for Aggregates.
Standard ASTM-D-127
AASHTO-T- 85
Scope & Significance:

In this test method we will determine the relative density (i.e. specific gravity) and the water
absorption of the coarse aggregates.
 The knowledge of the specific gravity is important for the concrete technologist to
determine the properties of concrete made from such aggregates.
 It is used for the calculation of the volume occupied by the aggregates in various
mixes and generally it ranges from 2.5 to 3.
 The pores at the surface of the particles affect the bond between the aggregate and the
cement paste thus influences the concrete strength. Smaller the number of pores,
higher will be the specific gravity hence more will be the bond strength and more
concrete strength.
 Though higher specific gravity of aggregate is considered as an indication of its high
strength; it is not possible to judge the suitability on this basis alone without finding
other mechanical properties like aggregate abrasion value etc.
 Water absorption is a measure of porosity of aggregates and its resistance to frost
action.
 Higher water absorption means more pores hence aggregate will be the considered as
weak.
 Water absorption value ranges from 0.1 – 2.0% for aggregate normally used in roads
surfaces.
 Aggregates with water absorption up to 4.0% are acceptable in base coarse.
Apparatus:
1. Temping rod
2. Mould of specific gravity
3. Metal scope
4. Weighing balance
Sample Preparation:
Aggregates sample
1. Should be free from dust
2. Should be dried
3. Free from moisture

Related Theory:
Specific Gravity:
It is defined as ratio of weight of solid to the weight of an equal volume of gas free distilled
water (no dissolved air/impurities) at a stated temperature.
Water Absorption:
It is the ratio of weight of water absorbed to the weight of dry sample expressed as a
percentage. It will not include the amount of water adhering to the surface of the particles
Coarse Aggregates:
Any material which is retained on BS sieve #4 (ASTM sieve 4.75mm) is known as coarse
aggregate.
Fine Aggregates:
Any material which is passing BS sieve #4 (ASTM sieve 4.75mm) is known as fine
aggregate.
Different Types Of Specific Gravity:
1. Oven dried specific gravity

2. Saturated specific gravity
3. Surface dry specific gravity
4. Apparent specific gravity
Oven Dried Specific Gravity:
It is the ratio of the oven dried density of the aggregate to the density of the gas free
distilled water at a standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).
𝐴
Oven Dry Specific Gravity =
𝐵−𝐶
A = Weight of oven dried aggregates in air

B = Weight of saturated surface dry aggregates in air
C = Weight of saturated aggregates in water
Saturated Surface Dry (S.S.D) Specific Gravity:

It is the ratio of the saturated surface dry density of the aggregate to the density of the gas
free distilled water at a standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).
𝐵
Saturated Surface Dry Specific Gravity =
𝐵−𝐶


Apparent Specific Gravity:

It is the ratio of the apparent density of the aggregate to the density of the gas free
distilled water at a standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).
𝐴
Apparent Specific Gravity =
𝐴−𝐶

Water Absorption:
With the help of water absorption we know about the:

 Idea about material porous or not
 Material resistance against water
 Workability
 Strength
Procedure:
 Thoroughly wash the aggregates to remove any dust. Oven dry and cool the
aggregates for 1 to 3 hours and then immerse in water for 24 hours.
 Remove the specimen from water and roll it in a large absorbent cloth until all visible
films of water are removed.
 Weight the specimen in saturated surface dry conditions.
 Place the saturated surface dry specimen in wire mesh bucket and weight it in water.
Shake the bucket to remove all entrapped air before weighing.
 Dry the sample to constant weight in oven, cool and weigh.
Observations & Calculations:

Weight of oven dried aggregate in air (Kg) A=

Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air (Kg) B =
Weight of saturated aggregate in water (Kg) C=
𝐴
Oven dried specific gravity = =
𝐵−𝐶
𝐵
Saturated surface dry specific gravity = =
𝐵−𝐶
𝐴
Apparent specific gravity = =
𝐴−𝐶
𝐵−𝐴
Water absorption, = x 100 =
𝐴
Comments:

EXPERIMENT # 4
Determination of Angularity Number for the Given Aggregate
Sample
Standard: ASTM-C-152
AASHTO-T-304
 The degree of packing of particles of single sized aggregate depends upon the angularity
of aggregate.
 The angularity of the aggregate can be estimated from the properties of voids in a sample
of aggregate compacted in a specified manner.
 The angularity number ranges from 0 for a highly rounded grave to about 11 for freshly
crushed angular aggregates.
 Higher the angularity number, more angular and less workable is the concrete mix.
 In cement concrete roads (rigid pavements) rounded aggregates are preferred because of
better workability and higher strength.
 In bituminous or water bound macadam construction (like flexible pavements), angular
aggregates with high angularity number are preferred because of high stability due to
better interlocking and friction.
 Higher the angularity number, more angular and less workable is the concrete mix.
 In road construction, angularity number of 7 -10 is generally preferred.
Apparatus:
1. Temping rod
2. Mould
3. Weighing balance
Sample Preparation:
 Used the sample of ¾ inches passing and retain on no 4 sieve.

 Aggregates sample
 Should be free from dust
 Should be dried
 Free from moisture
Related Theory:
Types of Aggregates
 Rounded aggregate
 Irregular or partly rounded aggregate
 Angular aggregate

 Flaky aggregate
 Elongated aggregate
 Flaky and elongated aggregate
Rounded Aggregate
The aggregate with rounded shape has the minimum percentage of voids ranging from 32 to
33%. It gives minimum ratio of surface area to given volume and hence requires minimum
water for lubrication. It gives good workability for the given amount of water and hence
needs less cement for a given water cement ratio. The only disadvantages is that the
interlocking between its particles is less and hence the development of bond is poor. This is
why rounded aggregate is not suitable for high strength concrete and for pavements subjected
to tension.
Irregular or Partly Rounded Aggregate
The aggregate with irregular shape has higher percentage of voids ranging from 35 to 37%. It
gives lesser workability than rounded aggregate for the given water content. Water
requirement is higher and hence more cement is needed for constant water cement ratio. The
interlocking between aggregate particles is better than rounded aggregate but not adequate to
be used for high strength concrete and pavements subjected to tension.
Angular Aggregate
The aggregate with angular shape has the maximum percentage of void ranging from 38 to
45%. It requires more water for lubrication and hence it gives least workability for the given
water cement ratio. For constant water cement ratio and workability the requirement of
cement increase. The interlocking between the aggregate particles is the best and hence the
development of bond is very good. This is why angular aggregate is very suitable for high
strength concrete and for pavements subjected to tension.
Flaky Aggregate
The aggregate is said to be flaky when its least dimension is less than 3/5th (or 60%) of its
mean dimension. Mean dimension is the average size through which th particles pass and the
sieve size on which these are retained. For example, mean size of the particles passing
through 25 mm sieve and retained on 20 mm sieve is (20+25)/2=22.5 mm. if the least
dimension is less than 3/5 x (22.5) = 13.5 mm, then the material is classified as flaky. Flaky
aggregate tends to be oriented in one plane which affects the durability.
Elongated Aggregate
The aggregate is said to be elongated when its length is greater than 180% of its mean
dimension.

Flaky & Elongated Aggregate
Aggregate is said to be flaky and elongated when it satisfies both the above conditions.
Generally elongated or flaky particles in excess of 10 to 15% are not desirable.
Angularity:
It is the absence of roundness. An aggregate particle, which is more rounded, is less angular
and vice versa.
Angularity Number:
Angularity number of an aggregate is the amount (to the higher whole number) by which the
percentage of voids in it after compacting in a prescribed manner exceeds 33.
Where, “33” is the percentage of volume of voids, in a perfectly rounded aggregate. “67” is
the percentage of volume of solids in a perfectly rounded aggregate.
The value of angularity number generally lies between 0 & 11. In road construction
angularity number of 7 – 10 is generally preferred.
Methods of Angularity Number:

There are two methods to find angularity number.
1. Voids point of view
2. Solid point of view
Method – 1
Add measured quantity of water in the compacted aggregate till all the voids
are filled and water appears to the surface. Volume of water added is approximately equal to
the volume of voids in the compacted aggregate.
Volume of Water Added

Angularity Number   100  33
Total Volume
Method – 2
100 W
Angularity Number  67 
CGs
Where,
W = mean weight of the aggregate filling cylinder.
C = Weight or Volume of water that can completely fill the cylinder
Gs = Specific Gravity of the aggregate.

Notes:
Method – 1 determines the angularity number from the solids point of view.
Method – 2 determines the angularity number from the voids point of view.
Procedure:
 This procedure is for aggregate size ¾ to No.4. If aggregate is coarser than ¾, a
cylinder of large capacity shall be required but amount of compactive effort or energy
should be proportional to the volume of the cylinder.
 10 Kg of the sample is taken for the test. The material should be oven dried. The
aggregate is compacted in three layers, each layer being given 100 blows using the
standard tamping rod at a rate of 2 blows/second by lifting the rod 5 cm above the
surface of the aggregate and then allowing it to fall freely. The blows are uniformly
distributed over the surface of the aggregate. After compacting the third layer, the
cylinder is filled to overflowing and excess material is removed off with temping rod
as a straight edge.
 The aggregate with cylinder is then weighed. Three separate determinations are made
and mean weight of the aggregate in the cylinder is calculated.
Calculation & Results:

Empty mould weight =
Weight of mould + sample =
Weight of mould + sample + water =
Water =

Weight Volume Of Angularity Number

Water
Sr. #
Empty Cylinder +
Aggregate Added Method # Method #
Cylinder Aggregate
(Kg) (Ml) 1 2
(Kg) (Kg)
Comments:

EXPERIMENT NO 5
To determine the Loss Angeles abrasion value for a given sample
Standard ASTM-C-131
AASHTO-T-96
Los Angeles abrasion test is a common test used to indicate aggregate toughness and abrasion
characteristics.
 This test is used to assess the hardness of the aggregate used in road construction. The
road aggregate is subjected to wearing action by the moving traffic and therefore
resistance to wear or hardness is an essential property of the aggregate. The aggregate
should be hard enough to resist abrasion due to traffic.
 Los Angeles Abrasion test is used to find out the percentage wear due to relative rubbing
action between aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charges. Pounding action of
these balls also exists while conducting the test. The test is considered more dependable
as rubbing and pounding action simulate field conditions.
 AASHTO T 96, recommendations are that Base Course has a percent wear of 40% or
less. For Sub-base Course the requirement is 50% or less. And for wearing surface it is
30%.
Notes:
 Larger the LAA value, softer will be the aggregate and vice versa.
 If we have two samples to be used in the wearing surface having LAA value of 0% &
10%, then we should use the one having LAA value of 10% (note this is true only for
wearing surface and the opposite is true for sub-grade, sub-base and base coarse). This
is because, even though 0% will provide a good hard surface but its coefficient of
friction will be too high and it will severely damage the tires.
 If two different samples are obtained from the same source, then the results of the LAA
value will be same for both of the samples because LAA value is a material property.
Apparatus:
1. Sieve shaker
2. Loss Angeles apparatus
3. Metal scope
4. Metal trey
5. Weighing balance

Sample Preparation:
 Aggregates sample
 Should be free from dust
 Should be dried
 Free from moisture
Related theory:
Abrasion:
It is defined as the, “resistance of a material against wear, scratching or degradation.”
OR abrasion means “breaking of surface”
Pounding action:
Pounding means impact. Striking action of an object on a surface for a short instant of
time is called the pounding effect.
Los Angeles abrasion value:

It is an indicative of the abrasion strength of the aggregates. It can be computed by
using the relationship;
Orignal Weight  Final Weight

Los Angeles Abrasion Value   100
Orignal Weight
Wo = Original weight
Wf = Final weight = Weight of aggregates retained on sieve #12 after test.
Procedure:
 The sample taken should be representative and confirming to any of the grading given
in the table.
 The sample is placed in the cylinder along with the abrasive charges and the machine is
rotated for the required number of revolutions (500 – 1000).
 After the required number of revolutions, material is discharged from the machine and
sieved through #12 US sieve.
 Wash the material coarser than #12 sieves, oven dry and weigh. Then compute the LAA
value


Orignal Weight
Where,
Final weight = Weight retained on sieve #12
Notes:
 If a large rock piece is provided for the test, first of all crush it then sieve it and then
proceed in the same manner.
 If the amount of aggregate collected in the lower sieves is less than the required
amount, then crush the aggregate in the higher sieves to get the required quantity in the
lower sieves.
 If the amount of aggregate collected in the top sieves is less than the required amount,
then sieve more aggregate in order to collect enough quantity of aggregate.
Sr Max. permissible
Type of Pavement
No. abrasion value in %
1 Water bound macadam sub base course 60
2 WBM base course with bituminous surfacing 50
3 Bituminous bound macadam 50
4 WBM surfacing course 40
5 Bituminous penetration macadam 40

Bituminous surface dressing, cement concrete
6 35
surface course
Table 1 (Types of Pavement)

Grading of test sample (Los Angeles abrasion test):
Sieve sizes Weight & grading of test sample (gm.)

Passing Retained A B C D 1 2 3
2500±5
3 in 2 ½ in - - - - - -
0
2500±5
2 ½ in 2 in - - - - - -
0
5000±5 5000±5
2 in 1 ½ in - - - - -
0 0
1250 5000±5
1 ½ in 1 in - - - - 5000±25
±20 0
1250
1 in ¾ in - - - - - 5000±25
±20
1250 2500±1
¾ in ½ in - - - - -
±10 0
1250 2500±1
½ in 3/8 in - - - - -
±10 0
2500±1
3/8 in ¼ in - - - - - -
0
2500±1
¼ in #4 - - - - - -
0
5000±1
#4 #8 - - - - - -
0
5000 5000±1 5000±1 5000±1 10000± 10000±
10000±50
Total weight required ±10 0 0 0 100 75
Abrasive Charges No. of Revolutions Number of Spheres Weight of Charges (gm.)

A 12 5000±25
B 11 4584±25
500
C 8 3330±20
D 6 2500±25
1 12 5000±25
2 1000 12 5000±25
3 12 5000±25

Observations & Calculations:

 Original weight of the sample, Wo (gm.) =
 Final weight after test (retained on sieve #12), Wf (gm.) =

Orignal Weight
LLA =
Comments:

EXPERIMENT NO 6
Specific Gravity Test on Bituminous Materials.
Standard ASTM-D-1180
AASHTO-T-209
 Specific gravity of a bitumen binder is a fundamental property frequently required as an
aid in classing binders for use in paving jobs.
 Bitumen weights sometimes have to be converted into volumes for asphalt concrete mix
design calculations for which a knowledge of specific gravity is essential.
 Specific gravity is also used in identifying the source of bitumen binder.
 Bitumen binder has specific gravity in the range of 0.97 to 1.02.
 In case bitumen contains mineral impurities the specific gravity will be higher. Thus it is
possible for a quantitative extraction of mineral impurity in bitumen.
Apparatus:
 Pycnometer — glass, consisting of a cylindrical or conical vessel.
 Water bath, constant-temperature, capable of maintaining the temperature within 0.1 °c
of the test temperature.
 Thermometers — calibrated liquid-in-glass, total immersion type, of suitable range.
 Balance — a balance conforming to the requirements of aashto.
 Distilled water — freshly boiled and cooled distilled water shall he used to fill the
pycnometer and the beaker
Preparation of Sample:
1- Heat the sample with care, stirring to prevent local overheating until the sample has
become sufficiently fluid to pour. While heating, keep in mind the following
considerations;
i)- In no case should the temperature be raised to more than 56 °c above the expected
softening point for tar, or to more than 111°c above the expected softening point
for asphalt.
ii)- Do not heat for more than 30 minutes over a flame or hot plate or for more than 2
hours in an oven, and avoid incorporating air bubbles in the sample.
2- Thoroughly clean, dry, and weigh the pycnometer to the nearest 1 mg. Designate this
mass as ‘a’.
3- Then fill the beaker with freshly boiled distilled water, placing the stopper loosely in the
pycnometer. Place the pycnometer in the beaker and press the stopper firmly in place.
Return the beaker to the water bath, and allow the pycnometer to remaining the water
bath for a period of not less than 30 minutes. Remove the pycnometer, immediately dry
the top of the stopper with one stroke of a dry towel, then quickly dry the remaining
outside area of the pycnometer and weigh to the nearest 1 mg. Designate the mass of the
pycnometer plus water as ‘b’.
4- Pour enough sample into the clean, dry, warmed pycnometer to fill it about three-fourths
of its capacity. Take precautions to keep the material from touching the sides of the
pycnometer above the final level, and to prevent the inclusion of air bubbles. Allow the
pycnometer and its contents to cool to ambient temperature for a period of not less than
40 minutes, and weigh with, the stopper to the nearest 1 mg. designate the mass of the
pycnometer plus sample as ‘c’.
5- Remove the beaker from the water bath. Fill the pycnometer containing the asphalt with
freshly boiled distilled water, placing the stopper loosely in the pycnometer. Do not allow
any air bubbles to remain in the pycnometer. Place the pycnometer in the beaker and
press the stopper firmly in place. Return the beaker to the water bath. Allow the
pycnometer to remain in the water bath for a period of not less than 30 minutes. Remove
the pycnometer from the bath. Dry and weigh using the same technique and timing as that
employed in # 2. Designate this mass of pycnometer plus sample plus water as‘d’.
Classification of bitumen binder according to their source
The bitumen types regarding its generation source bitumen can be classified into three
categories
1. Natural,
2. Petroleum asphalts
3. Coal tar pitches
Natural
Natural bitumen or native asphalts are a class of bitumen which have been naturally produced
due to climate conditions in the course of time, and are used without the need to be processed
in distillation ways they are very varied regarding their composition and properties.
Coal tar Pitches
Coal tar Pitches are hard black substances which are formed as the result of coal tar
distillation. Their new broken surface is shiny and when they are heated they, along with a
fast decrease in viscosity, melt, and their melting point depends on the production process.

Petroleum Asphalts
Petroleum Asphalts are the bitumen which is derived from petroleum. These are solid and
semi-solid bitumen which is directly produced through distillation from petroleum or by
additional operations such as air blowing. Compared with the other types, they are more
commonly used and have more applications.
Calculations:
Calculate the specific gravity to the nearest third decimal as follows:
(C  A )
Specific Gravity 
[(B  A )  ( D  C)]
Where,
A = mass of Pycnometer (+ stopper)

B = mass of Pycnometer filled with water.
C = mass of Pycnometer partially filled with asphalt, and
D = mass of Pycnometer + asphalt + water
Observations & Results:
Weights
Pycnomete
Group
Pycnometer, Pycnometer + Pycnometer + r + Water

(A) Water, (B) Asphalt, (C) + Asphalt, (C  A)
Specific Gravity 
(D) [( B  A)  ( D  C )]
(gm) (gm) (gm) (gm)
1
Comments:

EXPERIMENT NO 7
Perform the penetration test on bituminous materials
Standard ASTM -D-5
Scope & Significance: AASHTO-T-96
 The penetration test is used as a measure of consistency. Higher values of penetration

indicate softer consistency.
 The test is widely used all over the world for classifying bituminous materials into
different grades.
 Depending upon the climatic conditions and type of construction, bitumen of different
penetration grade are used. Commonly used grades are 30/40, 60/70 and 80/100.
 In warmer regions, lower penetration grades are preferred and in colder regions bitumen
with higher penetration values are used.
 The test is not intended to estimate consistency of softer materials like cut back which are
usually graded by viscosity test.
Apparatus:
1. Penetrometer
2. Container
3. Burner
4. Water bath
5. Thermometer
6. Transfer tray
Sample Preparation:
Heat the sample with care, stirring when possible to prevent local overheating, until it has
become sufficiently fluid to pour. In no case should the temperature be raised to more than 90
°C above expected softening point for petroleum asphalt (bitumen). Do not heat samples for
more than 30 minutes. Avoid incorporating bubbles into the sample.
Pour the sample into the sample container to a depth such that, when cooled to the
temperature of test, the depth of the sample is at least 10 mm greater than the depth to which
the needle is expected to penetrate. Pour two separate portions for each variation in test
conditions.
Loosely cover each container as a protection against dust (covering with a lipped beaker) and
allow cooling in air at a temperature between 15° and 30 °C for 1 to 1.5 hours for the small
container and 1.5 to 2 hours for the taller.

Related Theory:
Penetration:
Consistency of a bituminous material expressed as the distance in tenth of mm when a
standard needle vertically penetrate into a sample under known conditions of loading time
and temperature.
Grades of Bitumen:
Bitumen is classified into 3 grades:
1. Penetration grade
2. Viscosity grade
3. Density grade
Procedure:
 Soften the bitumen by heating it up to 90C to bring it to pouring consistency. Stir the
bitumen while heating to avoid local overheating and to make it homogenous.
 Pour the bitumen into container to a level that when cooled to testing temperature,
depth of bitumen should be at least 10 mm more than the expected depth of
penetration.
 Place the prepared sample at room temperature (15C - 30C) for one hour.
 Place the container below the needle of penetrometer and gradually lower the needle
to make a contact with the bitumen. Ensure that the needle is just in contact with the
sample and no penetration is affected.
 Release the needle. The needle will penetrate the sample under its own weight for 5
seconds and after that it will stop automatically. Note down the reading.
 Take at least three readings.
 At least two samples should be tested for grade determination.
Test Specifications:
A load of 100 grams applied for 5seconds at 25C is standardized for the test. Other test
conditions are given in the table.
Table 2 (Test Condition)
Temperature Load Time

(oC) (gm.) (sec)
0 200 60
4 200 60
45 50 5
46.1 50 5

Observation and Calculations:
Pouring Temperature = C
Period of Cooling in Room = hour
Room Temperature = C
Water Bath Temperature = C
Penetration In 10th of (mm)

S No. Reading Reading Reading Grade
1.
2.
Precautions
 Overheating of bitumen should be avoided. Under no condition bitumen should be
heated to 60o C above the expected softening point.
 The sample is covered loosely against dust
 The weight of needle and spindle assembly should be accurate i.e. 100 ± 0.05 grams.
 Verticality of the needle should be ensured.
 Readings taken on a single sample should be at least 10 mm apart.
Comments:

EXPERIMENT NO 8
To perform the softening point test on Bituminous material
Standard ASTM-D-36
AASHTO-T-53
 This method is useful in determining the consistency of bitumen as one element in
establishing the uniformity of shipments or sources of supply.
 Softening point is the temperature at which the bituminous binders have an equal
viscosity (i.e. the consistency of all the grades will be same at the softening point e.g.
if two samples have softening points of 40 °c and 80 °c respectively, both will have
the same consistency at their softening point.).
 The test gives an idea of the temperature at which the bituminous materials attain a
certain viscosity.
 Bitumen with higher softening point may be preferred in warmer places.
 Softening point should be higher than the hottest day temperature, which is
anticipated in that area otherwise bitumen may sufficiently soften and result in
bleeding and development of ruts.
Apparatus:
1. Ring and ball apparatus
2. Ball centering guide
3. Ring holder
4. Water bath
5. Thermometer
6. Burner
Sample Preparation
Heat the sample with care to prevent local overheating, with constant stirring until it has
become sufficiently fluid to pour. In no case, however, shall the temperature be raised to
more than 55°C above the expected softening point for tar pitch, or to more than 110 °C
above the expected softening point for asphalt. Avoid incorporating air bubbles in the sample.
Bring an asphalt sample to the pouring temperature in not more than 2 hrs. Bring coal tar
pitch to the desired pouring conditions in minimum time, not exceeding 30 min.
Pour a slight excess of the heated sample into two rings, preheated to approximately the
pouring temperature.
While being filled the rings shall rest on the brass pouring plate, previously treated to
prevent bituminous materials from adhering to it.
Cool the specimen disks for a minimum of 30 min. In no case shall more than 240 min elapse
before completion of the test. Cool specimens that are soft at room temperature for at least 30
min at a minimum of 8 °C below the expected softening point.
After cooling, cut the excess material off cleanly with a slightly heated knife or spatula. In
case the test is repeated, use a clean container and fresh sample to prepare the test specimen.
Related Theory
Softening Point
The softening point is the temperature at which a material softens beyond some arbitrary
softness. A ring and ball apparatus can also be used for the determination of softening
point of bituminous materials.
Procedure:
A) - For Materials Having Softening Points 80°C Or Below
 Assemble the apparatus with the rings, ASTM thermometer 15 °c or i5 °f, and ball
centering guides in position and fill the bath with freshly boiled water to a depth of not
less than 102mm and not more than 108mm.
 Maintain the bath temperature at 5 ± 1°c for 15 min, placing the test container in ice
water if necessary. Using forceps, place a ball, previously adjusted to the bath
temperature, in each ball-centering guide.
 Apply heat in such a manner that the temperature of the liquid is raised 5°c/min. Avoid
the effect of drafts, using shields if necessary. (rigid adherence to the prescribed rate of
heating is absolutely essential for reproducibility of results. Either a gas burner or
electric heater may be used; however, the latter must be of the low-lag, variable output
type to maintain the necessary rate of heating.)
 The rate of rise of temperature shall be uniform and shall not be averaged over the
period of the test. The maximum permissible variation of any 1-mm period after the
first 3 mm shall be ± 0.5°c. Reject all tests in which the rate of rise does not fall within
these limits.
 Record for each ring and ball the temperature shown by the thermometer at the instant
the specimen surrounding the ball touches the bottom plate. Make no correction for the

emergent stem of the thermometer. If the difference between the values obtained in the
duplicate determinations exceeds 1°c repeat the test.
B) - For Materials Having Softening Points Above 80°C:
Follow the same procedure as described above, except use USP glycerin instead of water and
use ASTM thermometer l6°c or 16°f. The starting temperature of the glycerin bath shall be
32°c.
Softening Point Mean

Sr. #
(°C) (°C)
1
Comments:

EXPERIMENT NO 09
To Perform Ductility Test on Asphalt
Code:ASTM-D-113 Dated: 13-04-2016

AASHTO-T-51
Related Theory:
Ductility:
The ductility of a bituminous material is defined as the distance in centimeters, to which it
will elongate before breaking when two ends of a briquet specimen of the material, are pulled
apart at a specified speed and a specified temperature.
Unless otherwise specified, the test shall be made at a temperature of 25 ± 0.5 °C and
with a speed of 5 cm/min± 5.0 %. At other temperatures the speed should be specified.
Ductilityofasphaltdepends upon the grade of asphalt, pouring temperature, dimensions
of briquet, test temperature, rate of pull and levelling of mold.
Importance of Ductility:
The ductility of a bitumen specimen tells us about
1- Tensile strength of bitumen
2- Grade of sample (ductility grade)

1- This test method provides measure of tensile properties of bituminous materials
and may be used to measure ductility for specification requirements.
2- Bituminous materials used in pavement construction should possess sufficient
ductility otherwise the pavement would crack due to temperature or traffic
stresses and may render the pavement pervious anddamage the pavement
structure.
3- The ductility value varies from 5 to over 100 cm’s.
4- Several agencies have specified minimum ductility values for various types of
bitumen pavements. However, a ductility of 100 cm’s is specified generally for
bituminous construction.
5- Roads expand at daytime while they contract at night. So, if the bitumen is not
adequately ductile cracking will occur.
6- More than one grade may be used in the same project. For example; we may use
grade 80/100 on the main traffic lane and lower grades on the arteries.

Apparatus:
Mold — the mold is made of brass, the ends

being known as clips, and the middle parts asides
of the mold.
Water Bath — the water bath shall be
maintained at the specified test temperature, Figure 26 (Briquet Apparatus)

varying not more than 0.1 °C from this
temperature. The volume of water shall be not less than 10liters, and the specimen shall be
immersed to a depth of not less than 10 cm and shall be supported on a perforated shelf not
less than 5 cm from the bottom of the bath.
Testing Machine — For pulling the briquet of bituminous material apart, any apparatus may
be used which is so constructed that the specimen will continuously immersed in water, while
the two clips are pulled apart at a uniform speed, as specified, without undue vibration.
Thermometer — A thermometer having a range -8 to 32 °C (18 - 89 °F)
Procedure:
 Assemble the mold on a brass plate. Thoroughly coat the surface of the plate and
interior surfaces of the sides of the mold with a thin layer of a mixture of glycerin and
china clay to prevent the material under test from sticking.
 The plate upon which the mold is placed shall be perfectly flat and level so that the
bottom surface of the mold will be in contact throughout.
 Carefully heat the sample to prevent local overheating until it has become sufficiently
fluid to pour.
 Strain the molten sample through a # 50 sieve. After a thorough stirring, pour it into
the mold. In filling the mold, take care not to disarrange the parts and thus distort the
briquet.
 Infilling, pour the material in a thin stream hack and forth from end to end of the mold
until the mold is more than level full.
 Let the mold containing the material cool to room temperature for a period of from 30
to 40 minutes and then place it in the water bath maintained at the specified

temperature of test for 30 minutes; then cut off the excess bitumen with a hot straight
edged knife or spatula to make the mold just level full.
 Place the brass plate and mold, with briquet specimen, in water bath and keep at the
specified temperature for a period of from 85 to 95 minutes. Then remove the briquet
from the plate, detach the sidepieces, and immediately test the briquet.
Testing:
Attach the rings at each end of the clips to the pin or hooks in the testing machine and pull the
two clips apart at a uniform speed specified until the briquet ruptures.
Measure the distance in centimeters through which the clips have been pulled to produce
rupture. While the test is being made, the water in the tank of the testing machine shall cover
the specimen both above and below it by at least 2.5 cm and shall be kept continuously at the
temperature specified.
If the bituminous material comes in contact with the surface of the water or the bottom of the
bath, the test shall not be considered normal. Adjust the specific gravity of the bath by the
addition of either methyl alcohol or sodium chloride so that the bituminous material neither
comes to the surface of the water, nor touches the bottom of the bath at any time during the
test.
Sr. # DESCRIPTION RESULT

1 Grade of Bitumen
2 Pouring Temperature
3 Test Temperature
4 Period of Cooling
a)- in Air
b)- in water bath – before trimming
c)- in water bath – after trimming
Comments:

EXPERIMENT NO 10
Flash And Fire Point Test For Asphalt By Cleveland Open Cup
AASHTO-T-48
Related Theory:
Flash Point:
Flash point is the lowest temperature corrected to a barometric pressure of 101.3 kPa (760
mm Hg), at which application of a test flame causes the vapor of a specimen to ignite under
specified conditions of test.
The material is deemed to have flashed when a large flame appears and
instantaneously propagates itself over the surface of the specimen.
Note: Occasionally, particularly near the actual flash point, the application of test flame will
cause the blue halo or an enlarged flame; this is not a flash and should be ignored.
Fire Point:
It is the lowest temperature at which a specimen will sustain burning for 5 seconds.
A flammable material is the one, which form flames, but does not sustain fire while a
combustible material is the one, which sustains fire/burning.

 Flash point measures the tendency of the sample to form a flammable mixture with air
under controlled laboratory conditions. It is only one of a number of properties that must
be considered in assessing the overall flammability hazard of a material.
 Flash point is used in shipping and safety regulations to differentiate between

‘‘flammable’’ and ‘‘combustible’’ materials.
 Flash point can indicate the possible presence of highly volatile and flammable materials
in a relatively nonvolatile or nonflammable material.
 Fire point measures the characteristics of the sample to support combustion.
 Bituminous materials give rise to volatiles at high temperature, as they are basically the
hydrocarbons. These volatiles catch fire causing a flash, which is very hazardous.

 During construction of bituminous pavements, the engineer may restrict the mixing or
application temperatures well within the limits. The test therefore gives indication of
critical temperature at and above which suitable precautions should be taken to eliminate
fire hazards during use of asphalts. In other words heating should be limited to a
temperature well below the flash point.
Asphalt Cement (AC):

Asphalt Cement shall be oil asphalt or a mixture of refined liquid asphalt and refined solid
asphalt, prepared from crude asphaltic petroleum. It shall be free from admixture with any
residues obtained by the artificial distillation of coal, coal tar or paraffin and shall be
homogeneous and free from water.
Temperature Condition * Asphalt Grade

Cold, mean annual air temperature AC-10
< 7 °C (45 °F) AR-4000
80 / 100 pen
Warm, mean annual air temperature between AC-20
7 °C (45 °F) and AR-8000
24 °C (75 °F) 60 / 70 pen
Hot, mean annual air temperature AC-40
> 24 °C (75 °F) AR-8000
40 / 50 pen
Apparatus:
Cleveland Cup Apparatus: It consists of test cup, heating plate, test flame applicator, heater,
thermometer support and heating plate support.
Procedure:
 Fill the cup; at any convenient temperature not exceeding 100 °C or above the
softening point; so that the top of the meniscus is at the filling line.
 Remove the excess sample using a pipette or other suitable device; however, if there
is sample on the outside of the apparatus, empty, clean, and refill it. Destroy any air
bubbles on the surface of the sample.
 Lit the test flame and adjust it to a diameter of 3.8 to 5.4 mm.
 Apply heat initially so that the rate of temperature rise of the sample is 14 to 17 °C per
minute. When the sample temperature is approximately 56 °C below the anticipated

flash point, decrease the heat so that the rate of temperature rise for 28°C before the
flash point is 5 to 6°C per minute.
 Starting at least 28 °C below the flash point, apply the test flame when the
temperature read on the thermometer reaches each successive 2 °C mark. Pass the test
flame across the center of the cup, at right angles to the diameter, which passes
through the thermometer. With a smooth, continuous motion apply the flame either in
a straight line or along the circumference of a circle having a radius of at least 150
mm. The center of the test flame must move in a plane not more than 2.5 mm above
the plane of the upper edge of the cup passing in one direction first, then in the
opposite direction the next lime. The time consumed in passing the test flame across
the cup shall be about one second (1 s.). During the last 17 °C rise in temperature
prior to the flash point, care must be taken to avoid disturbing the vapors in the test
cup by careless movements or bathing near the cup.
 Record as the observed flash point the temperature read on the thermometer when a
flash appears at any point on the surface of the material, but does not confuse the true
flash with the bluish halo that sometimes surrounds the test flame.
 To determine the fire point, continue heating so that the sample temperature increases
at a rate of 5 to 6 °C. Continue the application of the test flame at 2°C intervals until
the oil ignites and continues to burn for at least 5 second. Record the temperature at
the point as the fire point of the oil.
Precautions:
 Do not breathe close to the apparatus as the fumes are injurious to health.
 Turn the fans off so that the fumes can be accumulated over the cup.
 Tip of the thermometer should not touch the bottom or sides of the cup.
 The operator must exercise and take appropriate safety precautions during the initial
application of the test flame, since samples containing low flash material may give an
abnormally strong flash when the test flame is first applied.
Calculations and Report:

Observe and record the barometric pressure at the time of the test. When the pressure differs
from 760 mm Hg, correct the flash or fire point, or both, by means of the following
equations:
Corrected flash or fire point, or both = C + 0.03 (760 — P)
Where:
C = observed flash or fire point, or both, to the nearest 2 °C, and
P = Barometric pressure, mm Hg.
Record the corrected flash or fire joint value, or both, to the nearest 5 °C or 2°C.

Flash Point of Different Grades of Asphalt:

Viscosity Grades:
Property AC – 2.5 AC – 5 AC – 10 AC – 20 AC – 40
Flash Point
COC, 163 177 219 232 232
°C min.
Note: AC – 10 is most commonly used in Pakistan.
Sr.# Time (min) Temperature (C) Remarks

1. 1 34 Increasing temperature
2. 2 39 //
3. 3 44 //
4. 4 51 //
5. 5 58 //
6. 6 72 //
7. 7 --- //
8. 8 158 //
9. 9 180 //
10. 10 194 //
11. 11 218 //
12. 12 232 //
13. 13 244 //
14. 14 256 //
15. 15 266 //
16. 16 276 //
17. 17 284 //
18. 18 292 //
Still No Flash point Came
19. 19 302 temperature continue
increasing
20. 20 312 //
21. / 21 316 //
22. 22 322 //

23. 23 330 //
24. 24 336 //
25. 25 340 //
26. 26 344 //
27. 27 348 //
28. 28 351 //
29. 29 356 //
30. 30 359 //
31. 30.30 360 //
32. 31 ----- //
33. 32 364 Flash Point
Graph:
Time ~ Temp.
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Temperature Vs. Time
Results:
Flash Point = 364 °C at 34min
Fire Point = 404 °C

Comments:

EXPERIMENT NO 11
Marshall Method of Mix Design
Introduction:
The Marshall Method of mix design is intended both for laboratory design and field control
of bituminous hot-mix dense graded paving mixtures. Originally developed by Bruce
Marshall of the Mississippi State Highway Department, the US Army Corps of Engineers
refined and added certain features to Marshall’s approach and it was then subsequently
formalized as ASTM D 1559 and AASHTO T245.
Outline of Method:
 It uses standard cylindrical test specimens (64 mm high and 102 mm in diameter).
Two principal features of Marshall Method of mix design are Density Void Analysis
and Stability Flow Test of compacted test specimen.
 Stability of test specimens is the maximum load resistance developed by standard test
specimen at 60°C in Newton.
 Flow value is the total movement or displacement occurring in the specimen between
no load and the point of maximum load during stability test in units of 0.25mm.
Selection and Combination of Aggregates:

Selection of the aggregates to be used in a given paving mixture is a very important phase of
the design phase. In normal procedure, both coarse and fine aggregates available in the near
vicinity of the proposed work are sampled and carefully examined for compliance with the
individual specifications for these materials. In case no suitable single aggregate is available
then aggregates from several different sources may have to be blended to get the required
specified specimen. The proportions selected must be within the specification and far enough
from its extremes to provide room for the job mix tolerance so that when it is added or
subtracted the mixture will not be outside the original specification master range. Sieve
Analysis of the aggregates can most economically be used in this case as determined by
AASHTO methods of T27 and T37.

Mineral Aggregate And Mix Composition:
Passing Sieve Designation Retained on Sieve Percent by weight

Designation
¾ in. (19.0 mm) ½ in. (12.5 mm) 0-6
½ in. (12.5 mm) 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) 9-40
3/8 in. (9.5 mm) No.4 (4.75 mm) 9-45
No.4 (4.75 mm) No. 10 (2.00 mm) 8-27
Total Coarse Aggregate No. 10 (2.00 mm) 50-65
No. 10 (2.00 mm) No. 40 (0.475 mm) 6-22
No. 40 (0.475 mm) No. 80 (0.177 mm) 8-27
No. 80 (0.177 mm) No. 200 (0.75 mm) 5-17
No. 200 (0.75 mm) ------ 5-8
Total fine aggregate & filler Passing No. 10 35-50
Total mineral aggregate ------ 100
Total Mix
Total mineral aggregate 92-95
Asphalt cement 5-8
Total mix 100
It is obvious that the fine aggregate and coarse aggregate only, in any combination, cannot
meet the requirements of the specifications for total mineral aggregate. So, mineral fillers
must be used in the mixture.
Sieve Analysis Of Aggregates (Percentage Used For Experiment)
AGGREGATE TYPE
Retained on
Passing Sieve
Sieve
Designation
Designation
(Percentby
(Percent by COARSE FINE MINERAL
weight)
weight) AGGREGATES AGGREGATES FILLER
¾in.(19.0 mm) ½in.(12.5 mm) 5 ---- ----

½in.(12.5 mm) 3/8in.(9.5mm) 32 ---- ----
3/8in.(9.5mm) No.4(4.75mm) 37 ---- ----
No.4(4.75mm) No.10(2.00mm) 22 7 ----
No.10(2.00mm) No.40(0.475mm) 4 28 ----
No.40(0.475mm) No.80(0.177mm) ---- 39 5
No.80(0.177mm) No.200(0.75mm) ---- 24 30
No.200(0.75mm) ----- ---- 2 65
Total 100 100 100

For first trial, the amount of mineral filler is arbitrarily set at 8 percent. The total coarse
aggregate in the mix must be from 50 to 65 percent, and this figure is set as 52 percent. The
remaining 40 percent must be fine aggregate.
Calculations made using the indicated proportions in determining the sieve analysis of the
combined aggregates are as follows. A comparison of the figures in the last column of the
table with the requirements of the specification will show that this combination of aggregates
meets the stipulated requirements. This combination will therefore be judged satisfactory and
no additional trials are made here.
Design Bitumen Content:

When determining the design bitumen content for a particular blend or gradation of
aggregates by Marshall Method, a series of test specimens is prepared for a range of different
bitumen contents so that the test data curves show well-defined relationships.
Bitumen content can be estimated from following sources
 Experience
 Using filler-to-bitumen ratio guideline (ranges 06 to 1.2)
 Computational Formula
P = 0.035a + 0.045b + K c + F
Where
P = Approximate mix bitumen content, percentage by weight of total mix
a = Percentage of mineral aggregate retained on sieve No.10 in whole no.
b = Percentage of mineral aggregate passing sieve No.10 and retained on sieve
No.200
c = Percentage of mineral aggregate passing sieve No.200
K = 0.15, 11-15% passing sieve No.200.
= 0.18, 6-10% passing sieve No.200
=0.20, 5% passing sieve No.200
F = 0 to 2%, based on the absorption of light and heavy aggregates. F = 0.7 incase no
data is available.
Preparation Of Test Specimens:
 Separate the aggregate in desired fractions by dry sieving.
 The aggregates are first dried to a constant weight at 105 to 110°C.
 Amount of each size fraction required to produce a batch that will give 63.5+1.27 mm
high compacted specimen is weighed in a separate pan for each test specimen. It is about
1.2kg of dry aggregates.
 Prepare at least three specimens for each combination of aggregates and bitumen.
 Dry the aggregates to the required mixing temperature.
 Add heated aggregates in a mixing bowl and the required quantity of bitumen is added.
Mixing is carried out until all aggregate particles are fully coated with bitumen.
 Optimal viscosity of bitumen for compaction is between 2 Pa.s and 20 Pa.s. If viscosity is
too low, the mix will be excessively mobile resulting in pushing of the material in front of
the roller, high viscosities will significantly reduce the workability of the mix and little
compaction will be achieved.
 Depending upon design traffic category (light, medium and heavy), the compacted mix is
expected to withstand 35, 50 and 75 blows respectively applied with compaction hammer
to each end of the specimen.
 After compaction, specimens are allowed to cool in air at room temperature until no
deformation results on removal from the mould.
Apparatus:
 Sieves conforming to ASTM Standards
 Moulds
 Compaction Hammer
 Flow meter
 The Marshall Testing Machine, a compression testing machine.
Test Procedure:
In Marshall Method, each compacted test specimen is subjected to following tests and
analysis in the order listed.
 Bulk Specific Gravity Test
 Stability and Flow Test
 Density and Void Analysis
Bulk Specific Gravity Test is performed on freshly compacted specimens after they have
cooled to room temperature.
Then immerse the specimen in a water bath at 60°C for 30 to 40 minutes and perform
Stability and Flow Tests.
The Testing Machine will apply loads to test specimens through cylindrical segment testing
heads at a constant rate of vertical strain of 51mm per minute. Loading is applied until the
specimen failure occurs.
Marshall Stability Value:

The force in Newton required producing failure of the test specimen. The applied testing load
is determined from calibrated proving ring.
Flow Value:
The magnitude of deformation of the specimen at the point of failure. The point of failure is
defined by the maximum load reading obtained.
 All fractions of aggregates are heated to a temperature of 250°F. Bitumen of specified
grade is heated to a temperature of 350°F. Bitumen should not be heated for more than an
hour. The required quantity of aggregates and bitumen is mixed manually or electrically
at a temperature of 200 to 300°F. After mixing place it in a compaction mould and give
75 blows to the sample on each side. The specimen is then immersed in water bath at a
testing temperature of 60°C for 30 to 40 minutes. Then remove the specimen from water
bath and place it on a base plate of Marshall Loading Machine. The proving ring and flow
gauge are adjusted to zero reading. The base plate of machine moves upward at a rate of 2
inches per minute. The value of maximum load and dial gauges are recorded and machine
is reversed. The elapsed time for the test after the removal of specimen is note.
Computations:
Percentage Air Voids, Va:
Va =100 X ( Gmm – Gmb )

Gmm
Where, Va = air voids in compacted mixture as a percentage of total volume. Gmm =
maximum specific gravity of a paving mixture, Gmb = Bulk specific gravity of a compacted
mixture.
Gmm = 100
W1/G1+W2/G2+W3/G3+W4/G4
Where, W 1 = %age weight of coarse aggregates,
W 2 =%age weight of fine aggregates
W 3 = %age weight of mineral aggregates
W 4 = %age weight of bitumen,
G1 = Specific Gravity of coarse aggregates
G2 = Specific Gravity of fine aggregates
G3 = Specific Gravity of mineral aggregates,
G4 = Density of bitumen (g/cm3)

Percentage Of Voids In Mineral Aggregates, Vma:
VMA = Vb + Va
Where, Va = %age of voids in aggregates, Vb = %age of voids in bitumen
Vb = Gmb X (W 4 / G 4)
Percentage Of Voids Filled With Bitumen, VFB:
VFB = ( Vb / VMA ) X 100
Observations And Calculations:

Figure 27
Comments:

EXPERIMENT NO 12
Design of Flexible Pavement by Group Index Method
Introduction
Group index is claimed to be an indirect measure of the thickness of sub-base required. The
thickness of base and wearing surface, on the other hand, is varied according to the volume of
commercial traffic expected. The higher the ‘Group Index’ of the sub-grade, the lower its
strength and the greater thickness of sub-base required.
Group index is based on classification tests of sub grade soil as explained below:
Group Index = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd
Where
a= That portion of percentage of sub-grade soil passing No. 200 sieve greater than 35 and not
exceeding 75, expressed as a positive whole number (0 to 40)
b= That portion of percentage of sub-grade soil passing No. 200 sieve greater than 15 and not
exceeding 55, expressed as a positive whole number (0 to 40)
c= That portion of the numerical liquid limit greater than 40 and not exceeding 60, expressed
as a positive whole number (0 to 20)
d= That portion of the numerical plasticity index greater than 10 and not exceeding 30,
expressed as a positive whole number (0 to 20)
Design curves are based on the following assumptions with regard to compaction and
drainage
Compaction of the sub-grade to be not less than 95% of the
maximum dry density obtained by modified AASHTO test
(AASHTO T-l80 or ASTM D1557)
Sub-grade to be sufficiently above the water-table to permit the
proper compaction of the grade prior to placing the base or sub-
base, and soil drainage or sufficient embankment height to be
provided where necessary to keep the water-table at least 3 to 4 ft
below the road face.
Related Theory
Sieve Analysis
The shapes of the curves indicate the nature of the soil tested. On
the basis of the shapes we can classify soils as:
1. Uniformly Graded Soil
2. Poorly Graded Soil
3. Well Graded Soil
4. Gap Graded Soil Figure 28(Sieve Test)
To determine whether a material is uniformly graded or well graded, Hazen proposed the
following equation:
D60
Cu =
D10
Cu > 4 for well graded gravel
Cu > 6 for well graded sand
C < 4 for uniformly graded soil containing particles of the same size
There is another step in the procedure to determine the gradation of particles. This is based on
the term called the coefficient of curvature which is expressed as
D230
Cu =
D10 × D60
The soil is said to be well graded if Cc lies between 1 and 3 for gravels and sands.

Atterberg Limits
Atterberg, a Swedish scientist, considered the consistency of soils in 1911, and proposed a
series of tests for defining the properties of cohesive soils. The Atterberg limits are a basic
measure of the nature of a fine-grained soil. Depending on the water content of the soil, it
may appear in four states:
 Solid State
 semi-solid State
 plastic State
 liquid State
In each state the consistency and behavior of a soil is different and thus so are its engineering
properties. Thus, the boundary between each state can be defined based on a change in the
soil's behavior. The Atterberg limits can be used to distinguish between silt and clay, and it
can distinguish between different types of silts and clays. These limits were created by Albert
Atterberg, a Swedish chemist. They were later refined by Arthur Casagrande.
Shrinkage limit
The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result in
any more volume reduction. The test to determine the shrinkage limit is ASTM International
D4943. The shrinkage limit is much less commonly used than the liquid limit and the plastic
limit.
Plastic limit
The plastic limit (PL) is the water content where soil
starts to exhibit plastic behavior. A thread of soil is at its
plastic limit when it is rolled to a diameter of 3 mm or
begins to crumble. To improve consistency, a 3 mm
diameter rod is often used to gauge the thickness of the
thread when conducting the test. Figure 29 (Plastic Limit)
Liquid limit
The liquid limit (LL) is the water content where a soil changes from plastic to liquid
behavior. The original liquid limit test of Atterberg's involved mixing a pat of clay in a little
round-bottomed porcelain bowl of 10-12cm diameter. A groove was cut through the pat of
clay with a spatula, and the bowl was then struck many times against the palm of one hand.
Casagrande subsequently standardized the apparatus and the

procedures to make the measurement more repeatable. Soil
is placed into the metal cup portion of the device and a
groove is made down its center with a standardized tool.
The cup is repeatedly dropped 10mm onto a hard rubber
base during which the groove closes up gradually as a result
of the impact. The number of blows for the groove to close

THE UNIVERSITY OF LAHORE Figure 30 (Casagrande)
for 13 mm (½ inch) is recorded. The moisture content at which it takes 25 drops of the cup to
cause the groove to close is defined as the liquid limit.
Another method for measuring the liquid limit is the Cone Penetrometer test. It is based on
the measurement of penetration into the soil of a standardized cone of specific mass. Despite
the universal prevalence of the Casagrande method, the cone penetrometer is often
considered to be a more consistent alternative because it minimizes the possibility of human
variations when carrying out the test.
Plasticity index
The plasticity index (PI) is a measure of the plasticity of a soil. The plasticity index is the size
of the range of water contents where the soil exhibits plastic properties. The PI is the
difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit (PI = LL-PL). Soils with a high PI
tend to be clay, those with a lower PI tend to be silt, and those with a PI of 0 tend to have
little or no silt or clay.
Liquidity index
The liquidity index (LI) is used for scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to the
limits. It can be calculated as a ratio of difference between natural water content, plastic limit,
and plasticity index: LI = (W-PL) / (LL-PL) where W is the natural water content.
AASHTO classifications of soils
The AASHTO system classifies soils into seven primary groups, named A-1 through A-7,
based on their relative expected quality for road embankments, sub-grades, sub-bases, and
bases. Some of the groups are in turn divided into subgroups, such as A-1-a and A-1-b.
Furthermore, a Group Index may be calculated to quantify a soil’s expected performance
within a group. To determine a soil’s classification in the AASHTO system, one first
determines the relative proportions of gravel, coarse sand, fine sand, and silt-clay.
AASHTO Classification Chart
Silt-Clay Materials (>35%
Granular Materials (35% or less passing the 0.075
General Classification passing the 0.075 mm
mm sieve)
sieve)
A-1 A-2 A-7
Group Classification A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7-5 A-
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
7-6
Sieve Analysis, % passing
2.00 mm (No. 10) 50 max … … … … … … … … … …
51
0.425 (No. 40) 30 max 50 max … … … … … … … …
min
10 35 35 35 36 36 36
0.075 (No. 200) 15 max 25 max 35 max 36 min
max max max max min min min

Characteristics of fraction
passing 0.425 mm (No.
40)
40 40 41 40 41 40
Liquid Limit … … 41 min 41 min
max max min max min max
10 11 11 10 10 11
Plasticity Index 6 max N.P. 10 max 11 min1
max min min max max min
Usual types of significant stone fragments, fine silty or clayey gravel and
silty soils clayey soils
constituent materials gravel and sand sand sand
General rating as a
excellent to good fair to poor
subgrade
Note: Plasticity index of A-7-5 subgroup is equal to or less than the LL - 30.
Plasticity index of A-7-6 subgroup is greater than LL – 30
Unified Soil Classification System
Coarse Grained Soils
G Gravel
Primary
S Sand
W Well Graded
P Poorly Graded
Secondary
M Non-Plastic
C Plastic Fines
Fine Grained Soil
M Silt
C Clay
Primary
O Organic
Pt Peat
L Low Plastic
Secondary
H Highly Plastic

A-Line = PI – 0.73 ( LL – 20 )
Different States and Consistency of Soils with Atterberg Limits
Curve Showing transition stages from the liquid to the solid stages

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Sieve Analysis
Weight of Sample =
Sieve
Weight of Soil %age weight Cumulative %age
Sieve No. Size
Retained (gm) Retained %age retained Passing
(mm)
4 4.75
10 2
40 0.425
100 0.15
200 0.075
Pan - - - -
W1 − W2
Loss in Weight after Sieving = × 100
W1
Particle Size Distribution Curve

120
100
%age Finer by Weight
80
60
40
20
0
100 Grave 10 1 0.1 0.01
l Sand Silt & Clay
Particle Size (mm)
D60 = D30 = D10 =
Cc = Cu =
From the curve and calculation of CU and CC it is clear that soil is ---------------

Results from Sieve Analysis

% age passing Sieve # 200 Value of a 0
Total weight retained after sieving Value of b 0
Loss in weight after sieving
%age of Various Fractions
Gravel Fine sand
Coarse sand Silt & clay
Medium sand - -
Liquid Limit
(Soil fraction must be passing sieve # 40)
Sample No. 1 2 3
Container No - - -
Weight of Empty Container = W1, gm
W1 + Weight of Wet Soil = W2, gm
W1 + Weight of dry Soil = W3, gm
Moisture Content, W = (W2-W3)/(W3-W1) X
100%
Number of Blows, N
N 0.121
Liquid Limit, LL by One Point Method =w (23)
Liquid Limit Determination

28
Moisture Content (%)
27
26 y = -0.1313x + 28.989
25
24
23
10 No. of Blows (N) 100
Liquid Limit by Graphical Method =
Value of c =

Plastic Limit
(Soil fraction must be passing sieve # 40)
Sample No. 1 2 3
Container No - - -
Weight of Empty Container = W1, gm
W1 + Weight of Wet Soil = W2, gm
W1 + Weight of dry Soil = W3, gm
Moisture Content, W = (W2-W3)/(W3-W1) X
100%
Average Plastic Limit, PL%
Plasticity Index, PI = LL – PL = 4.18
Value of d =
Group Index =
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION =
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION =
(Sand-Poorly graded with plastic fines)
Design of Thickness of various Layers of Flexible pavement
With Sub-base
Thickness of Thickness of Total Thickness of Surface, Thickness of
Traffic Intensity Surfacing Sub-base Base and Sub-base Base
(inch) (inch) (inch) (inch)
Light 1 0 6 5
Medium 2 0 9 7
Heavy 3 0 12 9
Figure 31 (Layers of Flexible Pavement)

Comments

EXPERIMENT NO 13
Design of flexible pavement by California bearing ratio method.
Code:ASTM-D-1883
Objectives:
To determine the thickness of upper lying layers of subgrade using CBR method
Need and Scope:
Soil strata strength is determined insitu and in lab as well. CBR method is employed to
determine strength of soil. We need to design thickness to put in field.
Apparatus:
 Modified Proctor moulds
 10lb rammer
 CBR mould, rammer
 CBR testing machine
Procedure: Figure 32(Mould)
1. First of all, determine the OMC of the given soil by modified proctor test.
2. Utilize modified dry density and optimum moisture content to fill the mould of CBR.
3. Perform all the standard procedure for CBR to determine design CBR value.
4. Correlate design CBR value with MR using following relation.
MR = 1500*CBR
5. From the Graph between MR and ESALS, determine the thickness of upper lying
layers.
Definition of CBR
It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard circular
piston at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that required for the corresponding penetration of a
standard material. The California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR Test) is a penetration test
developed by California State Highway Department (U.S.A.) for evaluating the bearing
capacity of subgrade soil for design of flexible pavement.

CBR Test Procedure 1:
 Normally 3 specimens each of about 7 kg must be compacted so that their compacted

densities range from 95% to 100% generally with 10, 30 and 65 blows.
 Weigh of empty mould
 Add water to the first specimen (compact it in five layer by giving 10 blows per layer)
 After compaction, remove the collar and level the surface.
 Take sample for determination of moisture content.
 Weight of mould + compacted specimen.
 Place the mold in the soaking tank for four days (ignore this step in case of
unsoakedCBR.
 Take other samples and apply different blows and repeat the whole process.
 After four days, measure the swell reading and find %age swell.
 Remove the mould from the tank and allow water to drain.
 Then place the specimen under the penetration piston and place surcharge load of 10lb.
 Apply the load and note the penetration load values.
 Draw the graphs between the penetration (in) and penetration load (in) and find the
value of CBR.
 Draw the graph between the %age CBR and Dry Density, and find CBR at required
degree of compaction
Graph 1 (MR vs ESAL)

CBR Test Procedure 2:

Undisturbed specimen
Attach the cutting edge to the mould and push it gently into the ground. Remove the soil from
the outside of the mould which is pushed in . When the mould is full of soil, remove it from
weighing the soil with the mould or by any field method near the spot.
Determine the density
Re-moulded specimen
Prepare the re-moulded specimen at Proctor maximum dry density or any other density at
which C.B.R> is required. Maintain the specimen at optimum moisture content or the field
moisture as required. The material used should pass 20 mm I.S. sieve but it should be
retained on 4.75 mm I.S. sieve. Prepare the specimen either by dynamic compaction or by
static compaction.
Dynamic Compaction
 Take about 4.5 to 5.5 kg of soil and mix thoroughly with the required water.
 Fix the extension collar and the base plate to the mould. Insert the spacer disc over the
base Place the filter paper on the top of the spacer disc.
 Compact the mix soil in the mould using either light compaction or heavy compaction.
For light compaction, compact the soil in 3 equal layers, each layer being given 55 blows
by the 2.6 kg rammer. For heavy compaction compact the soil in 5 layers, 56 blows to
each layer by the 4.89 kg rammer.
 Remove the collar and trim off soil.
 Turn the mould upside down and remove the base plate and the displacer disc.
 Weigh the mould with compacted soil and determine the bulk density and dry density.
 Put filter paper on the top of the compacted soil (collar side) and clamp the perforated
base plate on to it.
Static compaction
 Calculate the weight of the wet soil at the required water content to give the desired
density when occupying the standard specimen volume in the mould from the
expression.
W =desired dry density * (1+w) V
Where W = Weight of the wet soil
w = desired water content
 V = volume of the specimen in the mould = 2250 cm3 (as per the mould available in
laboratory)
 Take the weight W (calculated as above) of the mix soil and place it in the mould.
 Place a filter paper and the displacer disc on the top of soil.

 Keep the mould assembly in static loading frame and compact by pressing the displacer
disc till the level of disc reaches the top of the mould.
 Keep the load for some time and then release the load. Remove the displacer disc.
 The test may be conducted for both soaked as well as unsoaked conditions.
 If the sample is to be soaked, in both cases of compaction, put a filter paper on the top of
the soil and place the adjustable stem and perforated plate on the top of filter paper.
 Put annular weights to produce a surcharge equal to weight of base material and
pavement expected in actual construction. Each 2.5 kg weight is equivalent to 7 cm
construction. A minimum of two weights should be put.
 Immerse the mould assembly and weights in a tank of water and soak it for 96 hours.
Remove the mould from tank.
 Note the consolidation of the specimen.
Procedure for Penetration Test
 Place the mould assembly with the surcharge weights on the penetration test machine.
(Fig.39).
 Seat the penetration piston at the center of the specimen with the smallest possible load,
but in no case in excess of 4 kg so that full contact of the piston on the sample is
established.
 Set the stress and strain dial gauge to read zero. Apply the load on the piston so that the
penetration rate is about 1.25 mm/min.
 Record the load readings at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10
and 12.5 mm. Note the maximum load and corresponding penetration if it occurs for a
penetration less than 12.5 mm.
 Detach the mould from the loading equipment. Take about 20 to 50 g of soil from the top
3 cm layer and determine the moisture content.
Observation and Recording
For Dynamic Compaction
Optimum water content (%)
Weight of mould + compacted specimen g
Weight of empty mould g
Weight of compacted specimen g
Volume of specimen cm3
Bulk density g/cc
Dry density g/cc
For static compaction
Dry density g/cc
Moulding water content %
Wet weight of the compacted soil, (W)g
Period of soaking 96 hrs. (4days).

For penetration Test

Calibration factor of the proving ring 1 Div. = 1.176 kg
Surcharge weight used (kg) 2.0 kg per 6 cm construction
Water content after penetration test %
Least count of penetration dial 1 Div. = 0.01 mm
If the initial portion of the curve is concave upwards, apply correction by drawing a tangent
to the curve at the point of greatest slope and shift the origin (Fig. 40). Find and record the
correct load reading corresponding to each penetration.
C.B.R. = PT/PS 100
where PT = Corrected test load corresponding to the chosen penetration from the load
penetration curve.
PS = Standard load for the same penetration taken from thetable .

Penetration Dial Load Dial Corrected Load
proving ring
Penetration Load (kg)
Readings reading
(mm)
Comments:

Experiment No 15
Standard test method for use of dynamic cone penetrometer in
shallow pavement applications
Scope:
This test method covers the measurement of penetration rate of cone penetrometer with an 8
kg hammer through undisturbed soil or compacted materials. Penetration rate may be related
to in-situ strength such as an estimated in-situ CBR.
Significance and Use:
 Determine in-situ strength of undisturbed soil and compacted materials.
 Dynamic cone penetrometer is held vertically and therefore is typically used in
horizontal construction applications such as pavements and floor slabs.
 Can be used to assess material properties down to a depth of 1000 mm .
Apparatus:
 A 16 mm diameter steel drive rod with a replaceable point or disposable cone tip.(60
degrees and diameter of 20 mm at the base)
 8 kg hammer with a fixed dropped height of 575 mm.
 Coupler assembly and Handle

Procedure:
Before Beginning the test, Check the DCP for fatigue damaged parts in particular the coupler
and handle and excessive wear of drive rod and replaceable point tip. The basic operation is
that operator holds the device in a vertical or plumb position and lifts and releases the
hammer from standard drop height. The recorder measures and records the total penetration
for a given number of blows or the penetration per blow.
Testing a Surface Layer:
The DCP is held vertically and tip seated such that the top of widest part of tip is flush with
the surface of material to be tested and initial reading is obtained from graduated drive rod or
a separate vertical scale. The distance is measured to nearest 1 mm some sliding reference
attachments allow the measuring rod to be marked at zero when tip is at zero point.

Testing Below a Bound Layer:

A Rotary hammer drill is used to provide excess whole to the layer to be tested. Wet coring
is required so that fluid be removed immediately and DCP test be performed as soon as
possible no longer than 10 minutes after coring. Then DCP may be performed.
Testing Sequence:
 Dropping the Hammer- The DCP device is held vertically and operator raises
the hammer until it makes only light contact with handle then it is allowed to free fall
and impact the annual coupler assembly. The number of blows and corresponding
penetrations are recorded.
 Depth of Penetration - For typical highway application, a penetration less than
900 mm is used.
 Refusal:- Large aggregates or rocks strata can stop further penetration. If after five
blows the penetration is not more than 2 mm or the handle has deflected more than 75
mm from vertical position, the test shall be stopped. Select new test location atleast
300 mm far from the previous location.
 Extraction- At completion, use extraction jack for replaceable point tip DCP and
for disposable cone DCP, hammer is striked upward into the handle to extract the
DCP.
Data Recording:

Calculations and Interpretation of Results:

CBR= 292/DCP1.12 (DCP in mm/blow)
CBR=292/ (DCP*25.4)1.12 (DCP in inch/blow)
Comments


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Highway & Traffic Engineering Lab Manual 2018

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 1

Calculations for elongated particles: .................................................................................... 23

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 2

Specific Gravity: .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 3

Apparent Specific Gravity: .................................................................................................. 27

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 4

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 5

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 6

Procedure for Penetration Test............................................................................................. 77

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 7

Figure 1 (Core Cutter Apparatus) ............................................................................................ 10

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 8

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 9

List of Laboratory Apparatus

Core Cutter Apparatus

Figure 1 (Core Cutter Apparatus)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 10

Los Angeles Abrasion Testing Machine

Figure 2 (Los Angeles Abrasion Testing Machine)

Ductility Testing Machine

Figure 3 (Ductility Testing Machine)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 11

Open Cup Flash & Fire Point Apparatus

Figure 4 (Open Cup Flash & Fire point Apparatus)

Marshal Stability Apparatus

Figure 5 (Marshal Stability Apparatus)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 12

Asphalt Centrifuge Extractor

Figure 8 (Asphalt Centrifuge Extractor)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 13

Flakiness & Elongation Index Apparatus

Figure 9 (Flakiness & Elongation Index Apparatus)

Figure 10 (Screen Shaker)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 14

Figure 11 (Sieve Shaker)

Figure 12 (Water Bath)

Figure 13 (Sample splitter)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 15

The significance of flakiness & elongation index is as follows;

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 16

Preferred use of each shape:

Figure 14 (Rounded aggregates)

Figure 15 (Angular shape)

Flaky and Elongated particles are considered as a source of weakness.

Figure 16 (Flaky & Elongated)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 17

Figure 17 (Flakiness Index Gauge)

Figure 18 (Length/Elongation Index Gauge)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 18

Different types of aggregates and their use based on shape

Aggregates are classified according to shape into the following types

Figure 19 Rounded Aggregates

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 19

Figure 20 Irregular Aggregates

Figure 21 Angular Aggregates

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 20

Figure 22 Flaky Particles

Figure 23 Elongated Aggregates

Flaky and Elongated Aggregates

Figure 24 Flaky and Elongated Aggregates

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 21

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 22