EFFECTS OF CARBON DIOXIDE AND TEMPERATURE ON CROP YIELD:

CARBON DIOXIDE TEMPERATURE

Graph showing the Effect of Carbon Dioxide Graph showing the Effect of Temperature on
on Rate of Photosynthesis Rate of Photosynthesis
EXPLANATION: EXPLANATION

• Glasshouses are Enclosed so Allows • Glasshouses are Enclosed so Traps the

Carbon Dioxide Levels to be
Controlled
• Farmers will Burn Paraffin Lamps to •
Increase Carbon Dioxide Levels in
Glasshouses
• When Carbon Dioxide Levels • Increased Enzyme Activity will Allow Rate
Increases, it is No Longer the Limiting
Factor so Rate of Photosynthesis will •
Increase
• As Rate of Photosynthesis Increases,
there is More Energy for Growth,
Increasing Crop Yield of Plants
Heat from the Sun, creating a Warm
Climate
Increased Temperature will be Closer to
Optimum Temperature of Enzymes in
Plants, Increasing Enzyme Activity
of Photosynthesis to Increase
As Rate of Photosynthesis Increases,
there is More Energy for Growth,
Increasing Crop Yield of Plants

PEST CONTROL: Using Pesticides or Biological Control to Prevent Organisms such as

Insects from Eating or Damaging Plants

PESTICIDES: Chemicals used to Control Pests

 PESTICIDE FUNCTION
FUNGICIDES Kills Fungi
HERBICIDES Kills Herbs
INSECTICIDES Kills Insects

ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGES OF PESTICIDES:

sd

ADVANTAGE
Increases Efficiency as it is Quick
Immediate Effect
Kills Entire Population
DISADVANTAGE
Organisms can Develop Resistance
Non Specific Chemicals - Kills Other
Organisms
Bioaccumulation - Toxic to Food Chain
Continuously Apply

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL: Organisms used to Control Pests

ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGES OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL:

ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
Natural Method May Eat Other Organisms
No Resistance Takes a Long Period of Time to be
Effective
Can Target Specific Species Cannot Kill Entire Population
Long Lasting May Not Adapt to New Environment and
Die
YEAST IN THE PRODUCTION OF BEER:
 PRODUCTION OF BEER

Diagram showing the Process to Produce Beer

EQUATION FOR ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION (YEAST):

Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide

CH O
6 12 6 CH O
6 12 6 6CO2

EXPLANATION:

• Sugar From Plant Material is Converted into Ethanol and Carbon Dioxide by
Fermentation
• Yeast is Used as a Natural Catalyst to Respire Anaerobically to Produce Ethanol
and Carbon Dioxide at 37°C (Optimum Temperature for Enzymes in Yeast)
• Ethanol is Used as Alcohol in Beer and Carbon Dioxide is used for Fizz and
Froth
•

INVESTIGATING CARBON DIOXIDE PRODUCTION BY YEAST

Diagram showing Carbon Dioxide Production by Yeast
METHOD:

• Mix Yeast with Sugar Solution in a Boiling Tube with a Layer of Oil to
Prevent Oxygen from Entering (Prevents Aerobic Respiration)
• Connect this Boiling Tube with A Test Tube of Limewater using a
Capillary Tube and Enclose with a Bung
• Place Boiling Tube with Yeast and Sugar Solution into Water Bath at Set
Temperature and Count the Number of Bubbles Produced in Fixed Time
• Change Temperature of Water Bath and Repeat
• Compare Results at Different Temperatures

RESULTS:

• Higher the Temperature, the More Bubbles of Carbon Dioxide will be

Produced as Higher Temperatures will be Closer to Optimum
Temperature of Enzymes in Yeast, Increasing Enzyme Activity
• As Enzyme Activity Increases, Rate of Anaerobic Respiration will
Increase
• But if Temperature is Too High, Enzymes will Denature causing Carbon
Dioxide Production to Stop
INDUSTRIAL FERMENTER: Where Reactions using Microorganisms to Make a Range
of Food Products and Medicines, Enzymes and Fuels takes Place in a Controlled
Environment

Diagram:
SUITABLE CONDITIONS:

CONDITION EXPLANATION
ASEPTIC PRECAUTIONS Fermenter is Cleaned by Steam to Kill
Microorganisms and Prevent Chemical
Contamination, Only allowing Desired
Microorganisms to Grow
NUTRIENTS Nutrients are needed to be Used in
Respiration to Release Energy for
Growth, allowing Reactions to Take Place
OPTIMUM TEMPERATURE AND pH Optimum Temperature and pH is
Maintained using Probes to Ensure an
Optimum Environment for Enzymes to
Increase Enzyme Activity (Enzyme
Denatures if Temperature and pH is Too
High)
OXYGENATION Oxygen is Needed for Aerobic
Respiration to Take Place as Most
Reactions are Aerobic
AGITATION Stirring Paddles Ensures that the
Microorganisms, Nutrients, Oxygen,
Temperature and pH is Evenly Distributed
METHODS TO FARM LARGE NUMBERS OF FISH:
 METHOD
MAINTENANCE OF WATER QUALITY
CONTROL OF INTRASPECIFIC
PREDATION
CONTROL OF INTERSPECIFIC
PREDATION
CONTROL OF DISEASE
REMOVAL OF WASTE PRODUCTS
QUALITY AND FREQUENCY OF
FEEDING
USE OF SELECTIVE BREEDING
RESTRICTION ENZYME: Enzymes Used to Cut Out the Gene from an Organism
EXPLANATION
Water is Filtered to Remove Waste and
Harmful Bacteria to Prevent Diseases.
Water is also Cleaned to Maintain High
Levels of Oxygen for Aerobic Respiration
Intraspecific Predation: Competition
Within the Same Species
Fishes are Separated by Size and Age to
Prevent Competition (So they Do Not Eat
Each Other) using Nets
Interspecific Predation: Competition
Between Different Species
Different Species of Fishes are Separated
by Fences, Nets and Tanks
Antibiotics are Given to Fishes to
Increase Resistance to Diseases,
Increasing the Chances of Survival. They
are also Kept in Small Numbers to
Minimise the Spread of Diseases
Water can be Filtered to Remove Waste
Products such as Faeces and Sewage.
Fences, Nets and Tanks are Cleaned or
Location of Fish can be Changed to
Ensure Clean Water
Fishes are Fed Food that are Nutritious to
Ensure Growth. They are Fed Frequently
but in Small Amounts so they Do Not
Overeat or Start Eating Each other
Selective Breeding is Used by Farmers to
Only Allow Fishes with Desired
Characteristics to Reproduce and Pass
on Gene to Produce Fish that Grows as
Fast as Possible
 RESTRICTION ENZYME

Diagram Showing the Action of Sticky Ends

EXPLANATION:

• Restriction Enzymes Cut Across the Double Strands at Two Different Places,
the Place where they Cut Across the DNA is called the Sticky End
• Restriction Enzymes can be used to Cut Out Specific Genes and also Cut Open
Places in the Plasmid DNA of a Bacteria
• The Sticky Ends will Ensure that the Cut Out Gene (Target Gene) is Able to Fit
Exactly in the Plasmid DNA of a Bacteria

LIGASE ENZYME: Enzymes Used to Stick the Gene into the DNA of another Organism

LIGASE ENZYME

Diagram Showing the Action of Ligase Enzymes

EXPLANATION:
• Ligase is a DNA - Joining Enzyme
• If Two Pieces of DNA have Matching Ends (Sticky Ends from Restriction
Enzymes), Ligase will Link them to Form a Single, Unbroken Molecule of DNA
• This Allows the Cut Out Gene (Target Gene) to be Inserted and Joined into the
Plasmid DNA of a Bacteria
RECOMBINANT DNA: DNA that is Artificially Formed by Combining Sections of DNA
from Different Organisms

VECTOR: Vehicles that Carry Recombinant DNA and Inserts them into Other Cells

VECTORS

Diagram Showing the Two Different Types of Vectors

PLASMIDS:

• Ligase Enzyme Allows the Cut Out Gene (Target Gene) to be Inserted and
Joined into the Plasmid DNA of a Bacteria, Forming a Recombinant DNA
• Recombinant DNA is Inserted into a Bacterial Cell
• Plasmids will Transfer Recombinant DNA to Other Bacteria when it Reproduces
by Binary Fusion

VIRUS:
• Ligase Enzyme Allows the Cut Out Gene (Target Gene) to be Inserted and
Joined into the Plasmid DNA of a Bacteria, Forming a Recombinant DNA
• Recombinant DNA is Inserted into a Virus
• Viruses will Carry Recombinant DNA and Infect Organisms that it Comes into
Contact with, Inserting Recombinant DNA into Cell
•
 INSULIN: Lowers Blood Glucose Levels by Turning Glucose in the Blood to Glycogen
(insoluble) To be Stored in Muscles and the Liver

HOW INSULIN IS MANUFACTURED

MANUFACTURE OF INSULIN

Diagram Showing the Manufacture of Insulin

EXPLANATION:

• Restriction Enzyme is Used to Cut Out Insulin Gene (Gene for Making Insulin)
from Human DNA
• Restriction Enzyme is Used to Cut Open Plasmid DNA of Bacteria
• Insulin Gene is Inserted into Plasmid DNA of Bacteria and is Joined Together
using Ligase Enzyme
• Insulin Gene is Now Recombinant and Inserted into a Bacterial Cell (Vector)
• Transgenic Bacteria is Complete (Contains Genes from Different Species) and
is Grown in a Fermenter to Reproduce and Duplicate

USES OF MANUFACTURED INSULIN:

• Helps those who has Diabetes as their Body Does Not Produce Enough Insulin
but has High Blood Glucose Levels, so Not All Glucose is Reabsorbed
• Insulin can be Injected will Help Lower Blood Glucose Levels by Converting
Glucose into Glycogen (Insoluble) which is Stored in the Muscles and the Liver
GENETICALLY MODIFIED PLANTS: Plants which have had DNA from a Different
Species or a Different Individual Inserted into their Genome

POTENTIAL FOR USING GENETICALLY MODIFIED PLANTS

ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
Can be Genetically Modified to get Not Scientifically Proven to be Safe for
Desired Characteristics, E.g Rich in Human Consumption
Vitamins and Nutrients
Increases Chances of Survival - May cause Unexpected Allergies
Resistant to Pests and Diseases
Greater Yield - Large Number of Plants Irreversible
can be produced
Any Time of the Year - Can be Natural Food Chain Disrupted
Genetically Modified for Specific
Environment
MICROPROPAGATION: A Process in Which Very Small Pieces of Plants (Tissue
Culture) are Grown in Vitro using Nutrient Media

Picture:
 Example of How Micropropagation is Used to Grow Large Quantities of Plants

PROCESS OF MICROPROPAGATION:

MICROPROPAGATION

Diagram Showing the Process of Micropropagation

PROCESS:

• Sterilise Petri Dish

• Scalpel is Used to Cut Out Explant of Plant with Desired Characteristic
• Use Tweezers to Transfer Explant into Agar
• Auxins and Nutrients are Added as a Growth Medium
• Provide Light and Water for Energy for Growth
• Roots will Grow and Plants will Grow, Allowing the Production of Commercial
Quantities of identical Plants with Desirable Characteristics

CLONE: Offspring Produced by Asexual Reproduction which are Identical to their

Parent Organism

PROCESS OF CLONING MAMMALS:

DOLLY THE SHEEP - 1996

 Diagram Showing the Clone of Dolly the Sheep
PROCESS:

• Diploid Nucleus Extracted from an Udder Cell of a Mature Sheep

• Enucleated Egg Cell (Nucleus Removed from Egg Cell) Extracted from Another
Mature Sheep
• Diploid Nucleus is Inserted and Fused into Enucleated Egg Cell
• Egg Cell Given an Electric Shock, Starts Cell Dividing by Mitosis
• Develops into an Early Embryo and is Implanted into the Uterus of a Surrogate

RESULT:

• Clone was Identical to the Sheep that the Diploid Nucleus was Taken From
(Udder Cell)
• Dolly the Sheep Died in 2003 without a Scientifically Proven Reason
•

CLONED TRANSGENIC ANIMALS: Offspring Produced by Asexual Reproduction

which are Identical to their Transgenic Parent, Containing Genes from Different Species

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CLONED TRANSGENIC ANIMALS:

ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
Clones will Produce Identical Difficult (Cloning Animals is a Long and
Offspring Difficult Process)
Fast (Clones are Faster to Produce) Vulnerable to Change in Conditions (Can
Only Exploit Suitable Environment)
Large Number of Clones (More Decreases Variation as Offsprings are
Produced) Clones
Genetic Modification to Small Disease can Affect Whole Population as
Population of Animals will be Passed Clones are Identical (No Variation)
on to Rest of Population
Produce Protein that is Needed to
Treat Human Diseases E.g, Human
Antibodies
Develop Organs that can be Used in
Organ Transplants that will Not be
Rejected by the Human Immune
System