Respondent Vs Operant Conditioning; Positive and Conditioned reinforcement

Chapter 3:
 Behavioural principle and procedures are essentially ways of manipulating stimuli in
order to influence behaviour.
 Principles are procedures that have a consistent effect and are so simple that they cannot
be broken down into simpler procedures while behavioral procedures are combo of
behavioural principles.
 Respondent behaviours are influenced by respondent conditioning which is based on
unconditioned reflexes. Unconditioned reflexes are “hard wired” or inborn.
 A stimulus that elicits a response without prior learning or conditioning is called an
unconditioned stimulus while a response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus is called
an unconditioned response.
 The principle of respondent conditioning states that if neutral stimuli (NS) is followed
by closely in tome by a US (food in mouth), then the previous NS will also tend to elicit
the response of salivation in the future.
 Conditioned reflex is a stimuli-response relationship in which a stimulus elicits a
response because of prior respondent conditioning. Stimulus in a conditioned reflex is
called conditioned stimulus.
 CS is defined as a stimulus that elicits a response because the stimulus has been paired
with another stimulus that elicits a response because the stimulus has been paired with
another stimulus that elicits that response
 The response in a conditioned reflex is called conditioned response which is defined as a
response elicited by a conditioned stimulus.
 Factors that influence respondent conditioning
o Greater no. of pairings of a CS with a US, the greater is the ability of the CS to
elicit the CR, until a max strength of conditioned reflex has been reached. If a
child was frightened several times by seeing a loudly barking dog, the sight of the
dog will elicit a stronger fear than if the child had been scared by seeing a loudly
barking dog only once.
o Stronger conditioning occurs if the CS precedes the US by about half a second
rather than by a longer time or rather than following the US. If a child sees a dog
and the dog immediately barks loudly, the sight of the dog is likely to become a
CS with fear as a CR for the child. If, however, the child hears the loud barking of
a dog hidden from view and a few seconds later sees a dog trot around the corner
of a building, the fear caused by the loud barking is not likely to be conditioned to
the sight of the dog.
o A CS acquires greater ability to elicit a CR if the CS is always paired with the US
than if it is only occasionally paired with the US. If a couple consistently lights a
candle in the bedroom just before having sex and not at other times, then the
candlelight is likely to become a CS eliciting sexual arousal. If they light a candle
in the bedroom every night but have sex there only one or two nights each week,
then the candlelight will be a weaker CS for sexual arousal.
o When several neutral stimuli precede a US, the stimulus that is most consistently
associated with US is the one most likely to become a strong CS. A child may
experience thunderstorms in which dark clouds and lightning are followed by
 loud claps of thunder, which cause fear. On other occasions, the child sees dark
clouds but there is no lightning and no thunder. The child will acquire a stronger
fear of lightning than of the dark clouds because lightning is paired with thunder
but dark clouds alone are not.
o Respondent conditioning will develop more quickly and strongly when the CS or
US or both are intense rather than weak. A child will acquire a stronger fear of
lightning if the lightning is exceptionally bright and the thunder is exceptionally
loud than if either or both are relatively weak.
 The procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being
paired with another conditioned stimulus, instead of with an unconditioned stimulus, is
known as higher-order conditioning.
 The salivation reflex is only one of the digestive reflexes that are susceptible to
Pavlovian conditioning. Increased heart rate and blood flow are involved in many
conditioned reflexes.
 Biological preparedness refers to the predisposition of members of a species to
be more readily conditioned to some neutral stimuli as CSs than to others. As an
example of biological preparedness, humans will more quickly learn fears to
stimuli, such as snakes and insects, that posed a threat to our survival than to
stimuli, such as pictures of flowers, that were nonthreatening in our distant
ancestors’ history (Ohman, Dimberg, & Ost, 1984).
 Conditioned taste aversion is another example of biological preparedness.
Having evolved the strong tendency for taste to be conditioned to nausea greatly
decreases the chances that one will repeatedly consume food that causes illness
and perhaps death.
 Extinction: The principle of respondent extinction involves the procedure of
presenting a CS while withholding the US, with the result that the CS gradually
loses its capability of eliciting the CR. Respondent extinction is the reason that
higher-order conditioning is difficult to obtain beyond the second order.
 A conditioned response may be eliminated more effectively if a new response is
conditioned to the conditioned stimulus at the same time that the former
conditioned response is being extinguished. This process is called
counterconditioning.
 Respondent stimulus generalization occurs when an organism has been
conditioned so that a particular CS elicits a CR, and then a similar stimulus elicits
that CR.
 Respondent stimulus discrimination—a stimulus functions as a CS to elicit a
CR because that stimulus has been paired with a US that elicits that CR, but a
similar stimulus does not function as a CS for that CR because the second stimulus
has been paired with extinction trials.
 The process of pairing something unpleasant (such as nausea) with an undesirable
behavior (such as alcohol drinking for someone with alcoholism), with the goal of
decreasing the undesirable behavior, is referred to as aversion therapy. Not
commonly used due to higher drop out rates.
 Behavior that is influenced by its consequences is referred to as operant
 behavior—behavior that affects or “operates on” the environment to produce
consequences, and which is, in turn, influenced by those consequences.
 Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is modified by its
consequences.
Chapter 4:

 A positive reinforcer is an event that, when presented immediately following

a behavior, causes the behavior to increase in frequency.
 Positive reinforcement states that if someone in a given situation does
something that is followed immediately by a positive reinforcer, then that
person is more likely to do the same thing the next time he or she encounters a
similar situation.
 Behaviors that operate on the environment to generate consequences and are in
turn influenced by those consequences are called operant behaviors
 The removal of an event following a response may also increase that response,
but this is not positive reinforcement.
 The principle of negative reinforcement (also known as escape
conditioning), which states that the removal of certain stimuli immediately
after the occurrence of a response will increase the likelihood of that response.
 They are different as indicated by the words positive and negative in that posi-
tive reinforcement increases a response because of the presentation of a
positive stimulus, whereas negative reinforcement increases a response by the
removal or taking away of a negative (or aversive) stimulus.
 Factors influencing the effectiveness of positive reinforcement:
o Selecting the behavior to be increased: By being specific, you (a) help to
ensure the reliability of detecting instances of the behavior and changes
in its frequency, which is the measure by which one judges reinforcer
effectiveness; and (b) increase the likelihood that the reinforcement
program will be applied consistently.
o Choosing Reinforcers: Most positive reinforcers can be classified under
five somewhat overlapping headings: consumable, activity,
manipulative, possessional, and social. Consumable reinforcers are
items that one can eat or drink (i.e., consume), such as candy, cookies,
fruit, and soft drinks. Examples of activity reinforcers are the
opportunities to watch television, look at a picture book, or even stare
out of a window. Manipulative reinforcers include the opportunities to
play with a favorite toy, color or paint, ride a bicycle, surf the Internet,
or tinker with a tape recorder. Possessional reinforcers are the
opportunities to sit in one’s favorite chair, wear a favorite shirt or dress,
have a private room, or enjoy some other item that one can possess (at
least temporarily). Social reinforcement includes affectionate pats and
hugs, praise, nods, smiles, and even a simple glance or other indication
 of social attention. Attention from others is a very strong reinforcer for
almost everyone (see Figure 4.1). In choosing effective rein- forcers for
an individual, you might find one of the following strategies to be
helpful. (For additional discussion of identifying reinforcers, see Piazza,
Roane, & Karsten, 2011.)
o Premack principle: which states that if the opportunity to engage in a
behavior that has a high probability of occur- ring is made contingent on
a behavior that has a low probability of occurring, then the behavior that
has a low probability of occurring will increase. Example giving access
to cell phone increases the frequency of studying
o Motivating Operations: In general, the longer the deprivation period,
the more effective the reinforcer will be. Deprivation to indicate the
time during which an individual does not experience the reinforcer. The
term satiation refers to that condition in which the individual has
experienced the reinforcer to such an extent that it is no longer
reinforcing.
 Events or conditions—such as deprivation and satiation—that (a)
temporarily alter the effectiveness of a reinforcer, and (b) alter
the frequency of behavior reinforced by that reinforcer, are called
motivating operations (MOs)
o Reinforcer’s size
o Make use of rules: Specific instructions will speed up the learning
process for individuals who understand them.
 Instructions may influence an individual to work for delayed
reinforcement. Getting an A in the course for which you are
using this book, for example, is delayed several months from the
beginning of the course. Daily rehearsing of the rule, “If I learn
the answers to the questions at the end of each chapter, I’ll likely
get an A,” may exert some influence over your study behavior.
 Adding instructions to reinforcement programs may help to teach
individuals (such as very young children or persons with
developmental disabilities) to learn to follow instructions.
o Reinforcer Immediacy
o Contingent Vs Non-contingent: We say that a reinforcer is contingent
when a specific behavior must occur before that reinforcer will be
presented. Ex: Giving free play after the practice. We say that a
reinforcer is non-contingent if that reinforcer is presented at a
particular time regardless of the preceding behavior. Ex: Practicing
without stopping within the time limit and then get the reinforce.
 A setting in which an individual carries out normal, everyday functions (i.e.,
not a situa- tion explicitly designed for training) is referred to as the natural
environment. Reinforcers that follow behavior in the course of everyday
living (i.e., that occur in the natural environment), are called natural
 reinforcers. Reinforcers that are arranged systematically by psychologists,
teachers, and others in behav- ior modification programs are referred to as
arbitrary, contrived, or programmed reinforcers.

Chapter 5:

 Unconditioned reinforcers: which are stimuli that are reinforcing without prior
learning or conditioning. (They are also called primary or unlearned reinforcers.)
Examples include food for a hungry person, water for a thirsty person, warmth for
someone who is cold, and sexual contact for someone who has been deprived of
such contact.
 Conditioned reinforcers, are stimuli that were not originally reinforcing but have
become reinforcers by being paired or associated with other reinforcers. (They are
also called secondary or learned reinforcers.) Examples of conditioned reinforcers
include praise, a picture of a loved one, books that we like to read, our favorite
television programs, and clothes that make us look good. Most of the reinforcers
that influence us on a daily basis are conditioned reinforcers.
 When a stimulus becomes a conditioned reinforcer through deliberate association
with other rein- forcers, the other reinforcers are called backup reinforcers.
 Tokens are conditioned reinforcers that can be accumulated and exchanged for
backup reinforcers.
 A behavior modification program in which individuals can earn tokens for specific
behaviors and can cash in their tokens for backup reinforcers is called a token
economy or a token system.
 No!” and “Stop that!” are examples of stimuli that become conditioned punishers
because they are often followed by punishment if the individual continues to
engage in the behavior that provoked them.
 A conditioned reinforcer that is paired with a single backup reinforcer is called a
simple conditioned reinforcer
 In contrast, a stimulus that is paired with more than one kind of backup reinforcer
is referred to as a generalized conditioned reinforcer.
 Factors influencing the effectiveness of conditioned reinforcers:
o Strength of Backup reinforcers: For example, because Facebook was a strong
backup reinforcer for Erin, the points functioned as effective conditioned
reinforcers.
o Variety of Backup reinforcers: Money is a powerful generalized reinforcer for
us because of its pairings with many backup reinforcers such as food,
clothing, shelter, transportation, entertain- ment, and other reinforcers (see
Figure 5.1). This factor is related to the preceding one in that, if many
different backup reinforcers are available, then at any given time, at least
one of them will probably be strong enough to maintain the conditioned
reinforcer at a high reinforcing strength for the individual in the program.
o No. of pairings with a backup reinforcer: For example, the expression “good
girl” or “good boy” spoken to a very young child immediately following a
desirable behavior is likely to be a stronger conditioned reinforcer if that
expression has been paired with a hug from a parent many times as opposed
to having been paired with a hug from a parent just once (assuming that
other backup reinforcers were not involved).
o Loss of Value of a conditioned reinforce: In the example of the token program
described previously, in which the children could earn stamped happy faces
from their teacher, if the teacher discontinued the backup reinforcers, the
children may have eventually stopped engaging in the behavior for which
they received the stamped happy faces.