Colour in the Fishes Eye

by Max Garth

"Fishes are the evolutionary solution to a number of mechanical, aural, optical, structural,
electrical and other engineering problems relating to the environment in which they exist.
They are complex organisms, or animals, and their sensory systems have evolved to
provide the necessary functions to make the whole fish a viable entity in the watery
environment".

Fundamentally and simply, light is a band of electromagnetic radiation to which the eye,
whether it is human or some other species, is sensitive. This band of frequencies is called
the "visible spectrum". The exact definition of light has been in dispute for many centuries
with Newton, Fresnel, Foucault, and Maxwell offering different theories. Einstein put
forward the "quantum theory" and regarded light as consisting of energy quanta called
photons. Then of course we have Mr Bohr's idea that both electromagnetic wave and
quantum theory, wave-particle duality, are needed to explain the phenomena of light. This
should rightly apply to "ALL" Radio Frequency energy, not only light because light
wavelengths, 600 to 400nm, are RF energy, a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

How we see
But regardless of all of the woffle about light, Einstein and whoever; light is what we see,
and some animals, even fishes, do not see it as we do. Like they may not, do not, see
colour. But, again, the fact that we have eyes sensitive to those radio frequencies that make
up the so-called visible spectrum means that light exists, for us, or anything with eyes.
Without our eyes to see it, and our brain to sort out the neurological signals, it would not
be there, or we would not see it, and, to us, it would not exist. Very probably, neither
would we but that is irrelevant to the argument.
It is a matter of "our world", that bit that affects us. Each of us sees the world, or our bit of
it, differently. That is because each of us looks at it from a different angle, and place, and
gets a different view. There is no other person on the planet with the view that you, or I,
have. Simply because there is only one body in that particular place at that particular time.
And what we do see is light photons reflected from all of the objects in our view. Each
object is illuminated by the light photons transmitted from the source, and depending on
the colour of the object, those photons are either absorbed or reflected, or retransmitted,
until they arrive at the rods and cones in our eye. That electromagnetic radiation, those
light photons, gives us that view. Because our eye recognises that it is there, counts the
number arriving and passes the result to our brain, via the optic nerve. The calculations on
what colours are there, are done in the brain, and we “see” the result.

The interpreter
Therefore vision is a matter for the brain, of humans and all of the other animals on this
rock; and the lower the order of animal quite obviously the lower the order of vision: ie,
the simpler the visual system the lower the resolution. If light is there we see it, and
because it has a finite velocity, 300,000 metres/second, some time AFTER it was
transmitted from the source. But until it arrives there is dark. Dark only occurs with the
cessation of light and light causes the cessation of dark. Confused. Well rest easy, because
it is obvious that we have to have dark, but dark isn't anything but no light or low light
illumination, and your eyes are configured to see low light levels. Quite brilliant things
eyes, and of course brains.
All of which means that light is only there because you have eyes designed to detect those
little light photons, or whatever light is, and pass the messages along to your brain. It sorts
out that neurological information and your head says, as was attributed to some other
being, "let there be light, or is it sight, or both or …???"; and lo and of course behold, there
is.
Of course that is purely anecdotal evidence. Nothing scientific there because as the man
said, "it can be easily seen to be".

Colours
Colour vision is our visual systems sensitivity to light photons in the band of
electromagnetic frequencies called the visible spectrum. It goes from red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo to violet. We do not see infrared or ultra violet but some of the fishes
may see infrared and one species at least, the blue, or slimy, mackerel, does see ultra
violet. The low frequencies, red light, have the longest wavelengths and the high
frequencies, violet, have short wavelengths.
The retinal elements associated with colour vision, the cones, are colour sensitive, they
have a drop of coloured pigment on the tip, and count the photons they capture and the
brain sorts out the result. Colour is not in the eye but the brain. The fish may be
trichromatic, and have three colour pigments or dichromatic and have two colour pigments.
The retina of those fishes which can see colours will have the cones arranged in a matrix.
This might be a blue sensitive cone surrounded by green and orange/yellow sensitive
cones. Or it might be made up of only two colour sensitive cones, blue and green; in which
case it will be a blue sensitive cone surrounded by green sensitive cones.
We and the fishes have an adaptive eye that is sensitive to the illumination level. If the
light level is low or photon limited, there is no colour vision. The brightness of the colour
or brilliance depends on the illumination. If the illumination is high the colour is light and
bright. If it is low the colour is dark. We and the fishes need at least two colour sensors
before the brain can discriminate colour hue or difference.

Shades of grey
The other elements in the eye, the rods are for grey scale vision and merely count photons
regardless of colour. They only provide information on the brightness of objects. In other
words the lighter and brighter the colour the greater the number of photons reflected and
counted. Conversely the darker the colour the less the numbers of photons reflected and
counted. Of course this will vary depending on the spectral illumination.
In Humans the retina contains both rods and cones and to allow for changing illumination
and the need to see in both colour and grey scale the rods, the most sensitive, each has a
drop of Visual Purple, or Rhodopsin, on the tip. In bright illumination this bleaches de-
sensitising the rod and protecting it from the bright light. As the illumination degrades the
visual purple is re-generated by vitamin A and allows the rod to detect very low-level light
photons. The lack of vitamin A in the body can lead to "night blindness" or a low level of
grey scale vision.
In fishes eyes the rods are physically retractable. And when light levels are high the rods
are retracted into the back of the retina and covered with a black melanin layer. When light
levels fall and the cone sensitivity degrades the rods move upwards to lie alongside the
cones to provide grey scale vision.

Enhanced brightness
Some fishes have a Tapetum lucidum, a reflective eye, similar to nocturnal animals. The
Tapetum is a layer of reflective crystals or some other reflective system on the retina to
reflect light which has already passed the rods, back for a second chance at detection.
There is a very slight delay in this system and the sight is very slightly blurred. But it is
very sensitive. The Tapetum can be fixed, Choroidal, for fishes without colour vision or
Retinal, retractive with the rods so that it only operates in photon-limited conditions.
Fishes with Tapetum lucidum include barramundi, tragelin and mulloway. The fact that
these species have a reflective eye creates problems when fish are removed from photon
limited water conditions and/or flashed with cameras. They can be heavily light shocked
and become disoriented which does not help their survival on release in crocodile infested
waterways.
Humans, who are only one species, and who can see all of the colours of the spectrum have
a trichromatic visual system. They have blue, green and yellow/orange sensitive cones in
their eyes. Generally, at least as far as is known, a lot of the 25,000 species of fish do not
have a red sensitive cone in their eye. These fishes are dichromatic while some, the deep-
water species, are monochromatic.

Water is a colour filter

To understand the view of these fishes, one has to firstly understand that water is a colour
filter, depending on the particle content and it will effect the transmission of colours. The
colour of the water, as seen by our eyes, blue, green or dirty is an indicator on the particle
content and the light transmission. Secondly water is about 800 times denser than our
atmosphere and light photons are scattered and absorbed by their interaction with water
molecules and suspended particles. Thirdly a fish has evolved to fit into a particular niche
in the underwater environment. Its visual system will match that niche exactly. It will have
colour vision, even three colour vision, if it needs it. If it doesn't it will not.
The view one has of objects underwater is only light photons passing through the surface
illuminating and being reflected by the object we are looking at. Those photons are
scattered and absorbed which reduces the number striking the sensitive cones in the
viewing eye. This reduces the intensity of the image, adds a misty light from scattered
photons from other sources and generally distorts the view. The longer the viewing path
the greater the effect. The deeper in the water and the further away the harder it is to see,
for us, as well as the fish.

From pink to blue to grey

I guess people understand that pink is bright violet, but as we see it, as do the fishes, it
ends up as basically blue and red. If the fish doesn't see red, that pink, bright violet, turns
into bright blue which the fish sees as a very light shade of grey. Make it fluorescent and it
is still the same. The fish only sees the blue photons so it cannot really discriminate it as
anything else but a bright, light shape. I know that because I looked at a pink flower
through a blue filter. You should try that.
This pink into blue underwater is what makes Rod Harrison's Bionic Braid Salt Water Fly
backing line practically invisible to the pelagic fishes, most of which are blue/green
dichromats, yet it is brightly visible to the angler. The line is extremely bright, high
luminosity, and as far as the fish is concerned is very light grey which melds into the
underwater "space light" conditions.

Contrast or colour?
If the colour is dark, which absorbs a lot of the available light photons, the fish sees it as a
black hole in the visual field. Dark colours like black, deep blue, deep green provide
contrast but no colour. Flashy Profile Flies, dark reflective colours, reds/blues/greens are,
to a dichromatic fish, like tuna, mackerel, marlin with blue/green visual system, a blob of
contrast with internal flash. Not that it's a problem but it works, because the dichromatic
fish doesn't see those dark colours as anything but contrast. Of course that's how it sees
small forage fish anyway.
Any colour, no matter what, seen against the water surface is black to the fish. The
background is intensely bright light from overhead and obviously the object is casting a
shadow, is not illuminated from underneath to any degree, and appears as black. Mind you
contrast is what most pelagic fish look for, because most feed from deep in the water
column and hence their visual systems dictate that feeding method.
One should realise that what you see is the result of a trichromatic visual system, which
can discriminate all of the colours and hues, as well as subtle colour differences. The fishes
may not be able to do that, and the fact that you can, quite simply does not mean they can.
On the other hand the ocean, or any other body of water, is, depending on the particle
content, a colour filter. The colour of the water, as it appears to you, looking at it from the
shore, is indicative of the colour filter active at that time. If the water is clear blue, the
water has very little particle content and represents a blue filter. Most of the other colours
are attenuated at shallow depths. If the water appears green, it is a green filter and the
predominant colour in that water is green. If it is brown the water is a red/orange colour
filter and the predominant colours are red/orange. In very thin mud, the filter is red or even
infra/red.

Light and depth

The spectral illumination, that is the light level, depends on the water colour, because it
denotes the particle contend and the depth of photon penetration. The darker the colour the
less the illumination. And, the lower the illumination level, the darker colours appear both
to you and to the fish, and objects lose their shape and form. In clear blue water an object
might be visible for 100 metres. In green water that same object might disappear at 50
metres and in brown water at 5 metres. In blue water light penetration exceeds 400 metres,
in green water, 150 metres, in brown water, maybe 1.5 metres.
Visual distance depends of the amount of particle content because it determines the level of
light photon scattering and absorption between the viewing fish, or person and the object
itself. The object fades and loses its shape and eventually disappears into the space light,
that background colour of the water.
One of the effects relating to surface conditions is grating light. As the light photons
penetrate the surface and enter the water, the penetration angle is dependant of the water
surface conditions at the time. Therefore the light passes into the water surface in beams
and these beams can illuminate objects, and fish with distinct bars. Some fishes are barred
in colour and if they are swimming near the surface the bars, melding with the light beams,
allow the body shape to become indistinct. If the fish is at depth the bars tend to cause it to
flash as the light beams vary in relation to the surface conditions.
It would probably be remiss for me to say that what you see, of lures, is what you get but
what the fishes see of some lures is a difficult question to answer. White and black barred
lures work like dreams under the surface but not so well right on the surface. This is
because of grating light effects. Deep running lures should be shiny white and easy on the
eyes. With synthetic materials the best are the flashy white ones, silver and in dirty water
gold. Or straight out flashy-black materials such as Crystal Flash or Flashabou are the most
visible and fit the oceanic system better than others.
It is important to understand that you are encased in the light from the sun, passing though
the atmosphere and falling on the land and the surface of the sea. When you look up at the
sky, on a clear day the sky, or rather the atmosphere is blue, and that indicates that our
atmosphere is, like oceanic water, a blue filter. The light that falls on the ocean is filtered
by the Ozone layer and the atmosphere over many kilometres, filtering and attenuating the
various light wavelengths until the predominant colour is blue.
The atmosphere also collects and holds water vapour in the form of clouds, which are
really just water droplets which refract the coloured photons, like little prisms, and produce
white light. So the clouds are white. Often the water droplets are large, and absorb the light
photons and the greater the absorption the darker the colour, ie storm and rain clouds. The
darker the clouds the greater the light attenuation and the lesser the amount of light which
falls onto the ocean surface. But looking down on the clouds, regardless of the type, the
colour is white.

The Atmosphere
Those things that affect you, the night/day cycle, the seasonal changes, the variations in the
weather conditions, winds, storms, rain whatever, all affect the passage of light into the
oceans, rivers and lakes. The fish, their vision and their day to day activities are affected by
the same things that affect us.
In the rivers there are variations relating to bank vegetation, which is varied by sun angle,
seasonal growth, wind movement etc. If you understand that, and can modify your fishing
to accommodate these changes you are more than halfway there.
Light is modified as it passes through the atmosphere depending on latitude, time of day or
sun angle, and cloud cover all of which produce large variations in the amount of light that
falls on the surface of the sea. Rain causes surface distortion and wind causes surface
waves which move in relation to the direction and force of the wind.
These things also affect our visual distance but, in reality, the only thing that drastically
reduces visual distance for humans is thick fog or smoke, which puts a heavy particle
content into the atmosphere.
Light penetration
High level surface activity, strong swells and breaking waves introduce great amounts of
bubbles near the surface, which further decrease the amount of light transmission into the
water, as well as creating very strong grating light. All of these things effect the
transmission of light from the atmosphere into the water column.
There will be surface reflection which will vary from 2% for vertical incident light, noon,
to 100% for light striking the surface at the critical angle for a smooth surface, i.e. sunset
and dawn, and will also be effected by surface conditions and irregularities.
As well as these effects the light varies with the seasons, as the sun angle moves from the
north to the south over time. This varies the transmission angle and the spectral
illumination. The effects of illumination change due to seasonal effects is also affected by
the location, ie the actual latitude and longitude of the specific locations.

Snell's Window
Directly above the fish, as it looks up and swims around in that area close to the surface, is
a bright spot of light called Snell's window. This spot covers an area, a cone, of about 97
degrees, relative to the fishes eye.
It is a result of the refraction of light passing through the water surface. If varies in size,
brightness and shape depending on the depth of the fish in the water column, light intensity
and the position of the sun and is visible not only to fishes but also to divers looking up at
the water surface.
The edges of Snell's window are clearly defined and outside the area of the window the
surface appears to be a mirror. Photons arriving from deeper water at angles greater than
48.5 degrees are totally reflected back into the water column creating a mirror effect.
Any object, regardless of its colour, a lure, a small fish whatever, which is on the surface in
the bright Snell's Window light, will appear to a viewing fish looking up, as dark, or high
contrast. Basically a body illuminated from above and viewed from underneath will appear
dark, or black.
The underside of lures, or fishes, is not illuminated by light from above, it is in shadow and
is viewed against that very bright circle of light. That makes it appear black.
This is what causes baitfish to hide under boats. The boat represents a very large black
blob, and the bait fish a smaller black blob. A small blob under a large blob means the
small blob can actually disappear. It is also the reason for baitfish balling up, they present a
large dark blob to pelagic predators, such as Tuna, mahimahi, marlins and mackerels,
which are blue/green dichromats, and red colour limited. There are no individuals just a
large black blob, which may itself, disappear inside a bigger black blob presented by a boat
hull.

Banded light
Light passing through the surface appears to be transmitted in beams, some lighter and
some darker and this can cause objects to appear banded. This is modified by sea state
because wave action causes a flicker effect underwater. Surface waves focus sunlight at
different depths and causes illuminated objects to flicker. The rate depends on wave height
and frequency. These grating effects are very visible underwater and become obvious
when one observes underwater film footage and the effect is well known to divers and
underwater photographers.
Added to this is the fact that the refractive index of air is one, and the refractive index or
water is 1.6, and the sea water is 800 times denser than air. The variation in refractive
index means that while fishes see things in the correct perspective, since their eye has a
refractive index of 1.6, humans, with an eye refractive index of 1.0, in the water, see
objects as 30% larger.
At the same time, fishes, refractive index 1.6, looking out through that bright Snell's
Window hole into the atmosphere, with a refractive index of 1.0 see the reverse effect. If
they see anything at all, because what they do see is moderated by the surface conditions,
and the outside hemisphere, of 176 degrees is condensed into the small circle on the
surface. The only time the fishes vision could be as clear as a bell, is if the sea surface was
as flat as a large pane of glass. This is not an every day situation.
Common sense tells us that if the water surface, fresh or salt water, is ruffled or disturbed
by wind, rain or waves the picture would not be clear or coherent.
During the time of full daylight through twilight and sunset the brightness of light changes
by a factor of one million, and through the period from sunset to dark, light is further
reduced by a factor of one hundred. This effect is also apparent in the ocean.

Water purity
Passage of light through water is effected by the water itself, chlorophyll, breakdown
products of plants known as Gelbstoff, other organic matter such as plankton, and the sea
state, since wave action, height and frequency can effect the available light.
Photons striking particles and water molecules are reflected and scattered randomly, and
light becomes diffused underwater. The effect of these things provides a wide variation on
light transmission and spectral irradiance at different depths.
When light photons are scattered they travel further through the water to reach a given
point. As a result of this random scattering and filtering every direction, or line of sight, is
a source of photons so the water appears to be coloured in all directions.

Space Light
This is referred to as background "space light" and it varies with the line of sight direction.
It also varies with the particle content, which determines water colour and filter frequency
which effects the background space light colour.
Fish must detect objects, food, against a background space light that has a relatively
constant colour along any particular line of sight. Therefore, considering the fishes optical
system the appearance of objects can change in contrast depending on the line of sight,
whether it is vertical, horizontal or at some other angle.
Under the water surface things are entirely different from our gaseous atmosphere. The
fishes live in salt and fresh water which can be clear, filled with organic particles or almost
mud. These conditions cause varying degrees of light transmission or illumination
attenuation, and varying degrees of frequency attenuation relating to depth.
Violet and Indigo are heavily attenuated as is orange and red. That in itself is important for,
while anglers understand that red light is heavily attenuated they are generally unaware
that indigo and violet are attenuated equally as heavily.
Colour and illumination
The water appears to be blue with a maximum frequency of 470nm and illumination
exceeds 400 metres. In these waters, at 60 metres, spectral irradiance is only 5% of the
available surface light.
In water that has green organic matter, or other particles, such as coastal oceanic and fresh
water dams the frequency attenuation is different and the maximum transmission shifts
from blue to green/yellow with a frequency maximum of 520 nm.
The water colour appears to be green and the maximum illumination shifts from 400
metres to 150 metres depth. Spectral irradiance is 5% of surface illumination at 20 metres.
In dark or brown water light is greatly attenuated and the colour range shifts to the red and
infrared with frequency maximum of 680nm.
Most colours, violet/indigo/blue/green/yellow are heavily attenuated. Illumination is
limited to a depth of 5 metres. The spectral irradiance 5% level of available light occurs at
1.5 metres.
In general, in clear oceanic water, of the total light that arrives from a clear sky at noon
only 45% remains at 1 metre depth, 15% remains at 10 metres of depth and 1% remains at
100 metres. Ultra violet and infrared light is heavily attenuated at 1 metres and red and
orange light are absent at 10 metres.
The colour of the water surface, as we see it, is the reflection of light photons of that colour
and is a pointer to the underwater conditions i.e. the colour attenuation and light
transmission in that particular body of water.
Because colour vision depends on high illumination and the spectral irradiance varies
depending on water colour, or particle content, the cut off point for the illumination level,
or threshold, for acceptable colour vision must vary with the particle content. In some areas
because of the water colour and minimum levels of illumination the fishes colour vision
may not be a viable option.

Polarisation
The light underwater is generally polarised and is the reason that anglers can see
underwater objects with greater efficiency when using Polaroid glasses. Sensitivity to
underwater polarisation could provide oceanic pelagic fishes with migratory information
relating to sun angle and attitude. This could enhance their ability to navigate in an
environment without significant landmarks.
For a fish with polarisation sensitivity the relationship between time of day and sun angle
could provide high visual acuity with increased contrast which could determine feeding
times. This could relate to the solunar tables used by anglers to indicate times of peak
activity.
Fishes are different from humans in that they never stop growing, and as they grow the eye
becomes bigger and the retinal packing density increases, which means that the vision
becomes more acute. It also means that the fishes can repair injuries to the eye.
Some fishes, because of their specialised feeding habits have different visual acuity in
different areas. Fishes which feed off organisms which attach themselves to rocks, like
barnacles, oysters etc, would need to have very acute close up binocular vision, more so
that a very long range acute horizontal vision.
Trevally on the other hand need to have acute horizontal vision as well as binocular vision,
because of the feeding habits of that species. These variations are categorised by the
different areas of increased retinal density of the eyes of different species.

Lure visibility
The light photon reflection theory effects lure colours underwater, particularly deep diving
lures or jigging lures. The deeper the lure below the surface the lower the photon density
and the lower the reflective effect.
The lighter and brighter the lure the greater the number of reflected photons and the
standard white reflects all light photons and black absorbs all light photon theory applies
but directly in relation to the spectral illumination. In other words lures are as bright as the
underwater illumination allows.
The visibility of lures is totally dependant on water colour and presentation depth, which is
related to particle content, which effects the numbers of photons striking the lure which
effects photon reflection which directly effects the visual distance.
Everything affects the fishes vision. The atmospheric conditions at the time, the amount of
particle content, the greener the water and these effects change from minute to minute as
the atmospheric conditions change.
All of which means that the effective range of a fishes vision can vary quite drastically as it
swims around the ocean, as it gets deeper in the water column, as the particle content
increases, the water gets dirtier, or as the surface conditions vary and surface bubble
content increases.
Nothing is static in the ocean; these things change rapidly and often. But the fish is not
insensitive to these changes in illumination and it can, and does, regulate its depth to
maintain eye comfort, that is to keep the illumination level in the comfort zone.

Vision specific
This can be a barramundi in tropical creek water, where the surface illumination is low
because of particle content and the fish is operating in grey scale mode. Under these
circumstances the fishes will be at a comfort zone depth, where they are most comfortable.
Under these circumstances colour is irrelevant, since the fish is not going to see colour.
The facts are that you live in atmosphere, the air around us, the fishes live in water, a
totally different medium, with totally different characteristics. The underwater illumination
is directly effected by the atmospheric conditions, and also by the underwater
characteristics. Our eyes are geared to our conditions, the fishes eyes to their situation.
There is but one human species, and 25,000 species of fishes. We have a single visual
system; the fishes have many visual systems, depending on their lifestyle, their habitat in
the water body they live in, the depth, their food source etc. We are not fishes, and we need
to understand the vast differences between our habitat and the habitat of the fishes.
Without that understanding we are just guessing, and sadly, most of our guesses are wrong.
These articles on "Colour in the Fishes Eye" are a very brief part of the story, a mere
smattering of bits of information out of a subject that needs, to get a complete picture, a lot
of research.
Science and the Mumbo Jumbo
Fishermen generally do not know enough about this subject; they seem to regard science as
mumbo jumbo. Some do not even know that this research has been going on continually
for many years. But it is a solid fact that the so called "Mumbo Jumbo" got man fishing
with some very sophisticated tackle and lines. It was not done by observation, although
observation may help in its usage.
Observation can be helpful, providing you understand what you are observing, particularly
in regards to the water colour confronting you, and your fishing will improve, because you
will know what the fish is going to see of your offering. How far it might see the fly or
lure, and whether it can see things in colour or not.
Sitting in front of someone lecturing on the subject, is not a sure guarantee that what you
are hearing is worth listening to. What is a sure guarantee is to do your own research, find
out "de trute" rather than "de furfy".
Over the past few years Dr Julia Shand PhD of the WA University Zoology Dept has been
researching the visual systems of West Australian black bream, with particular reference to
Swan River black bream, from the time of spawning to adulthood. Bet there is some
surprises in that paper, especially for adherents to the "mumbo jumbo" theory.

Max Garth maxg@nw.com.au has been saltwater flyfishing Australian long before it was
possible. Inventor of the term "hucking" (to cast a flyline, much like a brick, whilst
standing on a rock), I get the impression that there's not much Max hasn't tried. He lives
and fishes West Australia, where I hope to meet him on my travels.

Scientific American Vol 246 1982 "Colour Vision in Fishes" by Joseph S Levine and
Edward F. MacNichol, Jnr.
"Light and Life in the Sea" 1990. Ed's P.J.Herring, A.K.Campbell, M. Whitfield,
C.L.Maddock. Cambridge University Press with particular reference to Chapter 10 of that
work, "The Colour Sensitivity and Vision of Fishes" by J.C Partridge.
"The ecology of the visual pigments of snappers (Lutjanidea) on the Great Barrier Reef", J.
N.Lythgoe, W.R.A. Muntz, J.C. Partridge, J. Shand, D. McB. Williams.
"Adaptative Mechanics in the Ecology of Vision" Kluwer Achademic Publications
Netherlands.
"Specialisations of the telost visual system: adaptive diversity from shallow-water to deep
sea". Shaun P Collin 1997. From "The Visual System of Fish" Ed Douglas & Djamgoz
1990 Chapman & Hall London.