Series of articles: Measurement accuracy in

experimental stress analysis - Part 1

Strain gauge technology with its ample opportunities for error compensation has been
optimized for decades. And yet there are influences that may affect strain gauge
measurements. The aim of this article is to point out the many (often avoidable) sources of
error when strain gauges are used in experimental stress analysis and to provide assistance so
that measurement uncertainty can be assessed already in the design stage.

Fundamental questions
The following observations that may be useful prior to taking strain gauge measurements in
experimental stress analysis are to summarize the authors' experiences. The following
questions are essential to the required measures (e.g. measuring point protection) and the
measurement uncertainty that can be obtained:

 When will the measuring point reach the end of its useful life?
 How high will the strain values be?
 Will there be any temperature variation? If yes, how great and how fast?
 Will special environmental influences (water, humidity, etc.) affect the measuring point?
 What material is the strain gauge being installed on (inhomogeneous, anisotropic, highly
hygroscopic, etc.)?
 Is there any possibility to readjust the zero point, if necessary?

The experienced test engineer will be looking for the answers already when analyzing the
measurement task (long before the first strain gauge is being installed). The answer to the last
question decides whether the measurement is zero-point related or non zero-point related.

Zero-point related measurements

Zero-point related measurements are generally understood as measurements involving

comparison of current measured values with measured values obtained at the start of
measurement over several weeks, months or even years. No "zero balancing" of the
measurement chain is performed in the meantime. Zero-point related measurements are far
more critical than non zero-point related measurements, because zero drifts (resulting from
temperature and other environmental influences) are fully incorporated into the result of
measurement.

Zero errors are particularly dangerous with small strain values, because this results in very
large relative deviations related to the measured value. Strains occurring in machine
components and structures often do not even amount to 100 µm/m, because a high safety
factor is "built in". 100 µm/m zero drift, in this case, results in 100 % measurement error.

Due to the fact that a continuous measurement for structural monitoring is almost always a
zero-point related measurement, special attention needs to be paid to protecting the strain
gauges from environmental influences. It is essential that the measuring point offers sufficient
long-term stability. Since large temperature variations have to be expected, the temperature
coefficients need to be small. Low measurement signal amplitudes at generously dimensioned
components are likely to be superimposed by effects resulting from deficient strain gauge
installation. The measurement electronics responds to every change in resistance with a
change on its display.

This may be due to the change in the quantity to be measured or, also, the ingress of water
molecules. The actual measured value, as the aggregate signal of all strain proportions at the
strain gauge, does not allow a distinction to be made between wanted and unwanted strain
proportions.

Non zero-point related measurements

Non zero-point related measurements are understood as measurement tasks that allow zero
balancing without any information loss at specific points in time. Only the variation of the
measured quantity after "zero balancing" is relevant. (Modern bathroom scales are
automatically tared every time they are switched on, without any loss of information.) "Zero
balancing" is often possible with one-off load tests (often in the form of short-term
measurements), hence zero drifts are totally insignificant.

Very high strains occur in destructive tests, which means that strain gauges with adequate
measuring ranges are required. It is embarrassing and costly when after weeks of preparatory
work it becomes obvious that the strain gauges installed at the component have failed.

Measurements in laboratories and test halls are considered rather uncritical, because the
ambient conditions (temperature, humidity) are moderate.

Measurements in the field and in environmental chambers with high humidity and large
temperature gradients, however, are critical.

Series of articles: Measurement accuracy in

experimental stress analysis – part 2
Strain gauge technology has been optimized over the course of decades with a wide range of
options to compensate for errors. Yet there are still effects that have a negative impact on
measurements. The objective of this paper is to point out the numerous (and often avoidable)
sources of errors when using strain gauges in experimental stress analysis and to provide
some help in estimating the measurement uncertainty early on in the planning phase.
Fig. 6: Signal flow diagram of a strain gauge measuring point with influence quantities.

The components of the measuring chain

For purposes of clarity and comprehensibility, only the uniaxial stress state will be considered
below. The block diagram (Fig. 6) shows the flow of the measurement signal. It also shows
the influence quantities and their effect in correlation with the important features of the
measurement chain. These features and effects are shown in blue if they can affect the zero
point.

The measurement object (DUT)

When the measurement object under examination is loaded, the stress σ is exerted in the
material. This causes a strain in the material which behaves inversely proportionally to the
modulus of elasticity. This material strain can be determined as a surface strain by means of a
strain gauge.

The modulus of elasticity exhibits an uncertainty (tolerance of the modulus of elasticity).

Extensive examinations on structural steels have shown a variation coefficient of 4.5%. The
modulus of elasticity also depends on temperature as an influence quantity and the
temperature coefficient of the modulus of elasticity.

If the strain gauge is glued to a surface (such as a bending rod) that is extended convexly, the
strain on the measuring grid is greater than on the surface of the component.

The reason for this has to do with the distance from the neutral fiber: The further the
measuring grid is from this neutral fiber and the thinner the component, the stronger the
measured value becomes. Smaller roles are played by the thickness of the adhesive and the
structure of the strain gauge. The change in temperature (∆t) acting together with the
temperature coefficient of expansion of the material also causes thermal expansion, which is
significant for zero-point related measurements.

Elastic after-effects (caused by relaxation processes in the microstructure of the material)

cause the strain of the material to diminish somewhat after spontaneous loading. The formula
in the chart exhibits several uncertainties.

The installation
The required input quantity is the material strain. In an ideal case it is identical to the actual
strain of the measuring grid on the strain gauge:

In actual practice, however, alignment and other installation errors occur despite great care.
The strain gauge, as a spring element subject to mechanical stress, creeps back along its outer
edge areas after spontaneous strain due to the strain loading and also depending on the
rheological properties of the adhesive and the strain gauge carrier. It also exhibits a slight
hysteresis the effect of the strain gauge creeping back is used in transducer construction to
minimize material after-effects, which produce an undesirable additional strain, by adjusting
the lengths of the transverse bridges not sensitive to strain on the strain gauge. This
compensation can only be implemented in experimental stress analysis with a great deal of
effort. Increased strain may also occur due to a curved installation surface (see above).

If measuring points are not adequately protected against humidity and moisture, the adhesive
and carrier may soak up moisture and swell. This will be expressed as an error fraction in the
form of an unintended task-specific strain in the strain gauges.

Moisture content also affects the stability of the measured values as in all methods of
measurement (see below strain gauge: insulation resistance). Especially with zero-point
related measurements, a test engineer may be uncertain whether he/she is observing the
relevant material strain or whether it is simply one of the other effects described above.
Because of this, measuring point protection is an essential precondition for reliable results,
especially with zero-point related measurements.

This produces the effect that the strain of the measuring grid does not exactly match the
material strain in the stress direction.

The strain gauge

The strain gauge converts the strain in the measuring grid into a relative change in resistance
proportional to the strain.
The tolerance of the K factor and its temperature sensitivity contribute to the uncertainty.

It should be noted that if the strain is not distributed homogeneously, the average of the strain
under the measuring grid is converted into the relative change in resistance. As a result of this,
if the wrong active length of the strain gauge is chosen, the values measured for strain and
material stress will be too small or too large. This is especially important when determining
the maximum values of the mechanical stress peaks metrologically.

The temperature response of the strain gauge affects the zero point. It has an impact with large
temperature differences and especially with strain gauges that are poorly adapted to the
thermal expansion coefficient of the material (DUT), since they interfere with the action of
the compensation effects.

Self-heating (due to electrical power transformed in the strain gauge) has a similar result, as it
leads to a temperature difference between the material and the strain gauge. This is the reason
why it is possible to set very low excitation voltages on modern measuring amplifiers. Even
small bridge output voltages can be accurately amplified by the devices. Caution is advised,
however, with thin materials and materials that dissipate heat poorly.

In the case of frequent alternating strain with a large amplitude (> 1500 µm/m) fatigue may
occur in the measuring grid material, resulting in a zero drift.

A transverse sensitivity of the strain gauge is present, but it does not produce any significant
deviations. In the uniaxial stress state the transverse sensitivity is taken into consideration by
the experimental determination of the K factor due to the way the factor is defined.

A linearity deviation of up to 1000 µm/m is negligible for strains.

Penetration of moisture and humidity reduces the insulation resistances, which in turn causes
a resistance shunt to the connections of the strain gauge and is generally reflected by
instability in the display of measured values. Low-ohm strain gauges are less sensitive to the
influence of moisture and humidity.

The measuring amplifier

The input quantity into the measuring amplifier is the relative change in resistance of the
strain gauge.

Since it is very small (at 1000 µm/m and with a K factor of 2 it is just 0.2 % or 0.24 Ω out of
120 Ω), there is an addition to the Wheatstone bridge (quarter bridge circuit) in the
experimental stress analysis by means of three fixed resistors (usually in the measuring
amplifier). The advantages of half- and full-bridge circuits and ways to use them to reduce
measurement uncertainties will not be dealt with here.

The connection of a single strain gauge in a quarter bridge circuit is considered here. Usually
the correlation between bridge unbalance and relative change in resistance is described with
The actual correlation exhibits a small degree of non-linearity, which will be examined in
greater detail below.

The measuring amplifier supplies voltage to the bridge circuit, amplifies the bridge output
voltage and generates the measured value.

Deliberately left out of consideration here are measurement errors that can occur due to long
supply lead resistances, interference fields, thermoelectric voltages and the measurement
electronics themselves.

These can be almost entirely avoided by using well-known technologies (multiwire

techniques, extended Kreuzer circuits, shielding designs, modern TF measuring amplifiers).
Series of articles: Measurement accuracy in
experimental stress analysis – part 3
Strain gauge technology has been optimized over the course of decades with a wide range of
options to compensate for errors. Yet there are still effects that have a negative impact on
measurements. The objective of this paper is to point out the numerous (and often avoidable)
sources of errors when using strain gauges in experimental stress analysis and to provide
some help in estimating the measurement uncertainty early on in the planning phase.

Estimating measurement uncertainty for non-zero-point

related measurements
An important element of this measurement procedure is that the zero point for analyzing the
measurement results is unnecessary. That is because only changes in the measured quantity
are of interest and the zero point does not drift during the measurement (typical for relatively
short measurement tests). Examples are crash tests, tensile tests and brief loading tests.

Material after-effects and strain gauge creep can be somewhat important in non-zero-point
related measurements and are therefore covered in this section. On the other hand, phenomena
such as thermal expansion, swelling of the adhesive, falling insulation resistance, temperature
response of the strain gauge and strain gauge fatigue in non zero-point related measurements
are almost completely irrelevant.

Of course, resistance will not drop so dramatically during a brief loading test of insulation
resistance that failure of the measuring point would be possible.

Tolerance of the modulus of elasticity

The modulus of elasticity (manufacturer specification) exhibits an uncertainty (tolerance of
the modulus of elasticity) which may be several percent. Accurately determining the modulus
of elasticity in a suitable laboratory is costly and often cannot be implemented.

In experimental stress measurements, or as we sometimes refer to it as experimental stress

analysis (ESA), the relative uncertainty of the modulus of elasticity produces a relative
uncertainty in the mechanical stress of the same amount.
This means that if the material has a modulus of elasticity with a value known within an
uncertainty of 5%, that alone produces an uncertainty of 5% in the stated mechanical stress.

The modulus of elasticity also depends on temperature as an influence quantity and the
temperature coefficient (TC) of the modulus of elasticity (for steel ≈ -2 • 10-4/K). The relative
change in the modulus of elasticity is derived from the product:

This is equivalent to the additional uncertainty of the mechanical stress.

Example: If the modulus of elasticity of steel is given for a temperature of 23 °C and the
measurement is performed at 33 °C, the modulus of elasticity drops by 0.2%. If this effect is
not compensated for by computations, there will be a deviation of 0.2% in addition to the
tolerance specified for the modulus of elasticity. Note that the TC of the modulus of elasticity
is itself temperature-dependent, which means that this effect can never be entirely
compensated for.

Radius for measurement objects subject to bending loads

(increase in strain)

Fig. 7: Strain gauge on the measurement object subject to bending load.

If the strain gauge is located on a component that bends longitudinally to the measuring grid,
the strain of the measuring grid deviates from the surface strain of the component (Fig. 7).
The measured values obtained are too large. The smaller the radius of curvature and the
greater the distance of the measuring grid from the component surface, the greater the effect.
If the strain gauge is located in the concave area, the measured values would also be too large
simply in terms of the amount. The factor describing the measurement error would be the
same. This also results in a multiplicative deviation relative to the measured value. The
equation for calculating is:

For a medium distance of 100 μm from the measuring grid to the component surface and a
bending radius of 100 mm, the resulting increase in strain is 1/1000 relative to the current
strain value. The actual strain of the component in this example is 0.1% lower than the
measured strain. That means that the stress is measured 0.1% too large. This measurement
error is clearly only relevant for small bending radii.

Elastic after-effects
In many materials, the strain still increases somewhat further after spontaneous mechanical
loading. This phenomenon is largely complete after about 30 minutes (steel at 23 °C) and also
occurs when the load is removed. The quotient of the amount of this additional strain and the
spontaneous strain depends heavily on the material. Material after-effects thus produce an
additional (positive) measurement error. This only occurs when acquiring strain values. This
deviation can therefore be almost completely avoided in many measurement tasks.

However, if the measured value is acquired long after the load is applied, and the strain of the
material has increased by 1% (relative to spontaneous strain), the result will be that the
measured value for the material strain is 1% too large.

Misalignment of the strain gauge

If the strain gauge is not exactly aligned in the direction of the material stress (uniaxial stress
state), a negative measurement error is produced. The measured strain will then be less than
the material strain. The relative strain error is determined as follows:

An alignment error of 5 degrees and a Poisson's ratio of 0.3 (steel) results in a strain error of -
1%. Thus, the actual strain and the material strain are 1% greater.

Strain gauge creep

After material strain is induced spontaneously, the measuring grid of the strain gauge creeps
back somewhat. The process, determined primarily by the properties of the adhesive and the
geometry of the strain gauge (short measuring grids are critical, strain gauges with very long
reversing lengths do not creep), is also temperature-dependent. After return creep the strain of
the grid is somewhat less than the material strain. The strain gauge often used in ESA (HBM
type LY11-6/120 with an active measuring grid length of 6 mm) when used with adhesive
Z70 (HBM) at a temperature of 23 °C has a return creep of about 0.1% within one hour. This
is equivalent to a negative measurement error of -0.1% relative to the measured stress. Of
course the deviation will be less if the measured value is determined immediately after
spontaneous loading. Due to the negative sign, the strain gauge creep compensates at least
partially for the elastic after-effects and may therefore often be completely ignored in ESA.
However, advise caution when using other adhesives at higher temperatures. For example,
adhesive X60 (HBM) applied at 70 °C with a strain of 2000 μm/m, the resulting deviation
after just one hour is -5%.

Hysteresis of the strain gauge

The same applies to the hysteresis: short measuring grids tend to be critical and the adhesive
has some effect. The hysteresis for strain gauge LY11-6/120 is only 0.1% with a strain of
±1000 μm/m if Z70 was used as the adhesive. It is therefore negligible.

If a very small strain gauge (LY11-0.6/120) with an active measuring grid length of 0.6 mm
has to be used though, the hysteresis increases, and with it the uncertainty of the strain or
stress measurement to 1%.

The Gauge Factor

Tolerance of the gauge factor

It is assumed that the measurement chain is exactly adjusted to the nominal value of the gauge
factor (as specified by the manufacturer on the strain gauge package). This factor describes
the correlation between the change in strain and the change in relative resistance. It has been
determined experimentally by the manufacturer. The uncertainty of the gauge factor is
generally 1%. The gauge factor is also specified on the package. It produces the same relative
degree of uncertainty in both strain and stress measurements.

Temperature coefficient (TC) of the gauge factor

The gauge factor is temperature-dependent. The sign and amount of the dependence are
determined by the measuring grid alloy. The fact that the TC of the gauge factor is itself
temperature-dependent can be ignored for purposes of ESA. The TC for a measuring grid
made of Constantan is about 0.01% per Kelvin. Thus, the gauge factor decreases by 0.1%
with a temperature increase of 10 K, which is generally negligible. If the measurements were
performed at 33 °C, the strain or stress values would deviate upward by just 0.1%.

Although at 120 °C, it would be 1%, which is worth considering.

Measuring Grid Length

As generally understood, a strain gauge integrates the strains under its active surface. If the
stress field under that surface is non-homogeneous, the relative change in resistance will not
correspond to the greatest local strain, but rather to the average strain under the active
measuring grid. This is fatal, because it is especially the greatest stresses that are of interest.
The measured values therefore deviate downward from the desired maximum values, leading
to negative deviations.

Since this phenomenon is well known, as are suitable countermeasures (short measuring grid),
major errors seldom occur in practical applications. Nevertheless, let’s take an example: The
measurement is applied to bending stress at the beginning of the beam. The strain gauge
acquires the average strain under its measuring grid (Fig. 8). The strains behave like stresses:

The maximum stress value that is actually wanted could easily be determined in this simple
case with a correction calculation. If this is not done, a deviation of the measurement result
from the maximum stress will be produced.

Its relative deviation is:

If a measuring grid with an active length of less than 2% of l2 is used in the example above,
the deviation drops to less than 1% of the measured value.

Ultimately the ratio of the maximum strain and the measured strain always depends on the
distribution of strain under the measuring grid. If this is known from a Finite Element
Calculation, the desired maximum value can be calculated from the arithmetic mean of the
stress.

Of course, deviations will occur if the strain gauge is positioned incorrectly. This can also be
largely avoided and it must be.
 Fig. 8:
Strain gauge for acquiring the greatest stress on the bending beam.

Fig. 9: Strain gauge installation in a harsh environment.

Linearity Deviations
Linearity deviation of the strain gauge

Strain gauges with suitable measuring grid materials (Constantan, Karma, Nichrome V,
Platinum-tungsten) exhibit excellent linearity. Although for large strains, appreciable
deviations can be demonstrated in Constantan measuring grids. The actual static characteristic
curve can be very adequately described (empirically) with a quadratic equation:

If the strains were determined with the relationship

there would be no linearity deviations at all. However, as the quadratic component is simply
neglected in practical applications, the resulting error should be indicated here. The relative
deviation of the determined strain value from the true value is as large as the strain itself:

For strains up to 1000 μm/m, the value of the relative strain deviation does not exceed 0.1%.
This is equivalent to 1 μm/m, which is negligible.

Linearity deviation only becomes appreciable at greater strains:

10,000 μm/m results in 1%

100,000 μm/m results in 10%

To a large extent, this is fortunately compensated for by the linearity deviation of the quarter
bridge circuit.

Linearity deviation of quarter bridge circuit

Small relative changes in resistance are commonly analyzed with a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
As noted above, only one strain gauge per measurement point is usually used in the ESA.
Thus, the other bridge resistances are strain-independent. The correct relationship for the
stress ratio in this case is:

Although the relationship is non-linear, linearity is assumed in practical measurement

applications (whether or not this is known) and the approximation equation
is used. The relative deviation resulting from this simplification can be calculated with eq.

A strain of 1000 μm/m (with k = 2) results in a change of 0.2% in the relative resistance.

The relative measurement error as determined with eq. 17 is -0.1%. This is equivalent to an
absolute deviation of -1 μm/m. The deviation from the true value is negligible.

Appreciable linearity deviations occur at greater strains however, as noted above:

10,000 μm/m results in a deviation of -1%,

100,000 μm/m results in a deviation of -9.1%.

When Constantan strain gauges are used (non-linearity similar in terms of magnitude, but
with the opposite sign), the two deviations largely cancel each other out and therefore do not
need to be considered any further.

Note however that no compensation is ever completely successful, especially given that the
gauge factor deviates somewhat from 2 and the actual static characteristic curve does not
exactly match the empirical eq. 12.

Summary of partial uncertainties

The individual uncertainties are difficult to correlate with each other. However, to the extent
they can be (material after-effects and strain gauge creep, linearity deviation of the strain
gauge and quarter bridge circuit), their effects cancel each other out to some extent.
Therefore, it is permissible to combine the individual uncertainties with root sum square. The
values in bold type above are used to achieve a result for the example.

The uncertainty of the strain measurement is just under 3%. The stress measurement reaches
almost 6% of the measured value.

That percentage multiplied by the measured value gives the deviation in μm/m or N/mm2.
The uncertainty of the modulus of elasticity is generally responsible for the largest amount of
error in non-zero-point related measurements in ESA. Additional uncertainties must be
considered for zero-point related measurements.
Series of articles: Measurement accuracy in
experimental stress analysis – part 4
Strain gauge technology has been improved over the course of decades to compensate for
errors. Yet there are still effects that have a negative impact on measurements. The objective
of this paper is to point out the numerous (and often avoidable) sources of errors when using
strain gauges in experimental stress analysis and to provide some help in estimating the
measurement uncertainty early on in the planning phase.

Estimating the measurement uncertainty for zero-point

related measurements
In these measurements, the zero point is important. These are typically long-term
measurements on buildings and fatigue tests on components. If the zero point changes during
measurement tasks of this type, the result is an additional measurement error. The
measurement uncertainties already discussed in the last part of this series must be added to the
ones noted in this section.

Thermal expansion of the DUT, temperature response of

the strain gauge
The material of the component has a coefficient of thermal expansion. The thermal expansion
will not be measured, as it is simply the result of temperature as an influence quantity. The
measuring grid also has a coefficient of thermal expansion as well as a temperature coefficient
of the specific electrical resistance. Since only strains induced by loading are of interest in
ESA, the strain gauges that are offered are adapted to the thermal expansion of specific
materials. However, all these temperature coefficients are themselves a function of the
temperature so this compensation will not be entirely successful. The remaining deviation ΔƐ
can be calculated with a polynomial. The coefficients of the polynomial are determined batch-
specifically and are specified by the manufacturer on the strain gauge package.

An example of a strain gauge (HBM type LY-6/120) can be found here.

The current should be inserted in °C (but without dimensions). Then the remaining deviation
(apparent strain) will be determined in μm/m. For a temperature of 30 °C, the resulting
apparent strain is -4.4 μm/m.

If the ambient temperature deviates significantly more from the reference temperature (20 °C)
or if the strain gauge is actually adjusted incorrectly, much greater deviations will occur.
These are systemic in nature and can be eliminated by calculations (online as well). On the
other hand, the equation already exhibits an uncertainty that increases by 0.3 μm/m per Kelvin
of temperature difference from 20 °C. At a temperature of 30 °C, the uncertainty of the
polynomial is 3 μm/m.

The only requirements for the correction calculation are to know the thermal expansion
coefficient of the material and the ambient temperature.
Self-heating
This refers to the increase in temperature resulting from converted electrical power in the
strain gauge. The heat output is determined as follows:

For a root mean square value of 5 V for the bridge excitation voltage and a 120 Ω strain gauge
the resulting heat output is 52 mW. A strain gauge with a measuring grid length of 6 mm
applied with a thin layer of adhesive on steel or aluminum is able to give off the heat
sufficiently to the measurement object. A small temperature difference will nevertheless arise
between the strain gauge and measurement object, which will lead to an apparent strain (see
above):

If the temperature of the adjusted strain gauge is just one Kelvin above the material
temperature, there is already an apparent strain of -11 μm/m (ferritic steel) or -23 μm/m
(aluminum). The measurement uncertainty can be roughly determined with a simple
experiment - the excitation voltage is connected while the load is not applied to the
component. In the temperature increase phase, the measured value will drift slightly (zero
drift). The greatest difference between measured values during this thermal compensating
process corresponds roughly to the maximum expected deviation.

Lower excitation voltages provide a remedy (1 V generates only 2 mW). Strain gauges with
higher resistances are also advantageous in this respect.

For components with poor heat conductance (plastics, etc.) and when very small strain
gauges are used, lowering the excitation voltage is indispensable. Caution is always advised
when working with rapidly changing temperatures. Compensation effects resulting from
adjusting the metal foil of the strain gauge to the material being examined have a time
constant.

Swelling of adhesive and measuring grid carrier

The main cause of this is the high mobility of water molecules and the hygroscopic properties
of the adhesives and carrier materials. The effect is a zero drift that is not clearly discernible
(or distinguishable from the material strains). It may take on considerable values. A strain is
measured which does not exist, at least in the component being examined. This parasitic strain
is only partially reversible, which is probably due to the sorption hysteresis. Unfortunately
there is no way to “grab a hair dryer” and drive out the water molecules. The speed at which
the measured value drifts depends on the measuring point protection and ambient conditions.
The time constant may be in the range of many hours. A high temperature and a high relative
humidity are especially critical. Unfortunately no concrete formulas or figures can be given
here.

Insulation resistance
Residue of flux material can also absorb water molecules. This appears in practical
applications as a “breathing display” which is often discernible in fluctuating measured values
due to a draft or similar cause. Experienced testers will recognize the warning and
meticulously clean all contact points. “Baking out” the residue is also possible in some
circumstances. However, all these countermeasures require that the moist parts are not already
enclosed under the protective cover of the measuring point, which they often are for good
reason. It has proven practical when the measuring point is prepared for covering, to heat it a
few degrees Kelvin compared to the prevailing ambient temperature, and then cover it
immediately. This will exclude the possibility of condensation forming later under the cover.
If the insulation resistances are too low, zero drift of measured values will occur. The
insulation resistances within the bridge circuit are extremely critical in this case. Faulty
electrical insulation of strain gauge contacts between each other is comparable to a resistance
shunt. It cannot be measured directly, but due to its nature, is similar in magnitude to the
insulation resistance. The correlation between the apparent strain and shunt is as follows:

This eq. shows that the effect is lower with high-resistance strain gauges. The following
measurement errors are determined for 120 Ω strain gauges (gauge factor = 2):

Under “normal” circumstances, insulation resistances greater than 50 MΩ can be achieved

and the deviations of less than 1.2 μm/m are negligible.

At 500 kΩ and with a measured value of 1000 μm/m. the zero error would already be -12%!
This shows clearly that a significant drop in insulation resistances could cause the measuring
point to fail. Strain gauge transducers have insulation resistances of several GΩ.

A high relative humidity with high temperature at the same time (such as saturated vapor) is
critical because it leads to a high water vapor pressure. The tiny water molecules push
forward and gradually overcome the measuring point protection. It is impossible to predict
without a test whether the measuring point will fail after just a few days or several years.

Fatigue
Signs of fatigue in the strain gauge measuring grid appear during dynamic loading of the
component that are expressed in a zero drift (apparent strain in the material). The greater the
alternating strain amplitude and the greater the number of load cycles, the greater the effect
(Fig. 10).

The installation and the arithmetic mean of the strain also affect the zero drift. If the average
is negative, the fatigue life improves. If the value is positive, it deteriorates. Practically no
zero drift may be expected for alternating strains with an amplitude up to 1000 μm/m. Greater
amplitudes are more critical. A zero error of 10 μm/m may be expected for:

1500 μm/m and approx. 2 mil. load cycles

2000 μm/m and approx. 100,000 load cycles
2500 μm/m and approx. 4000 load cycles
3000 μm/m and approx. 100 load cycles

Note that the test specimen also undergoes fatigue. If its resistance to alternating loads is
greater than that of the foil strain gauge, use of optical strain gauges should be considered
(fiber Bragg grating).

Fig. 10: Dependence of zero offset on strain amplitude and number of load cycles.
Strain gauge installed on concrete (solid structure support).

Summary of all partial uncertainties

While the deviations in part 3 of this series are multiplicative in effect and are indicated as a
percentage of the measured value, the deviations in this section have an additive effect. The
unit of measurement is μm/m and they are practically independent of the measured value. If
the relative deviation is calculated with eq.,

the value is comparable to those in part 3.

If the values in bold type above are combined using Pythagorean addition, the result is 16.01
μm/m. Since measurement uncertainties should not be rounded, the uncertainty for the zero
point is 17 μm/m. With a strain of 1000 μm/m, the deviation expressed as a percentage is
1.7%, which is certainly reasonable. It is clearly critical with small strains: 17 μm/m of
100 μm/m is already 17%.

Now the uncertainty of the zero point (1.7% or 17%) must still be added to the uncertainty
from part 3 (3% for the strain measurement).

The result of Pythagorean addition is:

4% with a measured value of 1000 μm/m,

18% with a measured value of 100 μm/m.
Usually the mechanical stress is the actual measured quantity so its uncertainty must be
estimated. The uncertainty of the stress measurement calculated in part 3 is 6%. Including the
uncertainty of the zero point (1.7% or 17%) with Pythagorean addition, the result is:

7% with a strain of 1000 μm/m,

19% with a strain of 100 μm/m.

Large relative measurement errors occur with zero-point related measurement tasks,
especially with small strains.

Installed Strain gauges

Strain gauge installed on a rail.

Strain gauge measurement points on FINO 1 research platform are prepared for underwater
use in the North Sea.

Strain gauge installed on composite

material (printed circuit board).
 Strain gauge installed on a steel
structure.

Strain gauge installed on the rotor head

of a helicopter.
The effect of the installer
It has been assumed so far that the installation of the strain gauge measurement point was well
planned and conscientiously executed. For this reason, only a few of the individual deviations
in the examples above exceeded the set range. Although it is unfortunately necessary to point
out that if the installation is performed very poorly, the measurement errors could assume
arbitrarily large values. Imagine for a moment that a very long strain gauge was used to try to
measure a notch stress, or that contact resistances to the strain gauge fluctuate by 0.24 Ω
(equivalent to a strain error of 1000 μm/m for a 120 Ω strain gauge).

Especially in zero-point related measurements over long periods of time, the importance of
measuring point protection cannot be overestimated. An excellent example is the 44 strain
gauge measuring points on the FINO 1 research platform (overall height 129 m) in the North
Sea (45 km North of Borkum Island). The strain gauges are located 5 to 25 m below the
surface of the ocean. Their task was to measure loading strains on the support frame of the
platform caused by pile drivers and by waves and wind. After two years in North Sea water,
42 measuring points were still fully functional.

Another gross error is if the strain gauge has only a partial internal connection with the
surface of the component being examined. Causes may include: poor cleaning or improper
handling of the application surface and superimposed adhesive. These causes must and can be
avoided. The rubber eraser test generally clarifies the situation. Although it may be possible to
dispense with measuring point protection for a short-term measurement (tensile test),
installation of strain gauges requires a conscientious approach and frequently a good measure
of experience. There is probably no other method of measurement in which the knowledge
and experience of the person performing the task play such an important role. This is why
companies and institutes are more and more frequently taking advantage of the possibility of
certifying their personnel according to VDI/VDE/GESA 2636 on various qualifying levels.
 Picture and drawing of the FINO 1
research platform, courtesy of GL Garrad Hassan.