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MADE SIMPLE
SELF-TEACHING
ENCYCLOPEDIA
ELECTRICITY
By
HENRY JACOBOWITZ
B.S. in Physics
CADILLAC PUBLISHING CO., INC.
220 FIFTH AVENUE. NEW YORK 1, N. Y,

Electricity Made Simple
Copyright © 1959, by
DOUBLEDAY & CoMPANY, InC.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
MADE SIMPLE
SELF-TEACHING ENCYCLOPEDIA
ELECTRICITY
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

ABOUT TfflS BOOK
Everybody has daily contacts with electricity in various forms and almost
everybody has had some more or less formal instruction in the subject. How-
ever, most elementary presentations concentrate on the multiphcity of ap-
plications of electricity, while brushing hghtly over the essential, underlying
principles.
The present book does not shght the importance of electrical apphcations,
encountered in allwalks of hfe, but it concentrates its main discussion on
the relatively few important principles that make possible the entire electri-
cal industry. The text would be amiss if it did not explain the operation of
buzzers and bells, relays and telegraphs, motors and generators, a variety of
lamps, and what have you, but the primary emphasis is always on the prin-
ciples behind the gadgets. Thus, the presentation moves on in a systematic
manner from the basic electron theory of matter, through electrostatics,
magnetism, electrical current sources, Ohm's Law and direct-current cir-
cuits to some basic ideas about electric power and heat. The second half of
the book is devoted to the somewhat more diflBcult concepts of alternating
currents, starting with the phenomena of electromagnetism and induction
and carrying the presentation through the variety of definitions and practical
calculations in altemating-ciurent circuits, impedance and reactance con-
cepts, to a thorough exploration of the meaning of resonance.
By stressing the fimdamental laws of electricity the reader not only gains
an imderstanding of electricity in its variety of forms and transformations
(in what is hoped to be plain language), but— more importantly—he lays the
groundwork for aU fiirther studies in advanced electricity, electrical engi-
neering and electronics. (See ELECTRONICS MADE SIMPLE.) Such
studies cannot be meaningful without the fundamentals presented in this
book.
A word about the experiments. These are meant to illustrate basic prin-
ciples with a minimxmi outlay for materials and equipment. Since most ex-
periments use batteries as current sovuce, they are safe, even for youngsters.
In the few cases, where the a-c line is used, it would be advisable to place
fuses in both sides of the Hue, and even better, insert a small isolation trans-
former between the line and the experimental circuit.
Henry Jacobovsttz
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
Conductors and Insulators 11

THE ELECTRON THEORY 9
9 Electric Current 11
Atomic Structure
Atomic Number 10 Resistance 12
Atomic Weight 10 Sources of Electricity 12
11 Summary 13
Ions and Ionization
Free Electrons 11
CHAPTER TWO
ELECTROSTATICS-CHARGES AT REST 15 Electric Potential 22
15 Potential at a Point 22
Charging by Contact
Charging by Induction 17 Potential Difference 23
18 Potential Gradient 24
The Electrophorus
19 Equipotential Lines and Surfaces 24
Van de Graaff Electrostatic Generator .
19 Strong Electrical Charge-The Capacitor 25

Location of Charge .
20 The Plate Capacitor 25

Electric Field of Force
20 Capacitance of Parallel-Plate Capacitor 26
Lines of Force
Law 21 Siunmary 27
Coulomb's of Force
CHAPTER THREE
Lines of Force 31
MAGNETISM 28
28 Theory of Magnetism 35
Fundamental Magnetic Properties
30 Summary 36
Law of Force Between Magnetic Poles ...
Magnetic Fields and Lines of Force 31
CHAPTER FOUR
41
SOURCES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT .... 37 The Photoconductive Cell
Basic Laws of Photoelectricity 41
Electricity from Heat (Thermal EMF) ... 37
38 Electricity from Pressure (Piezoelectric
Applications
39 EMF) 41
Thermoelectric Effect
EMF) 39 Applications 41
Electricity from Light (Photoelectric
39 Summary 42
Photoemission (Phototubes)
The Photovoltaic Cell 40
.
CHAPTER FIVE
47
ELECTRICITY FROM CHEMICAL AC- Electrolysis
Electroplating 48
TION (ELECTROCHEMISTRY) .... 43
EMF-Primary Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis 49
Production of Chemical
43 Secondary Cells (Storage Ratteries) 51
(Voltaic) Cells
43 Lead-Acid Storage Cell 51
Basic Cell Action
Recharge 52
Current Flow Through Cell and External
45 Edison {Nickel-Iron Alkali) Cell 53
Circuit
45 The Silver Cell 53
Construction of a Dry Cell
Batteries 46 Generation of EMF by Magnetic Action 53
46 Summary 54
Series Connection
Electrolytic Conduction 47
CHAPTER SIX
Resistance of Conductors in Series and in

ELECTRICAL UNITS AND OHM'S LAW 55
55 Parallel 59
Practical Electrical Units
55 Resistivities of Different Conductors 60
Charge
55 Effect of temperature on resistance 60
Current
55 Effect of Temperature on Resistance ...
60
Current Standard
56 Types of Resistors
61
Voltage
56 Variable Resistors 61
Voltage Standards
56 Ohm's Law 62
Resistance
Resistance of Wires and Resistors 57 Where Ohm's Law does not Apply 65
57 Open and Closed-Circuit Voltage of Cells

Resistance of Wire Conductors
58 and Generators 66
Kinds of Wires
58 Summary 67
Wire Sizes and Tables
CHAPTER SEVEN
Lamps in Parallel 73
DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS 69
69 Series-Parallel Circuits 74
Series Circuits
69 KirchhofF's Laws 75
Resistors in Series
70 Procedure for Using Kirchhofs Laws 76
Lamps or Tubes in Series
71 The Wheatstone Bridge 78
Simple Voltage Divider (Potentiometer)
71 Summary 79
Parallel Circuits
Resistors in Parallel 72
CHAPTER EIGHT
84
ELECTRIC POWER AND HEAT 80 Fuses
Incandescent Lamps 84
Heat and Work: Joule's Law 80
Arc Lamps 84
Electric Power: The Rate of Doing Work . 81 Electric
82 Summary 85
How to Figure Electric Power Costs
Heat in Electrical Circuits and Apparatus . 83
. ,. .
CHAPTER NINE
ELECTROMAGNATISM - CHARGES IN Magnetic Circuits and Hysteresis 91
MOTION >. 86 Strength of Electromagnet 92

Oersted's Discovery: Magnetic Effect of Hysteresis 92
Electric Current 86 Magnetic Circuits 94
Left-Hand Rule for Conductors 87 Ohm's Law for Magnetic Circuits 94

Magnetic Field of a Straight Conductor 87 Force on a Conductor (Ampere's Law) ... 96
Magnetic Field About Circular Loops: Right-Hand Rule for Force on a Con-
Solenoids and Electromagnets 87 ductor 97
Magnetic Field of Single Circular Loop 88 Composite Magnetic Field of a Magnet
Magnetic Field of Flat Coil 88 and Current-Carrying Conductor 97
Magnetic Field of Ring Solenoids 89 Force Between Parallel Conductors .... 98
Electromagnets and Their Applications 89 The Galvanometer 98
The Relay 90 The Direct-Current Motor 99
The Telegraph 91 Summary 101
The Electric Bell 91
CHAPTER TEN
INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE . 102 Self Inductance Ill
Faraday's Experiments 102 Magnitude of Induced {Counter) Emf . Ill
Faraday's Laws 103 Mutual Inductance 112
Further Experiments with Induction . . 104 Coefficient of Coupling 112
Magnitude with Induced Emf 105 The Induction Coil 113
Direction of Induced Emf (Lenz's Law) 106 Transformers 113
Left-Hand Rule for Generator Action . . 107 Ideal Transformer 114
Inducing an Emf in a Rotating Coil: The Practical Transformers 115
Generator 107 Eddy Currents 115
Production of Sine Wave 108 The Autotransformer 116
Direct-Current Generator 109 Smnmary 117
Self Inductance and Mutual Inductance . 110
CHAPTER ELEVEN
ALTERNATING CURRENT FUNDA- Vector Representation 123
MENTALS 119 Rotating Vectors 123
A-C Definitions 119 Vector Addition 124
Angular Velocity 120 Vector Subtraction 126
Effective (Root Mean-Square) Value of Finding the Resultant of Two Rectangu-
A.C 120 lar Vectors 126
Average Value of A.C 121 Resolving the Resultant into Two Rec-
Phase, Phase Angle and Phase Difference 121 tangular Component Vectors 127
Use of Vectors 122 Summary 128

.. .
CHAPTER TWELVE \
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUIT Power in Inductive Circuit 136
COMPONENTS 129 Capacitance in A-C Circuits 136
A-C Circuit Components 130 Types of Capacitors 137
Resistance in A-C Circuits 130 Capacitors in Parallel 138
Skin Effect 131 Capacitors in Series 138
Inductance in A-C Circuits 132 Capacitive Reactance 139
Inductors in Series 132 Phase Relations 140
Inductors in Parallel 133 Power in Capacitive Circuit 140
Inductive Reactance 133 Impedance 141
Magnitude of Inductive Reactance 134 Net Voltage and Net Reactance 141
Impedance Triangle and Phase Angle 142
Magnitude of Current in Inductive Cir-
.
cuit 135 Ohm's Law for A.C 142
Phase Relations 135 Summary 144
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS . 145 R-L-C Circuits 150
A.C. Power 145 Parallel A-C Circuits 152
Power Factor 145 Power 154
Reactive Power 146 Phase Angle and Power Factor 154
Series A-C Circuits 147 Total Impedance and Equivalent Circuit 154
R-L Circuits 147 Summary 155
R-C Circuits 149
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
RESONANCE 156 Parallel Resonance 162
Electrical Oscillations and Resonance . . 156 Parallel-Resonant Frequency 162
Series Resonance 157 Parallel-Resonant Circuits 164
Conditions for Series Resonance 157 Impedance and Resonance Curve 164
Resonant Frequency 158 Magnitude of Impedance 165
Series-Resonant Circuit and Resonance Current and Voltage Relations 166
Curve 158 Summary of Conditions at Parallel Res-
Sharpness of Resonance and Quality Fac- onance 167
tor "Q" 160 Summary 168
APPENDIX I: ELECTRICAL DATA 169
APPENDIX II: MATHEMATICAL TABLES 175
ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES 185
INDEX 189
CHAPTER ONE
THE ELECTRON THEORY

The story of electricity started over 2500 years theory, but rather shall go straight to the modem
ago with amusing parlor games, and nothing star- electron theory, which has proven highly successful
tling was added to it until the modem era. None of in explaining electrical and magnetic behavior. To
the Greeks who observed the philosopher thales appreciate the electron theory, we must first know
OF MILETUS (about 600 B.C.) pick up straws and something about the atomic structure of matter.
paper with an amber rod that had been rubbed
with a cloth, could have suspected that the force
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
behind the toy would become the major means of
making man the master of the earth. The Greek Since the time of the Greeks aU matter was
word for amber is elektron and it was not un- thought to be made up of atoms ("atom" is the
natiural, therefore, that the English physicist wn-- Greek word for "indivisible"), though the Greek
LiAM Gn-BERT (1540-1603) applied the term "elec- ideas about the nature of these "indivisible" par-
trics" he found behaving similar to
to materials ticles were rather vague. It was not tiU 1802 that
amber. His great treatise De Magnete, published the English chemist john dalton suggested that all
in 1600, in which he used such modem terms as matter could be broken down into fundamental
electric force and electric attraction has earned him constituents, or elements, the tiniest particles of
the title of "father of electricity." which he called atoms. There are 98 known ele-
Progress in the next hundred years or so con- ments, of which 92 occur in nature and six are arti-
sisted of littlemore but the observation of isolated ficially produced in atom smashers and nuclear re-
electrical and magnetic phenomena, otto von gueb- actors. Since there are 98 elements, there must be
ICKE observed in 1660 the sound and light of elec- 98 difiêrent types of atoms. Through the work of
trical sparks, which he generated with a crude elec- the scientists niels bohr, lord rutherford, and
tric friction machine. The Italian scientist luigi others it was revealed that atoms actually have a
GALVANi (1737-1798) noted the twitchings of frogs' complex structure, resembling somewhat a minia-
legs that were in contact with two dissimilar metals ture solar system. According to Bohr's theory, an
and ascribed them (wrongly) to animal electricity, atom consists of a central nucleus of positive charge
sm WILLIAM WATSON (1715-1787) improved the "Ley- around which tiny, negatively charged particles,
den- jar" for storing electricity and worked out an called electrons, revolve in fixed orbits, just as the
early theorj' of electricity. His experiments and planets revolve around the sun. In each type of
theories were similar to those of benjamin frank- atom, the negative charge of all the orbital elec-
lin (1706-1790), the American statesman and scien- trons just balances the positive charge of the nu-
tist, who began his experiments with electricity in cleus, thus making the combination electrically neu-
about 1746. Franklin developed a practical "con- tral.
denser" for storing static electricity and first identi- The positively charged nucleus, in turn, reveals
fied lightning with electricity in his famous kite a complex structure, but for the purpose of under-
experiment, in 1752. Franklin also developed a co- standing electricity a vastly simplified picture is
herent fluid theory of electricity, but unfortunately adequate. According to this simplified pictiu-e, the
guessed wrong about the direction of current flow, nucleus of the atom is made up oftwo fundamen-
which he thought took place from the positive to tal particles, known as the proton and the neutron.
the negative terminal of a current source. The The proton is a relatively heavy particle (1840
Franklinian error was not discovered until the pres- times heavier than the electron) with a positive (+)
ent-day electron theory had been developed— and charge, while the neutron has about the same mass
by then it had become conventional to describe cur- as the proton, but has no charge at all.
rent as flowing from plus to minus. However, we The on each proton is equal to
positive charge
need not adopt this "conventional" direction of cur- the negative charge residing on each electron. Since
rent flow, based on the outmoded Franklinian atoms are ordinarily electrically neutral, the num-
10 Electricity Made Simple
ber of positive charges equals the number of nega-

tive charges— that is, the number of protons in the
nucleus is equal to the number of electrons revolv-
ing around the nucleus. Practically the entire weight
of the atom is made up of the protons and neutrons
in the nucleus, the weight of the orbital electrons
around the nucleus being neghgible in comparison.
Lest you should think, however, that substantial
weights are involved, let us at once point out that
the mass of an electron is only about 9.11 X 10~^*
grams (a number with 27 zeros after the decimal
point), while that of the proton is only about 1840
times as much, which is still fantastically httle. The
proton, on the other hand, is a httle smaller than
the electron, having a radius of about 10— ^^ cm. To
give you an idea how small this reallyis, you might
consider that an electron about as small com-

is
pared to a standard ping-pong ball, as a ping-pong

ball is compared to the orbit of the earth, which is
186,000,000 miles in diameter.

Electricity Made Simple 11
charge of — 1. The process of producing ions is

e called ionization.
•+\ Ionization does not change the chemical proper-
ties ofan atom, but it does produce an electrical
change. It can be brought about in a number of
ways. As we have seen, the electrons in the outer-

HYPROeEN most shell of an atom are held rather loosely and,
hence, can be dislodged entirely by collision with
At. NO. I another electron or atom, or by exposure to X rays.
Ionization is important in electron tubes.
At Wh 1
FREE ELECTRONS
Electrons that have become dislodged from the
outer shell of an atom are known as free electrons.
These electrons can exist by themselves outside of
the atom, and it is these free electrons which are
responsible for most electrical and electronic phe-
nomena. Free electrons carry the current in ordi-
nary conductors (wires), as well as in aU types of
electron tubes. The motion of free electrons in an-
tennas gives rise to electromagnetic radiations
(radio waves).
Conductors and Insulators. Most substances nor-
CARBON mally contain a number of these free electrons that
are capable of moving freely from atom to atom.
At. NO. 6 Metallic materials, such as silver, copper, or alumi-
num, which contain relatively many free electrons
A+.Wt. tZ capable of carrying an electric current, are called
Fig. 1. Structure of Hydrogen and Carbon Atoms conductors; non-metalUc materials, which contain
relatively few free electrons, are called insulators.
nuclear reactors, but these are generally unstable Materials that have an intermediate number of free
and break down into lighter elements. electrons available are classed as semiconductors.
Molecules. While atoms are the smallest bits of Actually, there are no perfect conductors and no
matter in each element, it may be well to keep in perfect insulators. The more free electrons a ma-
mind that most materials in the world are com- terial contains, the better it will conduct. All sub-
pounds of various elements, formed by combina- stances can be arranged in a conductivity series, in
tions of different atoms. These smallest combina- accordance with their relative number of free elec-
tions of atoms are called molecules. trons available.
Electric Current. The free electrons in a conduc-
tor are ordinarily in a state of chaotic motion in all
IONS AND IONIZATION possible directions. But when an electromotive force
An ion an atom (or molecule) that has become
is (emf), such as that provided by a battery, is con-
electrically unbalanced by the loss or gain of one or nected across a conductor, the free electrons are
more electrons. An atom that has lost an electron is guided in an orderly fashion, atom to atom, from
called a positive ion, while an atom that has gained the negative terminal of the battery, through the
an electron is knowTi as a negative ion. The reason wire, to the positive terminal of the battery. (See
is clear. When an atom loses an electron, its remain- Fig. 2.) This orderly drifting motion of free elec-
ing orbital electrons no longer balance the positive trons under the application of an electromotive
charge of the nucleus, and the atom acquires a force (or voltage) constitutes an electric current.
charge of -(-1. Similarly, when an atom gains an Although the electrons drift through the wiie at a
electron in some way, it acquires an excess negative relatively low speed, the disturbance or impidse is
transmitted almost at the speed of light. Note that resistivity. As we shall see later in more detail, the
the electron current continues to flow only as long resistance to the flow of electric current of a certain
as the wire remains connected to the battery. The material of given cross section and length can be
wire conductor itself remains electrically neutral, calculated from its resistivity. As mechanical fric-
since electrons are neither gained nor lost by the tion, the resistance of a material dissipates energy
atoms within the wire. What happens is this: Elec- in the form of heat because of colUsions occiuring
trons enter the wire from the negative terminal of between free electrons and atoms. Conversely, if a
the battery and an equal number of electrons is material of a given resistance is heated, more col-
given up by the other end of the wire to the posi- lisions take place and the resistance to the flow of
tive battery terminal. Thus, the free electrons pres- electric current increases.
ent within the wire act simply as cvirrent carriers,

which are continually being replaced, but none are
lost. SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
SOURCE OF The chief sources of electricity are mechanical,
EMF (BAHERY) chemical, photoelectric, thermoelectric, and piezo-
+ — electric in nature. Electricity may be produced me-
^Fjj)j electron' chanically in two ways. When certain materials are
ELECTRON
FLOW
FLOW
^ rubbed together, electrons are transferred by fric-
tion from one to the other, and both materials be-
come electrically charged. These charges are not in
motion, but reside statically on each substance and
hence this type of electricity is known as static
electricity or electrostatics. Electricity may also be
ELECTRON DRIFT generated mechanically by the relative motion of a
conductor with respect to a magnetic field, a proc-
ess known as induction. The interaction of electric
and magnetic fields is studied in a branch of elec-
tricity called electromagnetism. Practically all com-
(CONVENTIONAL
CURRENT FLOW) mercial electricity is produced by electromagnetic
generators.
Fig. 2. Conduction of Electricity Through a Metallic
Electricity can be generated chemically by insert-
Conductor
ing two dissimilar metals, such as zinc and copper,
Note also in Fig. 2 that the "conventional" or into a conducting solution called electrolyte. An
"Franklinian" current is from the positive to the electromotive force (emf), or voltage, is then found
negative terminal of the battery, in a direction op- between the metals, which can cause current to
posite to the electron flow. Such a current would inflow through an externally connected conducting
volve the transfer of positive charges from the + circuit. By connecting a number of such chemical
to the — terminal of the battery, which actually cells together as a battery any desired voltage and
does not take place. Conventional current is still quantity of electricity can be supplied. Electricity
widely used in the markings of meters, formulation produced by chemical action is studied in electro-
of electrical rules, and in many text books. We shall chemistry.
not use however, and the term "current" from
it, Sunlight or artificial illumination falling upon
now on shall always designate electron flow from certain photosensitive materials, such as cesium or
minus (— ) to plus (-f).
selenium, produces electricity by knocking out free
Resistance. Since an electric current is the flow electrons from the surface of the material. This
of free electrons, materials that have a large num- process is known as photoelectric emission, or
ber of available free electrons permit a greater cur- simply photoelectricity.
rent flow for a given applied electromotive force Whenthe junction of two dissimilar metals, such
(voltage) than do materials with relatively few free as an iron wire welded to a copper wire, is heated,
electrons. The measure of the opposition to the flow an electromotive force (emf) appears between the
of free electrons in a material is a quantity called free ends of the metals. Such a junction is called a
thermocouple and the process is termed thermo- SUMMARY

electricity.
The Greek philosopher Thales observed static
Electricity, finally, may be generated by the
electricity (amber charged by rubbing) in about
mechanical compression, stretching and twisting of
600 B.C.
certain crystals, such as quartz and Rochelle salts.
Benjamin Frankhn developed an early fluid
Materials that permit generating an emf by me-
theory of electricity, in which he mistakenly as-
chanical pressure are called piezoelectric and the
sumed the flow of (positive) electric current from
process is known as piezoelectricity.
plus (-f) to minus (— ).
Historically, electricity was first observed in
amber by
The modem explanation of electricity is by
static form, as in the electrification of
means of the electron theory, which is based upon
rubbing and the hghtning discharges of electricity
the atomic structure of matter.
by charged clouds. In the chapters that follow we
There are 98 known elements, corresponding to
shall study the action of electricity in all these cur-
98 difiêrent types of atoms. Of these 92 occur in
rently known forms.
Nature, while the remaining six are artificially cre-
ated in atom smashers and nuclear reactors.
Practice Exercise No. 1 An atom is the smallest particle of an element
that shows its chemical and physical properties.
1. Explain the origin of electricity and some high
points in its early development.
Atoms resemble miniature solar systems, consist-
2. How many elements exist in Nature? How many ing of a central nucleus of positive charge, around
types of atoms? What is the total number of elements which tiny, negatively charged particles, called
and atoms presendy known? electrons, revolve in fixed orbits. The negative
3. Explain Bohr's concept of atomic structure. charge of all orbital electrons just balances the
4. Make a brief table listing the charge and relative positive charge of the nucleus and, hence, the atom
weight of the three main types of atomic particles. is electrically neutral.
5. Draw the atomic structure of hydrogen and car-
The nucleus of the atom is made up of protons
bon, and assign the proper atomic number and atomic
and neutrons. The proton is 1840 times heavier than
weight to each.
the electron and has a positive charge. The neutron
6. The element neon (an inert gas) has atomic num-
ber 10 and an approximate atomic weight of 20. How

has the same mass as the proton, but has no charge
many neutrons are contained in the neon nucleus? Can at all.
you draw a sketch of the atomic structure of neon, Electron orbits are arranged in shells about the
showing the number of electrons in each shell? Can nucleus, with capacities of 2, 8, 18, and 32 electrons
you guess why the element is inert (i.e., forms no com- (from the nucleus out). The outermost shell of an
pounds with other elements)? atom cannot contain more than eight electrons.
7. Explain the process of ionization and how posi-
Atomic number refers to the total number of
tive and negative ions may be produced. What might
electrons in the shells or to the total number of
double ionization mean?
protons in the nucleus.
8. What are free electrons and how are they pro-
duced?
The atomic weight of an atom is the sum of the
9. Distinguish between conductors, semiconductors,
number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
and insulators on the basis of the electron theory. The number of neutrons equals the difference be-
10. What constitutesan electric current and what tween the atomic weight and atomic number.
is its direction? An atom that has lost an electron is called a
11. Explain why a wire through which an electric positive ion; one that has gained an electron is
current is flowing does not become electrically charged called a negative ion. Ionization is usually pro-
or remain charged after the current flow stops. duced by collisions between atoms and electrons.
12. Explain qualitatively the action of resistivity and
Free electrons are electrons dislodged from the
resistance and the factors which affect them. Why is
outer shell of an atom. They may exist by them-
heat produced and what is the effect of heating a con-
selves and can act as carriers of electricity in con-
ductor?
13. List the five main sources of electricity and ex-
ductors or vacuum tubes.
plain the basic action involved in each. State the Conductors contain relatively many free elec-
proper term for each process and the branch of electrons, insulators relatively few; semiconductors
tricity concerned with it. have an intermediate number of free electrons.
An electric current is an orderly drifting motion electrons and atoms. When a conductor is heated,
of free electrons in a conductor under the influence its resistance increases.
of an applied electromotive force (emf), or voltage. The chief sources of electricity are: 1. mechani-
The direction of electron motion is from the nega- cal, by friction (electrostatics) or by motion
of a
tive terminal of the current source to the positive conductor with respect to a magnetic field (electro-
terminal. Conventional or Franklinian current flows magnetism); 2. chemical, by the insertion of two
in the opposite direction. dissimilar metals in a conducting solution or elec-
The opposition to the flow of electric current or trolyte; 3. photoelectric, by hght falling upon a
resistivity of a material depends on the relative photosensitive surface; 4. thermoelectric, by the
number of available free electrons. heating of a junction of two dissimilar metals
The resistance of a conductor depends on its re- (thermocouple); and 5. piezoelectric, by mechanical
sistivity, its cross section and its length. Resistance pressure appHed to certain crystals (quartz, Ro
produces heat because of collisions between free chelle salts).
)
CHAPTER TWO
ELECTROSTATICS— CHARGES AT REST
Let us now look at the kind of electricity— elec- rubbing it Note that each of the balls is
with silk.
which the ancients used to amuse

trostatics— with initially attracted by the charged rod, but is re-
themselves by electrifying substances through rub- pelled by it after making contact and acquiring
bing. We've all had experience with static elec- some of its charge. Moreover, the two charged pith
tricity: lightning during a thunderstorm; sparks fly- balls repel each other and remain separated as long
ing after we shuffle over a deep-pile rug; hair as the charge remains on them. (Note: the experi-
standing up on end after vigorous combing or ment generally succeeds only during clear, dry
brushing— all these are typical examples of the ef- weather. On a moist day it may be necessary to
fects of static electricity. The term electrostatics, keep all materials in a hot, dry place, such as a
which refers to electricity at rest, is something of drying oven.)
a misnomer, since we now know that the carriers of Discharge the balls by touching them with yoinr
electricity— the electrons— are in continual motion. finger or wait till the original charge has leaked
The term is still useful, however, to distinguish be- off. Now charge the balls again by touching each
tween the random motion of electrons residing on with a hard-rubber (vulcanite) rod charged by rub-
the surface of a charged (electrified) body and the bing with fur or catskin. (The same result can be
orderly drifting motion of electrons taking place obtained by using a rod of ebonite or sealing wax
when an electric current flows through a conductor. rubbed with catskin or flannel; plastics, such as
Charging by Contact. Any substance, under suit- polystyrene or Incite, work well even on humid
able conditions, can become electrified or charged days.) Note that the same thing happens as before:
to some degree. A rubbed with silk or a

glass rod, the balls are initially attracted to the rod, but after
hard-rubber rod rubbed with fur, becomes charged contact they are repelled by the rod, as well as by
and attracts little pieces of paper. A sheet of paper, each other. Again, discharge the balls by touching
when rubbed vigorously becomes charged and them.
clings to a wall. A simple experiment shows that Now charge one of the balls by touching it with
there are two different kinds of electrification or the charged glass rod and charge the other by
charge. bringing it in contact with the charged rod of rub-
EXPERIMENT 1: Suspcud two pith balls (hght, soft ber or sealing wax. Note the radically changed be-
ballscovered by conductive aluminum paint) from havior in this case. While each of the balls is ini-
dry silk or nylon threads a couple of inches apart tially attracted to its respective rod and repelled
from each other, as shown in Fig. 3. Touch each of from it after contact, as before, the two balls now
the balls with a glass rod that has been charged by attract each other and cling together after having
c< t=X t.
—
CO
Fig. 3. Electrical Repulsion Between Like Charges
15
i;
<=t > t '
OO
Fig. 4. Electrical Attraction Between Unlike Charges
been charged. The balls will continue to attract loosely held electrons on the surface of the rod
each other until their charge has leaked off. are detached and transferred to the silk. The glass
The experiment demonstrates clearly that the rod, consequently, loses electrons and becomes
electricity on the from that on the
glass rod differs positively charged, while the silk cloth gains a sur-
hard-n.ibber rod or sealing wax. Benjamin Frank- plus of electrons and becomes negatively charged.
lin, quite arbitrarily, called the charge acquired by Similarly, when the hard-rubber rod (or similar
the glass rod when rubbing it with silk positive substance) is rubbed with fur or flannel, the friction
electricity, while he assigned a negative charge to "strips" some of the electrons near the surface of
the hard-rubber rod or sealing wax, when rubbed the iuT or flannel cloth and transfers them to the
with fur or flannel. It is further evident from the hard-rubber rod. As a result, the hard-rubber rod
experiment that the pith balls repel each other acquires a surplus of electrons and becomes nega-
when they are charged alike either (-f- or ), and — tively charged, while the fur or flannel cloth is left
attract each other when they are charged oppo- with a deficiency of electrons and becomes posi-
sitely (-)- and —
). The experiment thus confirms a tively charged.
fundamental fact of electricity: like charges of In the experiment, the conducting pith baUs were
electricity repel each other, and imlike charges at- repelled from either the positive glass rod or the
tract each other. This important fact was discov- negative hard-rubber rod, after being brought in
ered by the French chemist chables du fay in contact with it. (We shall presently explain why
1733. they were initially attracted before contact.) In the
While the theorists differed for centuries about case of the glass rod the contact with the pith ball
the nature of these fundamental phenomena, the resulted in drawing off some of the free electrons
behavior of electric charges is now easily explained on its surface to neutralize a portion of the positive
by the electron theory. As we have seen the atoms charge (electron deficiency) on the rod. As a result,
of any object are normally electrically neutral, since the pith ball also became deficient in electrons and,
the number of negatively charged electrons is just hence, positively charged. With both rod and ball
equal to the positive charges (protons) within the charged alike, they naturally repelled each other.
nucleus of the atoms. When an object becomes In the case of the negatively charged hard-
electrically charged, it has acquired either more or rubber rod (or sealing wax), a portion of the elec-
less than the normal number of electrons. A body tron surplus on the rod was transferred to the pith
becomes positively charged if some of the electrons balls, which therefore also became negatively
have been removed from its atoms, so that there is charged and were repelled by the rod. In either
an electron deficiency (fewer electrons than pro- case, of course, the pith balls acquired the same
tons). A body becomes negatively charged if it ac- charge and, hence, repelled each other. During the
quires—in some way— an excess number of elec- last portion of the experiment, in contrast, one of
trons; that is, more electrons than protons. Thus, the balls was charged positively by contact with the
when a glass rod is rubbed with silk, some of the glass rod, while the other was charged negatively
by contact with the hard-rubber rod or seahng wax. vdth sUk and bring the charged rod in contact with
Having acquired opposite charges, the two balls the copper disk on top of the electroscope. Note
attracted each other. that the aluminum will immediately fly
leaves
Charging by Induction. Let us now return to the apart, indicating that both have been charged by
question why the neutral pith balls were initially the glass rod widi the same polarity, in this case
attracted to the charged rods before making con- positive. If you now touch the copper disk with a
tact with them. To explore this question experi- rod of hard-rubber or seahng wax that has been
mentally, let us construct a more sensitive electrical rubbed with flannel, the leaves of the electroscope
charge detector than the pith balls, known as the will partially collapse, indicating that the charge
leaf electroscope. The best type contains two thin on the rubber rod is of opposite sign— that is, nega-
gold leaves at the bottom of a metal rod, but to tive. You can cause the leaves to collapse com-
save expense we shall make one using aluminum pletely by touching the copper disk with your
leaves. finger. Your finger vdll act as conductor, discharg-
EXPERIMENT 2: Coustruct the aluminum leaf elec- ing the electroscope by leading the charges to the
troscope, shown in Fig. 5, from a large jar and lid, floor (ground).
a cork, copper (beU) wire, a copper washer or disk Next try the following experiment. Charge a rod
(new penny) and some aluminum foil. Drill a hole of hard rubber, sealing wax or eboniteand ap-
in the hd of the jar to receive the cork. Pierce cork proach the disk of the neutral electroscope closely,
to make a hole and work the copper wire through. but do not touch it. The leaves of the electroscope
Bend the lower end of the wire into T-shape, as will fly apart (Fig. 6b), though there is no contact
shown in (a) of Fig. 5. Fasten the upper end of the between the rod and copper disk. What happens is
wire to the copper disk, either by soldering it or by this: When the negatively charged rod approaches
winding it through two holes drilled into the disk. the copper disk, a redistribution of free elections
Use cement to seal the junc-
nail polish or plastic and positive copper nuclei takes place within the
ture of the cork andNow remove a piece of
lid. disk. The positive nuclei of the copper atoms arc
aluminum foil cigarette pack or gum wrap-
from a attracted toward the rubber rod and shift toward
per, using alcohol to separate the thin foil from its that end of the disk, while the (negative) free elec-
paper base. Cut two strips of foil, each about an trons are repelled along the copper wire into the
inch long and one-half inch wide; mount them aluminum leaves. The leaves, consequentiy, di-
through the T-shaped end of the copper wiie and verge, having been negatively charged. Since the
glue wdth nail polish or plastic cement. (See Fig. positive charges (copper nuclei) are held fibced in
5b.) For best results, the jar and Ud assembly position on the copper disk by the rubber rod, this
should be heated in an oven for a few minutes to charge referred to as a bound induced charge.
is
drive out all moisture. Be siure to screw the Ud on The negative charge on the aluminum leaves, in
tightly before it cools ofiE. This completes construc- contrast, is called the free induced charge. These
tion of the electroscope. induced charges are only temporary, however. If
We are now ready to try some experiments with you move the rubber rod away from the electro-
our home-made electroscope. First rub a glass rod scope, the leaves will collapse, indicating that all
charges have redistributed themselves again into

COPPER DISK
their normal, neutral configuration. Note that this
temporary induced charge also explains the mo-
mentary attraction of the pith ball pendulum to a
charged rod, before making contact with it (Ex-
periment 1).
You can make the induced charge permanent by
COPPER WIRE
^JAR simply leading off the free charges to "ground." To
do approach the electroscope again witli the
this,
ALUMIÛM charged hard-rubber (or ebonite) rod until the
FOIL
ALUMINUM leaves are seen to diverge. Now "ground" the disk
FOIL
of the electroscope by touching it with your finger,
r'~l^. (b)
while still keeping the rod at the same distance
from the disk. Note that the leaves collapse (Fig.
Fig. 5. Constructing an Aluminum Foil Electroscope 6c). This is caused by the "leaking off" of the free
©
"BOUND
COPPER DISK CHARGER

CHARGED
^
^—ty "'^
RUBBER
ROD
I-
-/\-J=-s
ALUMINUM
^ A
NEUTRAL
«Â^ "FREE
TO GROUND NEUTRAL
.V%
LEAVES CHARGE"
(a) (0
Fig. 6. Charging an Electroscope by Induction
electrons to ground through your body, while the sealing wax or resinous material has been melted;
"bound" charge is still held by the attraction of the and a metal disk of smaller diameter than the pan,
rod. If you now remove the rubber rod, the bound, provided with an insulating handle fits on top of
positive charge will be hberated and vidll distribute the cake. By rubbing the sealing wax with fur or
itself throughout the conducting parts of the elec- wool, placing the disk on top of the cake and
troscope, causing the leaves to diverge again. The grounding it, a positive charge is induced in the
leaves are now permanently charged positive by in- disk, as can be verified with an electroscope. Each
duction (Fig. 6d). You can check the sign of the time the disk is placed on top of the seahng wax,
charge by touching the electroscope first with a grounded, and then lifted away, an additional posi-
charged glass rod and then with a charged hard- tive charge appears on the disk, without the need
rubber or ebonite rod. When

touched with the glass for recharging the wax. Thus, an unlimited number
rod, the leaves will to diverge even more
be seen of electrostatic charges can be obtained from a
strongly, indicating that the polarity of their charge single charging of the cake of sealing wax. Let us
is the same as that of the glass rod, or positive. try this out.
Touching the electroscope with the rubber rod, EXPERIMENT 3: Coustruct an electrophorus by
however, wdU cause the leaves to collapse, indicat- placing a phonograph record (shellac or vinylite
ing that the charge on the leaves is of opposite sign LP) snugly in a metal pie plate. Place a flat metal
than the negative charge on the rubber rod. Again, cover, somewhat smaller than the pie plate and
this proves conclusively that the electroscope has provided with an insulated handle, on top of the
been charged positively by induction from the record and you have an elementary electrophorus
negative rubber rod. (Fig. 7).
If you repeated the entire experiment by using a Now charge the electrophorus by rubbing the
(positively charged) glass rod to charge the electro- phonograph record briskly with fm- or a wool cloth.
scope by induction, in place of the hard-rubber rod, Set the metal cover on the record and ground the
you would make exactly the same observations, ex- cover by touching it momentarily with your finger.
cept that the final charge residing on the leaves When you lift the cover away by its insulating
would turn out negative. We conclude, therefore, handle, you will be able to draw a spark from the
that the charge induced is always of a polarity op- cover. You can get a fresh charge an indefinite
posite to that of the inducing body. In contrast, number of times by simply placing the cover back
when the electroscope is charged by contact with on the record and grounding it. No recharging of
another charged body, the charge on the leaves is the phono record is required until the original
of the same sign as that of the charging body, as charge eventually has leaked away. Touching the
we have seen. metal cover to a previously charged electroscope
The Electrophorus. An interesting application of proves the charge to be positive each time.
charging by induction is the electrophorus, one of As you can see from Fig. 7, the electrophorus
the oldest electrostatic generators (see Fig. 7). It works by electrostatic induction. When the cover
consists of a shallow metal pan into which a cake of is placed on the negatively charged phonograph
•-N INSULATED
HANDLE
METAL TO GROUND
COVER
1 _ _ 4- + 4-
I
PHONO RECORD EBONITE OR PHONO RECORD
I I 3l
\ METAL PAN
(FIE PLATE)
Fig. 7. Action of the Electrophorus
disk (or sealing wax), a bound, positive charge is in- negative electric charge sprayed onto an endless
is
duced bottom of the metal cover and a free,

at the fabric belt (silk or linen)between a comb of needle
negative charge at its top. Grounding the cover points (A) and a rounded surface (B). The negative
by touching it leads the negative charge avi'ay, so charge is mechanically transported by the pulley-
that only the positive charge remains. Lifting the driven belt to another comb-shaped collector (D),
cover away from the disk, against the electrostatic which transfers it to the outside of tlie metal dome.
attraction, "frees" the positive charge and makes it Inasmuch as the process is continuous and the belt
available. The energy in the imlimited number of can be run at high speed, enormous charges can be
charges is accovmted for by the work you do each built up on the dome, amounting to milhons of
time, when you lift the cover from the disk against volts. The dome is supported by an insulating col-
the force of electrostatic attraction. You will be umn and the maximum voltage is limited only by
surprised to observe the considerable strength of direct electrical discharge from the metal shell and
the force between the charges. the quahty of the insulation.
Van de Graaff Electrostatic Generator. There are Location of Charge. The Enghsh scientist
a number of continuously operating electrostatic MICHAEL FAEADAY was the first to provc that no
generators, which produce large amounts of electric electric charge can be stored within a hollow con-
charge at very high voltages, for hghtning studies ductor. All charges reside on the outside of the con-
and atom smashing. One of these is the Van de ducting surface. In his famous ice-pail experiment,
Graaff generator, which produces potentials of he lowered a small, positively charged metal sphere
several million volts by transporting electrostatic into a metal ice pail by means of an insulating
charges from a continuously moving belt to a large thread (Fig. 9). The outside of the pail was con-
hollow sphere (Fig. 8). As shown in the diagram. nected with a wire to a leaf electroscope. As soon
as the sphere was inserted into the paU, the leaves
of the electroscope diverged, proving the presence
. INSULATED
THREAD
METAL DOME
INSULATING
COLUMN
ELECTROSCOPE'
Fig. 8. Diagram of Van de Graa£F Electrostatic Generator Fig. 9. Faraday's Ice-Fail Experiment
of a charge on the outside of the pail. Since free Solution: Field intensity E = F/Q = 200/10 =
electrons are attracted to the inside of tlie pail, the 20 dynes per unit charge in a direction
charge induced on its outside must be positive. If away from the charged body.
the sphere was now touched to the inside wall of Lines of Force. The direction and intensity of an
the pail, thus neutralizing any charge present there, electric field may be represented on diagrams by
the leaves of the electroscope did not collapse, as imaginary lines of force or field lines. The more
would be expected. This demonstrates conclusively lines of force are drawn per unit area, the stronger
that the sphere has given up its original charge to is the field represented (i.e., the field intensity). The
the outside of the pail and that there is no charge direction of the field is shown by the direction and
residing on its inside surface. arrowheads of the lines of force.
The fact that charges cannot reside on the inside Fig. 10 shows the Hues of force representing the
If an electric field between opposite charges (a) and be-

of a conductor is the basis of all shielding.
electroscope is placed inside a shield of fine wore tween like charges (b). A small, positive test charge
mesh, its leaves will not diverge, even when large would tend to move in the direction of the field
lines. If such a test charge were inserted into the
electrostatic charges are placed on it. A radio placed
field between like charges (Fig. lOfo), it would be
inside such a wire shield will not play. This also
accounts for the comparative safety from lightning repelled toward the center and probably squeezed
out sideways, as shovra by the repelling Unes of
of passengers inside an automobile or metal air-
plane. Tenants inside a steel-frame building are

force. When between unlike
inserted into the field
charges (Fig. 10a), however, the charge would
test
protected against severe thunderstorms, even with-
out a lightning arrestor. Lightning itself is caused,
follow the lines of force between -f and and — ,
between charged would be strongly attracted toward the negative

of course, by electric discharges
charge. Although the illustration (Fig. 10) shows
clouds and the earth's surface.
only the lines of force in the plane of the page, you
must imagine the field lines surrounding the charged
ELECTRIC FIELD OF FORCE bodies in all three dimensions of space.
You can easily verify that an electric field of
As we have seen, an electrically charged body force actually exists around charged bodies vsdth
on other bodies around it
exerts a physical force the intensity and directions indicated by the lines
and can make them do work by moving or lifting of force. For instance, if you were to place two
them. (See Fig. 3.) The area of influence in the highly charged bodies (metal disks or balls) on a
vicinity of such a charged body is known as an
electric field of force, or simply an electric field. (a) TWO UNLIKE CHARGES
Since this field is capable of performing work, it
is endowed with energy. If an electrically charged
test body is inserted into this field, it will be either

attracted or repelled, depending on the sign of its
charge. The direction of an electric field at any

point is the direction in which a positively charged
body would be urged to move. The intensity of the

field is tlie magnitude of the force per unit charge,
and it is measured in dynes per unit charge. Thus,

an an intensity of unity at a point,
electric field has
when it one dyne on a unit charge.
exerts a force of
(A dyne is a small unit. The force of gravity on a
weight of 1 gram, for example, is 980 dynes.) In
general, if Q units of charge are acted upon by a

force F in an electrostatic field, then the intensity
of the field E F/Q.
is
EXAMPLE 1: Ten unit test charges are inserted

into the electric field about a charged body and
(b) TWO LIKE CHARGES
experience a force of repulsion of 200 dynes. What Fig. 10. Lines of Force Representing the Electric Field Be-
is the field intensity at that point? tween Unlike Charges (a) and Between Like Charges (b)
.
glass plate and scattered some cigarette ashes or tween the charges. If the charges are alike (both -f
fine cork filings between them, you would observe or both — ) , the force will be one of repulsion, while
the particles arrange themselves in a pattern indi- for unlike charges the force is one of attraction.
cated by the lines of force in Fig. 10a or b, de- Moreover, became evident that the force between
it
pending on the polarities of the charges. the charges was influenced by the medium in
Coulomb's Law of Force. Our experiments have which the charges were placed. All these relation-
shown that Uke charges repel and unlike charges ships are summarized in simple form by Coulomb's
attract each other, but we do not know the mag- Law of Force. According to his law, the force (F)
nitude of the force of attraction or repulsion. To between two point charges, qi and q2, is
establish the magnitude of the force, the French
physicist Charles a. de coulomb ( 1736-1806) made
a series of quantitative measurements of the forces
between two charges by means of a torsion balance. where
F= ^kr^
between the charges and

r is the distance
Using this device with varying charges and dis- k is called the dielectric constant of themedium.
tances, and in difiêrent surroundings, Coulomb was This constant is taken as unity for a vacuum and
able to show in 1785 that the force between con- it is nearly so for air at normal pressure and tem-
centrated (point) charges varies directly with the perature ( k = 1.000586 ) For glass k varies from 4
.
product of the individual charges, and inversely to 8, for paper it is 2.5, for quartz 4.5, etc. The re-
with the square of the distance between them. As lations expressed by Coulomb's law are shown in
we shall see in the next chapter, thislaw of force schematic form in Fig. 11 for two point charges (in
also holds true for magnetic fields, and as a matter vacuum )
of fact, the inverse square law is valid for practi- Once we have chosen appropriate units for the
cally all fields of force, including gravitation. force (F) Coulomb's Law
and the distance (r).
Coulomb also estabhshed that the magnitude of serves to define the unit charge we have previously
the force is the same for attraction or repulsion be- mentioned. An electrostatic imit charge (abbrevi-
F =
'2r-
(t)
FORCE OF AHRACTION FORCE OF AHRACTION WAS
GREAT AS IN (a)
FORCE OF ATTRACTION
fid
€ TIMES AS GREAT
AS IN (a)
Fig. 11. Coulomb's Law for two Point Chargei

) . )
ated esu) defined as a charge which will repel

is The potential (symbol V) at a point in an electric
another unit charge of the same sign with a force field is said tobe one volt if one joule of work
of one dyne, when the distance between the charges (0.737 ft-lbs) must be performed to bring one
( in a vacuum ) is one centimeter (2.54 cm = 1 inch). coulomb of charge from infinity to the point in
The electrostatic unit charge (esu), which is some- question. The potential (V) thus expresses the work
times referred to as the statcoulomb, is a very small (in joules) per unit charge (coulomb) transferred. A
unit. A much larger unit, called the coulomb, is the potential of 10 volts, hence, represents an expendi-
equivalent of three billion (3X 10») esu. A coulomb ture of energy of 10 joules per coulomb, 50 volts is
of charge will exert a force of 9 X 10* newtons, or the equivalent of 50 joules energy per coulomb,
9 X 10* dynes, on another coulomb of charge, when and so on.

separated from by a distance of one meter (39.37
it Potential at a Point. The potential at a point in
inches). An example will clarify the use of the an electric field is a measure of the work that must
units. be done to bring a unit positive charge from in-
EXAMPLE 2: Compute the force of repulsion in air finity to the point in question. The greater the
(assume k = 1) between a point charge of +30 esu charge that is responsible for the electric field, the
and a point charge of +20 esu, for a distance of 10 more work must be done to bring the unit charge
cm between the charges. to the point against the repelling effect of the field
and, hence, the greater is the potential. The poten-
= +30X+20 =
600
SoZîton: F=
qiq2
y- = ^,
6 dynes. tial in the vicinity of a concentrated (point) charge,
^^^^-^^^ jOO thus, is directly proportional to the amount of the
you life an object from the

Electric Potential. If charge (Q). Further, the closer the unit charge must
floor and place it on a shelf, you vwll have per- be brought to the repelling field of the point
formed a certain amount of work equal to the charge, the more work must be done, and, conse-
weight of the object (force of gravity) times the quently, the greater is the potential. The potential
distance (height) you have lifted it. This work is at a point near a concentrated charge is therefore
inversely proportional to the distance (r) between
stored in the object in the form of potential energy,
which will be retinrned in the form of energy of the charge and the point in question. These two
motion (kinetic energy), when the object is dropped relations may be summarized by the simple for-
from the shelf and hits the floor. Similarly, when mula:
V— ^
you move a charged body in an electric field
against its opposition, you will have performed a where V is the potential at a distance r from a point
certain amount of work, which is stored as poten- charge of Q units, and k is the dielectric constant of
tial energy. If the field is uniform in intensity, the the medium. If the charge is expressed in electro-
work done (potential energy stored) is the product static units (esu)and the distance in centimeters
of the constant force and the distance the charge is (cm), the potential (V) will be in ergs per unit
moved against the force. If the field is not uniform, charge ( also sometimes called esu )
the force varies from point to point, and the work you want to find the potential in the vicinity
If
isnot easily determined. In either case, the work of a number of concentrated point charges, simply
performed in moving the charge to a certain point add up the potentials due to each separate charge.
in the field is equal to the potential energy stored An example will clarify the procedure.
by the charge. EXAMPLE 4 ( Fig. 12 ) : Three charges of +7, +49,
In electricity, the potential energy is known as and +21 esu, respectively, are placed at the north,
the electric potential and its significance is the same west and east points of a circle of 7 cm radius, as
as that of the mechanical level or height to which shown in the figure. Compute the total potential at
an object Accordingly, the electric poten-
is lifted. the center (point D) and at the south point (point
tial at a point in an electric field is defined as the E ) of the circle. ( Assume vacuum as a medium.
work done in moving a unit positive charge from Solution: The potential at the center (point D) of
an infinitely great distance to the particular point. the circle is the sum of the individual potentials
(The distance must be "infinitely great" since the Q/kr, where r equals the radius. Hence,
influence of an electric field theoretically extends Vd = QaAt + Qe/kr + Qo/kr =
to infinity, though in practice its effects are meas- 7 49 21
= 11 esu
, ,
urable only over a certain range. 1X7^1X7^1X7

—
rhe potential at the south point (point E) may be

determined by computing first the distances from
the charges to point E. The distance from Q^ to
point E equal to the diameter, or 14 cm. The dis-
is
tance from either Qg or Q^, to point E is the length

of the hypotenuse of a right triangle, formed by
the radii of 7 cm each. This distance, thus, is
\/7^ + V = \/98 = 9.9 cm. The potential at point

E (Vj;), hence, is
7 49 21
y = 7.57 em.
1 X 14 1 X 9.9 1 X 9.9
Q^ =7esu
POTENTIAL
If
— HIGH POTENTIAL
DIFFERENCE ,
„,., „„.,„,^,„
Yy^B LOW POTENTIAL
.__i vaH
1 COULOMB
Fig. 13. The Potential Difference Between 4 and B is Equal

to the Work Done in Moving a Unit (+) Charge from 4 to B
a positive charge of 1 coulomb from point A to

point B, along a line of force joining the two points.
(Here point B is referred to as having a higher po-
tentialthan point A.) Actually, it is not necessary
that we perform work in moving the charge against
the line of force. The work may be done by the
charge in being repelled from point B to point A
Vp=^+^ Kr, Ktt
"^
"
Kcj along a line of force. In either case, the potential
II
difference is 1 volt work is performed
if 1 joule of
or recovered in moving
coulomb between points
1
A and B. Note that the motion has to be with or
against the field along a line of force. No work is
Kr,' Kr^ Kr,
performed in moving across a hne of force, as we
shall see presently.
1X14 1x9.9 1X3-9
Evidently, if the work performed in moving a
Ve = OS +4.95 +2.iz=7.5T unit charge from one point to another is equal to
the potential difference (V) between the points, the
Fig. 12. Calculating Total Potential at a Point
work (W) done in moving any charge Q between
the points must equal the product of the charge
Potential Difference. The absolute potential at a
and the potential difference, or expressed as a for-
point is rarely important in practice. We are usually
interested in the work performed in moving a unit
'"^^^'
W = QV
positive chargefrom one specific point to another, where the work (W) will be in joules, if the charge
rather than moving it from infinity to some point. (Q) is expressed in coulombs and the potential dif-
The work done in moving a unit charge, say, from ference (V) is in volts.
point A to point B (see Fig. 13) is simply the dif- EXAMPLE 5: What work is done, when a charge
ference in potential between points A and B. Thus, of 25 coulombs is ti-ansferred between two points
a potential difference of 1 volt is said to exist behaving a potential difference of 30 volts?
tween points A and B (in Fig. 13), if it requires an Solution: The work performed Q V 25 X W= =
expenditure of energy of 1 joule {W ergs) to move 30 =
750 joules. (1 joule 10^ ergs.) =
Potential Gradient. If an electric field is of uni-
form strength, the potential changes smoothly in EQU1P0TWT\M

equal increments, when moving equal distances LIMES
along a line of force. This change of potential with
distance along the lines of force measures the rela-
tive steepness of the field, or as it is usually called,
the potential gradient of the field. Potential gradient
may be expressed in any convenient unit, such as

volts/cm, volts/meter, or volts/inch. Thus, if the
potential changes by, say, 254 volts for every 10
inches, when moving along a line of force, then the
potential gradient 254/10 or 25.4 volts per inch.
is
Equivalently, since an inch contains 2.54 cm, the

gradient may be expressed as 10 volts/cm, or as UNES OF FQKCt
1000 volts/meter. This gradient remains the same,

(a)
no matter where it is measinred within the uniform
field.
If non-uniform, such as that surround-

the field is
ing a point charge or a charged sphere, the poten- EQOIPQTIMTIM SOWACE
tial does not change equally for equal increments
in distance along a line of force. The potential
gradient in such a non-uniform field, consequently,

changes from point to point and it must be speci- UNtS OF FOR«
fied for a particular point within the field. The po-
is generally greatest near abruptly
tential gradient
changing projections or sharply pointed areas on
the surface of charged bodies, and it is these
pointed areas that are most likely to 'leak" elec-
tricity in the form of corona or brush discharge.
Equipotential Lines and Surfaces. Just as the sur-
veyor draws contour lines on a map to specify all
(b)
places of equal elevation or level, lines may be
drawn through the electric field surrounding a Fig. 14. Equipotential Lines (a) and Surface (b) around
a Concentrated Charge
charged body along which the potential everywhere
will be the same. Such hues are called equipoten-
tial lines. Let us draw a few of these equipotential a charge along an equipotential line. We
now un-
lines around a concentrated charge. (See Fig. 14.) derstand why it is necessary tliat a charge move
From our previous formula for the potential in the along a line of force so that work may be done by
vicinity of a point charge (V =Q/k r), we know it or on it. Moreover, an electric current— which
that the potential is everywhere the same at a fixed consists of charges in motion— will always flow
distance "r" from such a charge. We therefore along lines of force that exhibit a difference in po-
simply draw a series of circles of varying radii (r) tential and never along equipotentiaJ lines. This is
around the point charge as center to obtain the the only way a current can perform useful work.
Note that these The concept of equipotential lines is easily ex-
equipotential lines in such a field.
concentric circles are everywhere perpendicular to tended to three dimensions. The potential near a
the lines of force emanating from the point charge. point charge or charged sphere is, of course, every-
where the same on a spherical shell of a certain
By definition, the work done in moving a unit
charge between two points equals the potential radius with the charge at the center (Fig. 14b).
difference between these points. Since the potential Such a shell is called an equipotential surface. The
along an equipotential line is everywhere the same, equipotential siurfaces around a point charge or
charged sphere consist of a series of concentrlo
there no potential difference between any points
is
on such a line, and hence no work is done in moving spherical shells.

STORING ELECTRICAL CHARGE- This plate, therefore, acquires an excess of electrons

THE CAPACITOR and becomes negatively charged. At the same time
the influence of the positive battery terminal at-
As we have seen, the potential at any point in
away from conducting plate A. An
tracts electrons
space near a charged conductor is proportional to
equal number of electrons will therefore flow out
the charge on it. It follows that the potential right
of plate A and through the connecting wire into
at the surface of the conductor must also be pro-
portional to the charge on it. Moreover, the poten-
the positive battery terminal. As a result, plate A
acquires a deficiency of electrons and becomes
tial at the surface of a charged conductor, such as
positively charged. This initial rush of charges,
a sphere or a plate, must everywhere be the same,
when the capacitor is first connected to the battery,
since othervwse the charges would move under the
is known as the displacement current or the charg-
influence of a potential difference. We can express
ing current. The current ceases when each of the
the proportionality between the charge and the
plates has been charged to the same potential as
potentialanywhere on the surface of a charged
that of its respective battery terminal, since then
conductor by the relation
no difference of potential remains to provide the
Q = CV motive power for charges to flow. With each of the
where C is a proportionality constant known as the
plates charged to the same potential as the re-
electrical capacitance of the conductor. Numeri-
spective battery terminal, the difference of poten-
cally, the capacitance is equal to the charge re-
tial (V) between tlie plates is, of course, exactly the
quired to bring a unit increase in potential. For a
same as that between the battery terminals. A ca-
sphere, as an example, the capacitance (in air) turns
pacitor, thus, always charges itself to the voltage
out to be equal to its radius in centimeters, if both
of the source.
the charge and the potential are expressed in elec-
Each plate by itself, in the absence of the other
trostatic units (esu).
charge that de-
plate, acquires, of course, a certain
The Plate Capacitor. The capacitance of isolated
pends on the capacity of the plate and the poten-
conductors is not of great interest, since it is too
small to permit storing a sizeable amount of charge.
tial of the source (Q =
C V). As we have seen, the
amount of this charge is small because the capaci-
It is found, however, that the electrical capacitance
tance of an individual plate is low. When the two
by
of a conductor can be increased substantially
charged plates are brought close together, how-
bringing a second conductor close to Such an it.
ever, they estabhsh a strong electric field between
arrangement of two conductors, separated by an
them, with lines of force extending from the posi-
insulator or dielectric (air, paper, etc.), is called a
tive to the negative plate. As indicated by the
capacitor because of its ability to store electric
evenly spaced, straight lines of force in Fig. 15, the
charge. (The obsolete term "condenser" is still used
field between the plates is uniform in strength, ex-
occasionally.) Let us look at the action of a typi-
cept near the edges where the lines "fringe" out.
cal capacitor, consisting of two parallel conducting
Because of the presence of the field the opposite
plates separated by an air dielectric. (See Fig. 15.)
charges on the plates are strongly attracted toward
As shoviTi in the illustration, the two conducting
each other and are concentrated on each plate. As
plates have been connected by means of wires to
a result more "room" becomes available on each
the positive and negative terminals, respectively, of
plate for an inflow of additional charges. The ca-
a battery, which serves as a source of electric
pacitance of the combination, which is the ratio of
charges (electrons). When the connection is first
totalcharge stored to the potential difference be-
made, electrons rush out of the negative terminal of
the battery and flow through the wire into plate B.
tween the plates (C =
Q/V), is tliereby increased.
A more sophisticated and accurate way of look-
ing at the action of a capacitor is to consider tlie
—
tL
PUTEA
T?'^
\±±+±J — 'FRINGING" FIELD
potential of the plates.
initially
Assume
separated by a sufficient distance to have
that the plates are
BAHERY ^( ! \ no influence on each other. When connected to the

battery, each plate will charge to the potential of
the respective battery terminal, as we have ex-
plained before. The charge on each plate is deter-
mined by its capacitance and the potential of the
Fig. 15. Principle of Parallel Plate Capacitor battery terminal. Now let the negative plate (B) be
brought in close proximity to the positively charged A = area of one plate in square inches
plate (A). Since plate B is negatively charged, it d = separation between the plates in
will establish a negative potential in space at plate inches
A. This negative potential will subtract from the k = dielectric constant of the medium
positive potential of plate A and, hence, momen-
ratio of POSmVEPUTE
lower Since capacitance tlie
tarily it.
=
is
/
^
charge to potential (C Q/V) and the charge has
not yet changed, the capacitance must have in-
creased with the lowered potential. With the ca- NEGATIVE OR
pacitance increased, more charge will now flow into GROUNDED PLATE
the plates, until the potential difference between 4.4sa

the plates is again equal to tliat of the battery and
a new balance is attained. This total charge will Fig. 16. Capacitance of Parallel-Plate Capacitor (a) and
remain on the plates, even after they are discon- Schematic Circuit Symbol (b)
nected from the battery.
Capacitance of Parallel-Plate Capacitor. By defi- The illustration (Fig. 16fe) also shows the circuit
nition, the capacitance of any capacitor is the ratio symbol of any type of capacitor, used for schematic
of the charge stored by its plates to the potential circuit diagrams. Note that the straight line indi-
difiFerence between them, or expressed as a formula cates the positive or high-potential plate of the ca-
pacitor, while the curved Une indicates the negative
or low-potential plate of the capacitor. This plate
V is usually connected to a common circuit ground.
where the capacitance (C) vwll be in farads, if the As evident from the formula, capacitance also
is
charge (Q) is expressed in coulombs and the poten-
depends on the dielectric constant (k) of the
tial difference (V) in volts. The farad, however, is a
medium. Although the dielectric constant of air is
very large unit and, hence, two smaller units are frequently used as a
only 1 (approximately), it is
used in practice: one is the microfarad (abbreviated dielectric in capacitorsbecause it does not lose any
/if), which is a millionth of a farad (1 fii
1(>~* — of the charge supphed to the capacitor, while other
farad); the other the micromicrofarad (abbrevi-
is
dielectrics do waste a certain amount of it. Be-
ated /ii/xf), miUionth of a microfarad or a
which
a is
cause of the low dielectric constant, air capacitors
trillionth of a farad (i.e., 1 ,t/xf 10-« ixi IQ-i^ = = require large plates, and moreover, the plates can-
farad).
not be spaced too closely because of the possibility
EXAMPLE 6: What
the capacitance of a capaci-
is
of breakdown of the dielectric and arcing over be-
tor that has a charge of 1/10 coulomb stored on its
tween the plates, when their potential difference is
plates and a potential difference of 1000 volts be-
high. Other dielectrics not only have a greater di-
tween them? but generally also a substan-
electric constant (k)
Solution: C = Q/V = 0.1/1000 = 0.0001 farad = tially greater dielectric strength against arc-overs.
lOO/oif.
Table III hsts the dielectric constants of some com-
In the case of a paraUel-plate capacitor, the ca- monly used capacitor dielectrics.
pacitance is easily computed. As shown in Fig. 16,
the capacitance of this type increases directly with Tabve III
the area of either plate and with the dielectric con- Dielectric Material Dielectric Constant (k)
stant (k) of the medimn between them. The capaci- 1.00
Air
tance also increases as tlie separation (d) between 2.0-2.6
Paper
the plates is made smaller, as we have seen before.
Castor Oil 4.3-4.7
Inserting the proper proportionahty factor and tak-
5-9
Mica (electrical)
ing into account the units used, a simple approxi- 4.2-7.0
Glass (electrical)
mate formula for the capacitance of such a two- Mycalex 8
plate capacitor, turns out: 2.5-3.0
Lucite
k A
C (iiiJii)
^
= Polystyrene 2.6
4.45 d Polyethylene 2.3
where C =^ capacitance in micromicrofarads (1 Steatite Materials 6.1
farad = lO^^ îî) EXAMPLE 7: What is the capacitance of a paral-

having 2 in. x 2 in. plates, sepa-

lel-plate capacitor A
body is charged when it has either a deficiency
rated by 10-mil thick polystyrene dielectric? (1 in. oran excess of electrons. A negatively charged body
= 1000 mils) has an excess of electrons; a positively charged
Solution: body has a deficiency of electrons. Like charges of
^ kA 2.6X(2X2) electricity repel each other; unlike charges attract

C= = 234 micromicrofarads. each other.
4.45 d 4.45 X 0.01 All charges reside on the outside of a conducting
Practice Exercise No. 2 surface.

A charged body is surrounded by an electric field.
1. Why does your hair "stand on end" when it is
The direction of the field at any point is the direc-
vigorously combed on a dry day?
tion in which a positive test charge would be urged
Explain what happens if the leaves of a charged
2.
to move; the intensity (strength) of the field is the
electroscope first converge and then diverge again,
magnitude of the force per unit charge. Both quan-
when a test charge is gradually moved toward its metal
tities are represented by the direction and number
disk.
3. Why are two suspended pith balls first attracted
(per unit area) of the lines of force of the field.
when a charged rod is brought near them, and then The force between concentrated point charges
repelled after contact? Why do the balls cling together varies directly with the product of the
two charges
ifone is brought in contact with a charged hard-rubber and inversely vdth the square of the distance be-
rod and the other with a charged glass rod?
4. A copper sphere is mounted on an insulated stand. tween them. Coulomb's Law: F = 2i_r
Explain how you would charge the sphere positively
kr^
(a) by contact and (b) by induction. A
charge of 1 esu in free space placed 1 cm dis-
5. How would you prove that no charge can reside tant from an equal charge will repel the latter with
on the inside of a conducting body. a force of 1 dyne. One coulomb equals 3 X 10* esu.
6. If 12 positive test charges experience a force of The potential at a point in an electric field is the
360 dynes, when inserted into an electric field, what is work done on or by a unit charge in moving from
the strength (intensity) of the field? infinity to the point. The potential (volts) expresses
7. Two small charged bodies with charges of -f-lO the work (joules) per unit charge (coulomb) trans-
esu and —50 esu, respectively, are placed in air 10 cm ferred.
apart. What is the force between them?
A potential difference of 1 volt exists between two
8. Two
concentrated equal charges in air repel each
other with a force of 1600 dynes over a distance of 30
points, if 1 joule of energy is expended to move a
charge of 1 coulomb between the points. Potential
cm. (a) What is the amount of each charge and (b)
what the field intensity gradient is the change of potential per unit distance
is at the location of each
charge? in an electric field.
9. Equal charges of -|-20 esu each are placed at two The potential is everywhere the same along
corners of an equilateral triangle having sides of 5 cm. equipotential lines and surfaces, and no work is
(a) Find the potential at the third comer and (b) that done in moving a charge along these lines or sur-
at the center of the side joining the two charges. (As- faces. Lines of force are perpendicular to the equi-
sume K= 1) potential lines or surfaces.
10. What work
done when 50 coulombs are trans-
is
The capacitance of a conductor (or capacitor) is
ferred between two points having a potential differ-
the ratio of the charge stored by it to its potential
ence of 120 volts?
11. The potential in a uniform electric field
(or potential difference between its plates) : C=
is found
Q/V. If the charge is expressed in coidombs and
to change by 12 volts every 3 inches. What is the po-
the potential (or potential difference) in volts, the
tential gradient in volts/in and in volts/ft?
12. The charge on a parallel-plate air capacitor is
capacitance is in farads. (1 farad lO^^ = 10^^=
found be 0.12 coulombs for a potential difFerence of
to
2400 volts between the plates, (a) What is its capaci- The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor
tance? (b) If the plates are separated by 1.15 mils, kA
what are the dimensions of each plate? (two plates) in micromicrofarads is: C = .
4.45 d
where k is the dielectric constant of the material be-
SUMMARY
tween the plates, A is the area of one plate (in
Any two dissimilar materials may be electrically square inches) and d is the separation between the
charged by friction. plates (in inches).
CHAPTER THREE
MAGNETISM
Magnetism has been a familiar experience as long most permanent magnets known when used as alloys
as electricity, but it took over two thousand years to
with iron. Thus, the powerful modem alnico mag-
discover the connection between the two. The an- nets consist of varying proportions of aluminmn,
cient Greeks are said to have observed that pieces nickel, and copper. A new cobalt-
cobalt, iron
platinum alloy, using no iron at all, is claimed
of a black mineral ore, knovm as lodestone or
to be 24 times stronger than even these powerful
magnetite, were able to pick up small bits of iron.
alnico magnets. In contrast, the temporary magnets
The Chinese discovered independently that splin-
ters of lodestone rocks would orient themselves in we have mentioned are made of soft iron rods, that
are contained in the coils of electromagnets. These
the north-south direction, if freely suspended by a
thread. These are among the fundamental proper- soft-iron magnets can be powerfully magnetized,
magnetic substances. Until modem times but they retain their magnetism only while the
ties of all
magnetic were studied by means of these
effects electrical current is on, except for a small amount,
all
weak natm-al magnets, since no others were avail- called residual magnetism.
It appears that magnetism is not distributed uni-
able. After HANS CHEiSTiAN OERSTED (1777-1851) dis-
covered the relation between electricity and mag- formly over the surface of a magnet, but is concen-
trated near the ends, in regions known as poles. A
netism (in 1820), it became possible to make power-
ful artificial magnets by electrical means. These may
simple experiment wiU confirm this.
exhibit magnetic properties either permanentiy or

EXPERIMENT 4: Obtain a straight bar magnet, as
temporarily. AH magnets used in practice are arti- shown in Fig. 17. You can make a bar magnet, if
ficially produced. you have a horseshoe magnet available, by stroking
a rod or bar of steel vdth one end of the horseshoe
magnet a number of times. The steel bar vdU then
FUNDAMENTAL MAGNETIC PROPERTIES be magnetized.
Magnets have the ability to attract iron. How

strong this abihty depends on the material the
is
magnet is made of. Artificial magnets are generally

made of iron and steel, and are magnetized either
by stroking with another artificial magnet or by be-
ing placed in the field of an electromagnet (de-
scribed in a later chapter). The harder the steel the
magnet is made of, it will hold its mag-
the longer
netism, the property of permanence being called
retentivity. Tungsten steel, chrome steel and cobalt
IRON PILINGS
steel make some of the most retentive permanent Fig. 17. Magnetic Attraction is Confined to the Ends
magnets. A number of materials, such as cobalt and (Poles) of a Magnet
nickel, have magnetic properties similar to iron and

steel, but weaker, and are called ferromagnetic sub- If you now dip the bar magnet into a pile of iron
stances. Many other substances, paramag-
known as filings,you vdll observe large clusters clinging to
netic, exhibit magnetism to a very shght degree, but the bar near its ends, but practically no filings will
not enough to be useful. A few substances are ac- be picked up near the center of the bar. This con-
tually shghtly repelled by a magnet and these are firms that magnetism is confined principally to the
known as diamagnetic. It is an interesting fact that ends (poles) of a magnet. Moreover, accurate tests
some of the ferromagnetic substances, though mag- show that the two poles of a magnet have exactly
netically weak by themselves, make the hardest and the same strength.
28
EXPEBiMENT 5: Suspend a bar magnet from a piece of iron, but the poles of two magnets vdU not
thread near its center, so that it may freely turn always attract each other. An Itahan soldier, Pere-
about its axis. (See Fig. 18.) After a tew oscillations grinus, discovered as early as 1269 a.d. that the
the magnet will point in a general north-south di- north pole of a magnet will repel the north pole of
rection, as you can easily check with an inexpensive another magnet; he found this to be true also for
magnetic compass, based on the same principle the south poles of two magnets. When he ap-
(Fig. 18). No matter how often you repeat the ex- proached the north pole of one magnet with the
periment, you will note that the same end of the south pole of another magnet, however, he found
magnet always pomts in the northerly direction, that these would attract each other. You can easily
while the other end always points (approximately) verify this fact by approaching the north pole of a
south. For this reason, the end of the magnet that compass needle (usually painted blue) with the
always points toward the northern regions of the north pole of a bar magnet. You wdll find that the
earth is called the north-seeking or north (N) pole, point of the needle is violently repelled and the
while the other end termed the south-seeking or

is needle will rotate until its south-seeking pointer is
south (S) pole. This is the principle of the magnetic opposite the north pole of the magnet. If you now
compass, which has been of greatest importance to turn the bar magnet around so that its south pole
navigation. faces the south point of the compass needle, the
needle will again be repelled and whirl around to
bring its north pole into ahgnment with the south
pole of the bar magnet. (See Fig. 19)
eEOGRAPHICNOSTH 'ST.
oimrsspoia ^
CEOIHAPHIC SOUTH
Fig. 19. Like Poles Repel. Unlike Poles Attract
Fig. 18. A Suspended Magnet Always Rotates to the North-

From this behavior we deduce the general nde
South Direction
that unlike magnetic poles attract each other and
The reason that a magnet or compass needle will like poles repel. This is similar to the rule in electro-
always turn to the north-south direction is that the statics, that unlike charges attract each other and
earth itself is a giant magnet with two poles. The like charges repel, except that the poles of a magnet
magnetic poles do not coincide, however, wdth the always occur in pairs and cannot be isolated like
earth's geographic poles, magnetic north being lo- electric charges. As a matter of fact, poles are not
cated in northern Canada, almost 1500 miles from essential to magnetic behavior. If you bend the
geographic north. Magnetic south is at the opposite poles of a horseshoe magnet together or join the
point of the globe, at the same distance from geo- ends of a magnetized ring, you will have a perfectly
graphic south. Moreover, since hke poles repel and good magnet that does not exhibit any poles. If you
unlike poles attract (as we shall presently see), the break the ring into two parts, however, each of the
north-seeking pole of a compass actually points to- pieces will again exhibit north and south poles at
ward the magnetic south pole, while the south- its ends. Moreover, you can break each of the pieces
seeking pole points toward the magnetic north pole into as many parts as you wish and, again, each of
of the earth. To avoid confusion, the south magnetic the broken bits will show a north pole and a south
pole is designated as magnetic north and the north pole near its two ends. This behavior indicates that
magnetic pole as magnetic south. Since there is still magnetism is associated with the molecular and
a considerable discrepancy between magnetic and atomic structiu-e of matter, as we shall see later on.
geographic north, corrections for this error, known Paralleling the induction of charges in electro-
as declination, must be made at each specific loca- staticswithout contact, there is the similar phe-
tion. nomenon of induced magnetism, as demonstrated
Either pole of a magnet can be used to attract a by the following experiment:
EXPEBiMENT 6: Pkce one pole (north or south) of LAW OF FORCE BETWEEN

a strong steel magnet at the edge of a table and MAGNETIC POLES
attach several tacks or small nails to the pole in Coulomb, who
The French physicist Charles A.
chain fashion, as illustrated in Fig. 20. You will find law of force between electric
the
discovered
that at least four or five unmagnetized tacks will
charges, also experimented with magnetic poles, us-
chng to the magnet and to each other without ing the same torsion balance method as for electro-
difficulty.
static forces. By suspending a long bar magnet
from a wire and bringing the pole of another mag-
net near a pole of the bar magnet, the poles either
t attracted or repelled each other, and in the process,
twisted the wire. A series of painstaking experi-
ments led him to conclude (in 1785) that the law of
inverse squares was also vaUd for the force be-
tween point (isolated) poles. (Poles may be consid-
ered "isolated" from each other at the ends of a
long, thin magnet.) Specifically, Coulomb's Law for
magnetic poles states that the force between point
poles is directly proportional to the product of the
^=^ r^^^ pole strengths and inversely proportional to the
Fig. 20. Induced Magnetism square of the distance between the poles. This re-
lation is expressed mathematically in the following
If you now remove the uppermost nail in the form:
chain from the magnet with a small pair of phers, mj Xmg
you will see the whole chain crumble to pieces, as F =
shown in the illustration (Fig. 20). This indicates
that the magnetization of the soft-iron tacks was where F is the force (of attraction or repulsion)
only temporary, under the influence of the magnet. in dynes
Since none but the uppermost tack were in direct mi and mg are the strengths of the two
contact with the magnet, the temporary magnetiza- poles, respectively
tion of the soft-iron bits is known as induced mag- r is the distance between the poles in cen-
netism. It -can also be shovim that the pole of the timeters

magnet induces an opposite pole in the nearest tack and ju depends on the medium in which the
(north induces south, as shown) and each of the poles are located.
tacks, in turn, induces an unhke pole in the end of The constant /x, called the permeability of the
the object clinging to it. If it were otherwise, the medium, shows the relative ease of magnetization
nails would repel rather than attract each other. of a material. Its value is unity for a vacuum and
All the properties of magnetization we have dis- practically that for air and other gases. As we shall
cussed are based on certain alignments of large see later on, the permeability is very high, in the
numbers of atoms (called domains), according to the order of several thousand, in iron and ferromag-
theory to be described later on. These domain netic materials.
ahgnments are disturbed if a magnet is jarred, ham- Coulomb's law of force serves to define the unit
mered, or heated, and partial demagnetization pole of magnetic strength: a unit pole is of such
takes place. If a magnet is heated to a certain strength (mj) that it wiU exert a force of one dyne
temperatvue, called the Ciurie point, the
critical upon an equal pole (ma) in vacuum, when placed at
magnetic alignment is completely upset by the a distance of 1 cm away from it. This unit pole is
thermal vibrations of the molecules, and all mag- sometimes referred to as the electromagnetic unit
netism disappears. This, then, is one way of de- (e.m.u.) of pole strength.
magnetizing a permanent magnet. A better and EXAMPLE Find the force of repulsion between
1:
faster way is to place the magnet in the field of an an isolated north pole (of a long, thin magnet) of
alternating current, in a demagnetizer. This method 40 e.m.u. strength, which is placed in air at a dis-
is based on electromagnetic properties, which we tance of 6 cm from a like pole of 30 e.m.u. strength.
shall describe in a later chapter. Solution:

m, m„ 40 X 30 = 1200 = actually cannot exist, does not detract from the con-
F = -i-^ = 33.3 dynes
^ venience of the concept. In practice, a small com-
;i*r2 1X62 36
pass needle approximates the action of such a test
EXAMPLE 2: Compute the net force between two
pole.
30-cm long bar magnets that are placed in line on
The strength or intensity of the magnetic field at
a table, with their south poles 10 cm apart and their
a point is defined as the force that would be exerted
north poles 70 cm apart. Assume that the strength
on a unit north pole placed at that point. The unit
of each pole is 140 e.m.u. and is concentrated at a
of field intensity is called the oersted, after the Dan-
point at the ends of each magnet. The medium is
ish physicist hans christian oeested (1777-1851),
air. (Fig. 21.)
who discovered the fundamental electromagnetic ac-
Solution: (See Fig. 21.) Four forces act on the
tions. The oersted, thus, represents the intensity of
magnets, two of repulsion between the S poles and
a magnetic field in which a imit magnetic pole ex-
between the N poles, and two of attraction between
periences a force of one dyne. Accordingly, iJF a pole
N and S poles. Thus, the forces of repulsion are:
of strength m
experiences a force of F dynes at a
140 X 140 19,600
= 196 dynesj point in a magnetic field, the field intensity (symbol
1X10^ 100 H) at that point is
140 X 140 19,600 F

4 dynes H = — (oersteds)
1 X 702 4,900 m
The forces of attraction are: We can easily derive the around a field intensity
140 X 140 19,600 pole of known strength M

Cou- by substituting
12.25 dynes; lomb's law for the force (F) in the formula above.
1 X 402 1 600
Thus,
140 X 140
M Xm
12.25 dynes
1X402 M
Hence, the net force will be (196 + 4) — (12.25 + H =-F =
12.25) = 175.5 dynes repulsion.
m m
where r is the distance from the pole and ^ is the
MO em-ii 140e.m.n MOe.m.u. 140 e.m.u. permeabihty.
tNjSJiaiaaial!iiaas1.i-iociii-Js^
•Mcm- 30cm
HL EXAMPLE 3: An isolated north pole of 30 e.m.u.
strength is placed the magnetic field svur-
(in air) in
Fig. 21. Force Between Two Bar Magnets (Example 2) rounding a magnetic pole of unknown strength and
is repelled by it with a force of 240 dynes. If the
MAGNETIC FIELDS AND LINES OF FORCE distance between the north pole and the unknown
pole is 5 cm, what is (a) the field intensity at that
A
permanent magnet exerts a force on a piece of
point and (b) the strength and polarity (N or S) of
iron or on another magnet placed at some distance
the unknovim pole?
from it. We like to explain such mysterious "action
Solution:
at a distance" by a field of force which extends over
F
the space where the effects of the force can be felt. (a) field intensity
^ H = — =r —=
240
- • 8 oersteds.
To explain the pull of the earth on an object m 30
(weight), we speak of a gravitational field and the (b) strength ofunknown pole /hj2 8 M=H = X
region of influence around electric charges is re- 1 X 52 =r
200 e.m.u. Since the force is one of re-
ferred to as an electrostatic field. Similarly, the pulsion, the unknown pole must be a north pole.
region surrounding a magnet, where its influence Lines of Force. As was the case for electrostatics,
can be detected, is known as the magnetic field of lines of force may be drawn to represent the con-
force. Throughout this region magnetic poles or figuration of a magnetic field. The direction of the
substances will be subjected to a force that varies magnetic field at a point may be shown by drawing
in direction and amount as the pole or substance is the lines of force in the direction in which a unit
moved about in the field. The direction in which north pole would be urged to move.
a free (isolated) unit north pole would be urged to The strength of the field may be shown by draw-
move defines the direction of the magnetic field at ing a certain number of lines per unit area. For a
that point. The fact that such an isolated north pole bar magnet, for example, the direction of the lines
32
end,
Now place the bar magnet vertically on one
of force could be ascertained by carrying a smaU on top of the
the put the cardboard and iron filings
compass needle (serving as test pole) around with your
The needle will auto- other pole, while supporting the magnet
magnet, as shown in Fig. 22a. procedure, tapping
of force at hand. Repeat the previous
matically set itself parallel to the hnes themselves in the
of the sum- gently, until the filings arrange
direction
any point, thus indicating the south) pole shown
Fig. 22b pattern of an isolated (north or
total of all the forces (resultant)
upon it.
the lines of force about in Fig. 24. (The pole may be considered isolated,
indicates the portrayal of
little effect
be obtained in this way. since the other pole of the magnet has
a bar magnet that could procedure
upon it in this position.) Repeating the
for the other pole of the vertical

magnet, the same
general pattern will be seen to emerge.
F
,5
SSî^;^^* EXPERIMENT 8: Obtain another bar magnet similar
in size and strength to the one used
7. Place both magnets vertically
(vise) support, a few inches apart,

north pole and a free south pole
for experiment
on a table or in a
so that a free
extend vertically
up. Place a cardboard on top of the

two free poles,
sprinkle iron fiUngs on it, and tap. The

resulting
pattern will show hnes of force extending

from the
attraction
north pole to the south pole, indicating
between the two. (See Fig. 25.) Note the crowding
together of the lines near the poles, where
the field
is stiong, and their spreading

apart between the
poles, where the field is weaker.
Now reverse the position of one of the bar mag-
nets, so that either two north poles or two south

pole's face vertically upward.
Repeat the previous
procedure and obtain the pattern of repuhion be-
tween two hke poles, illusti-ated in Fig. 26. Note the

unlike
general similarity of the field patterns for
and hke poles in Figs. 25 and 26, respectively, tc

(b)
charges
those illustrated in Fig. 10 for electrostatic
Fig. 22. Exploring the Field About a Bar Magnet with a
EXPERIMENT Obtain an inexpensive horseshoe
9:
Compass Needle (a) and Representation of the
a card
Field by Lines of Force (b) magnet, place it flat on a table, and put
board over it. Sprinkle with iron fihngs and
tap
Note that the lines issue from the north pole and to obtain the field pattern shovra
in Fig. 27.
direc-
terminate on the south pole, since this is the Now
hold the magnet in vertical position or plac<
tion in which a unit north pole would tend to move. vertically up
itin a vise so that the poles extend
A much better to investigate the configura-
way on top of the poles and re
ward. Place a cardboard
sheet of
tion of a magnetic field is to place a thin holding thi
peat the previous procedure, while
cardboard over a magnet, sprinkle some fine iron
patten
paper with your hand. The resulting field
filings over and tap it gently. Each individual
it,
magnet shown in Fig. 2?
for a vertical horseshoe is
filing then becomes a temporary

magnet by induc-
Experiments 7 through 9 demonstrate graphicaU
the compass needle, in
tion and aligns itself, as concept for map
the the usefulness of the lines-of -force
the direction of the lines of force of the field at Faraday firs
works ping magnetic fields. When Michael
particular point. Let us see how this out for
the Unes c
inti-oduced tiie concept, he thought of
a number of typical fields. visualized thei
force as having physical reality and
EXPEBiMENT 7: Placc a sheet of cardboard over bands. Thus, the ai
and tap as "elastic tubes" or rubber
a bar magnet, sprinkle iron filings on it for exampL
shown in Fig. 23 emerges. traction between two unhke poles,
lightly until the pattern
explained mechanically by the tension
(
never cross each otlier and could be

Note that lines of force
shorten then
these elastic hibes: in attempting to
that they seem to repel each other sideways.
Fig. 23. Magnetic Field about Horizontal Bar Magnet Fig. 26.Magnetic Field about Two Like Poles of Vertical
Bar Magnets, Showing the Repulsion Between Them
Fig. 24. Magnetic Field about One Pole of Vertical

Bar Magnet . 27. Magnetic Field about a Horizontal
Horseshoe Magnet
ig. 25. Magnetic Field about the North Pole and South Pole
of Two Vertical BarMagnets, Showing the Attraction Fig. 28. Magnetic Field about a Vertically Placed
Between Them Horseshoe Magnet
selves the lines of force tend to pull the poles to- density (B) by the area (A) of the region. Expressed
gether. mathematically, the total flux
Modern theory considers the lines of force as an <^ = BXA
imaginary, but highly useful concept for mapping
EXAMPLE 4: A flux density of 20,000 gauss is ob-
magnetic fields and calculating their effects. To
make quantitative determinations appropriate units
served in a circular gap of 2 cm radius. What is
the total flux through the gap?
must be assigned. A single line of force represents
Solution: The area of the gap = ttT^ = 3.14 X 2?
the unit of magnetic flux in a field and called the
maxwell. The total magnetic flux (symbolized by
is
= 12.58 sq.cm. Hence the flux ^ = B A = 20,000
the Greek letter phi, <^) is a magnetic field, conse- X 12.58 =
252,000 maxwells (lines of force) or
0.00252 weber.
quently, is measured by the total number of lines
of force, or maxwells. (By convention, the magnetic
The flux density is the flux per unit area induced
in a certain substance. It depends, therefore, on the
flux is said to issue from the N pole of a magnet and
travels to the S pole.) Since the
field intensity as well as on the permeability of the
maxwell represents
a very small quantity of flux, a larger unit, called medium. The simple relation between flux density
(B) and field intensity (H) is
the weber, is frequently employed. One weber is
equal to 100,000,000 or JO* maxwells. The strength B = /^XH
of the field in any particular region is determined This relation is also used to define the permeability
by the number of lines of force traversing a unit of a mediiun as the ratio of flux density to field in-
area; that is, by the flux per unit area (<^ /A) in that tensity; that is,
region. This quantity is called the flux density /A = B/H

(symbol B) and it is expressed either in gauss
In vacuum or in air the permeability is unity
(maxwells/cm^) or webers/m^. It follows from this
(approximately) and, hence, the flux density (in
1 weber gauss) is numerically equal to the field intensity
that 1 weber/m* equals 10* gauss (that is,
1 m2 (in oersteds) for

these media. shall see in theWe
10® maxwells chapter on electromagnetism that the permeability
= 10* gauss). These relations are of magnetic substances is several thousand times
ia*cm2 that of air, permitting values of flux density in
conveniently summarized in Fig. 29. these substances that are far greater than can be
Since flux density is flux per unit area, it follows achieved in air. Magnetic materials (iron and ferro-
that the total flux through a region in a mag- magnetic alloys) are used, for this reason, to
(<^) guide
netic field may be obtained by multiplying the flux the flux in magnetic circuits.
aUX DENSITY (B)
1 meter
aUX PER UNIT AREA

TOTAL FLUX (0) = FLUX DENSITY (B)
UNIT OF aux
ONE MAXWELL 10* MAXWELLS B=0/A

= WEBER
1 MAXWaL/em*
(1 LINE OF FORCE) 1
= 1 GAUSS
(lLINE/cm»)
lWEBER/rt,»=|0+ GAUSS =.10*LINES /cm'
Fig. 29. Units of Magnetic Flux and Flux Density
k
THEORY OF MAGNETISM To explain large-scale magnetic behavior the

alignments of the uncompensated electron spins
Modem research has established that magnetism
must be considered. It is beheved that the uncom-
is not a fundamental phenomenon, but only one
pensated spins in a magnetic material have the
aspect of electrical behavior. The Danish physicist
same direction (i.e., are parallel) throughout a tiny
Oersted discovered in 1820 that an electric cunent
region of some 10^^ atoms, called a domain. (The
in a conductor is always surrounded by a magnetic
head of a common pin contains at least 6000 do-
field. This is the basis of electromagnetism. But it
mains.) The parallel electron spins within a single
was not until recently that it became evident that
domain produce an intense magnetic field in its
magnetism itself must be attributed to electrical
the domains in a magnetic
vicinity. Unfortunately,
charges in motion. Specifically, the motion of the
material, such as iron, are oriented in all conceiva-
electrons within the atom constitutes an electric
ble (random) directions and, hence, the internal
current and this tiny current exhibits a magnetic
fields of the domains ordinarily cancel out. (See
effect.
But when the material is magnetized, by
Fig. 30a.)
The orbital electrons wdthin the atom not only re-
subjectingit to an external magnetic field, the do-
volve about the nucleus, but they also spin about
mains begin to rotate—a few at a time—to align
their own axis and it is this motion that is responsi-
themselves with the external 30b.) This
field. (Fig.
ble for magnetic effects. In ordinary, non-magnetic
is a gradual process that depends on the strength
materials the same number of electrons spin clock-
of the magnetizing field and the duration of mag-
wise about their axes as spin counterclockwise and,
netization. Eventually, when all the domains have
consequently, there is no net internal spin or motion
"jumped" into alignment with the external field,
of charge present. Since the electron spins cancel
complete magnetization is attained and magnetic
out in these materials, they cannot be magnetized.
satin-ation is said to occur. (See Fig. 30c.)
In the atoms of ferromagnetic materials, however,
more electrons spin in one direction than in the
other. These tmcompensated or unbalanced elec- Practice Exercise No. 3
tron spins create small magnetic "twists" (called
1. What would you do to identify the poles of an
magnetic moments), which make each atom of a unmarked permanent magnet if you had (a) another
ferromagnetic material a tiny magnet. Since these marked magnet, (b) only a piece of string?
atomic magnets are oriented in random directions, 2. Why is repulsion a better test for polarity than
they do not produce observable overall magnetic attraction?
effects. 3. A steel bar is stroked from left to right witli tho
MAGNETIC FIELD
MAM A AAA AM A A/
r A
O'^^J t|tf^\\\\V
rf
f" m -tAl^
F
/
4 \
(a) UNMAGNETIZED
(b) PARTIALLY MAGNETIZED

(c) COMPLETELY MAGNETIZED
(SATURATION)
Fig. 30. Alignment of Domains When a Material is Magnetized

south pole of a permanent magnet. What is the po- Magnetism may be induced in a magnetic mate-
larity of the right end and that of the left end after rialby bringing it into the field of a magnet. In-
magnetization? duced magnetism in soft iron is only temporary.
4. A bar of steel that has been magnetized by strok- When a magnet is hammered or heated, it loses
ing with another magnet exhibits a north pole at each
its magnetism.
end. How is this possible?
The force between point poles is directly pro-
5. Two equal poles 6 cm apart in air repel each
other with a force of 64 dynes. What is the pole
portional to the product of the pole strengths and
strength? inversely proportional to the square of the distance
6. A 10-cm long bar magnet with pole strengths of between them. (F = m^ mg/yn r^)
300 e.m.u.— each is placed in a straight line with an- A unit magnetic pole (e.m.u.) placed at a distance
other bar magnet that is 12 cm long and has pole of 1 cm from an equal pole in vacuum or in air re-
strengths of 400 units each. If the north poles are 3 pels it with a force of 1 dyne.
cm apart, what is the force between the magnets? The intensity (strength) of a magnetic field at a
7. (a) Find the intensity of the magnetic field about
point is the force in dynes exerted on a unit north
a pole of 400 units strength at a distance of 10 cm. (b)
If a north pole placed at that point repelled with a
pole at that point. It is measured in oersteds. (H ^
F/m = M/;ar2)
is
force of 60 dynes, what is its strength?

8. The field intensity within
a hollow rectangular Lines of force are used to map the configuration
frame of 12 cm by 12 cm
found to be 500 oersteds.
is of a magnetic field and calculate its effects. A
What is (a) the flux density, and (b) the total flux pass- single line of force (1 maxwell) is the unit of
ing through the frame? magnetic flux. One weber equals 10* lines of force
or 10* maxwells. The total magnetic flux (<^) is equal
SUMMARY to the total number of lines of force, or maxwells.
Magnets have the It extends from the north to the south pole of a
and other
ability to attract iron
ferromagnetic substances. Magnets may be either magnet.
natural (lodestone, magnetite), or they can be made Flux density is the flux per unit area (B 4>/A). =
artificially by magnetization with another magnet or
It is measured in gauss (maxwells/cm^) or
in an electric field. webers/m^ (= 10* gauss). Total flux is the product
Magnets made of hard steel and ferromagnetic of flux density and area. (<^ = B X A.)
materials (cobalt, nickel, aluminum, etc.) are perma- Permeability is the ratio of flux density to field
nent; soft iron can be magnetized only temporarily, intensity, (ji = B/H.) It is a measure of the relative
but retains a small residual magnetism. ease of magnetization.
Magnetism is concentrated near the ends of a Magnetism is caused by uncompensated electron
magnet in the poles. The north-seeking (N) pole spins in the atoms of ferromagnetic materials. The
points toward geographic north (approximately), spins in a "domain" of about 10** atoms have the
the S pole toward geographic south, if the magnet same direction and produce intense, but random
is left free to rotate about its axis. oriented magnetic fields. Magnetization is pro-
Unlike magnetic poles attract; like poles repel duced by aligning the domains under the influence
each other. of an external magnetic field.
CHAPTER FOUR
SOURCES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
An electric current consists of charges (electrons) nuclei of radioactive materials or electromagnetic

in motion. the charges move, some driving
To make radiations. The six sources listed above are the
or electromotive force (emf) must be provided, as chief forms of primary energy capable of producing
we have seen in Chapter 1. Essentially, the electro- electricity. Of these the only significant source of
motive force that makes free electrons flow through commercial electrical power is the mechanical ac-
a conductor is their repulsion by negative charges tion of electric generators, wliich is based on elec-
and the equal attraction to positive charges. Hence, tromagnetic principles we shall study in a later
electron flow always takes place from a negatively chapter. As a source of emergencyand mobile elec-
charged source to a positively charged "sink." Most tric power the chemical action produced in bat-
substances are electrically neutral, however, since teries is also of some importance and, hence, we
the and negative charges within their

positive shall devote a separate chapter to electricity from
atoms are in balance.A certain amount of work chemical action (Chapter Five). The other soin-ces
must therefore first be performed to separate or mentioned are at the present time considered too
displace the electrical charges, so as to create a weak for electric power exploitation, but they have
surplus of electrons (negative charge) in a source of a great many applications in electrical instruments
electric current and a deficiency of electrons (posi- and in the field of electronics.
tive charge) in the sink. But, as we have seen in

Chapter 2, the work done in transferring charges
ELECTRICITY FROM HEAT (THERMAL EMF)
from one point to another is the difference in
potential between the points. Thus, the work per- When two dissimilar metals, such as a copper
formed in creating a difference of potential be- and an iron wire, are joined together at both ends
tween a current source and sink provides the elec- and one of the junctions is at a higher temperature
tromotive force that causes free electrons to flow. than the other, a difference of potential (emf) ap-
Of course, in flowing through a conductor, the pears between the wires and current flow through
electrons return the work, either by heating the the wires will result. Ciurent flow due to a thermal
conductor or doing useful tasks in a 'load." More- emf is known as the thermoelectric effect; it was
over, the flow of charges between source and sink discovered in 1821 by the German physicist thomas
equahzes the imbalance of charges and the current J.
SEEBECK (1770-1831). You can make a simple ex-
flow eventually will stop, unless the potential differ- periment to verffy the effect.
ence or emf is maintained in some way. EXPERIMENT 10: Twist together the ends of a cop-
Since all matter is essentially electrical, a poten- per (bell) wire and an iron wire, cut the copper
tial difference or emf that will serve as a source of wire near its center and connect the free ends to an
electric current can be obtained in many different inexpensive galvanometer or microampere meter.
ways. Wehave aheady learned that rubbing two (The meter will indicate zero current flow through
insulators together and then moving them apart the wires.) Now keep one of the junctions at a low
(glass and silk, for example) will develop a poten- temperature by inserting it in a glass of ice water
tial difference between the two by the separation and heat the other junction with a candle or bun-
of charges. In addition to electricity obtained by sen binrner, as shown in Fig. 31. As soon as this is
mechanical friction, we have referred to other done, the meter will deflect to indicate a current of
sources of electric current, including heat (thermo- several microamperes (1 microampere one mil- =
electricity), light (photoelectricity), pressure (piezo- honth ampere) flowing tlirough the wires. The
chemical action (electrochemistry), and
electricity), greater the difference in temperatures between the
mechanical motion of a conductor in a magnetic junctions, the greater will be the current, up to a
field (electromagnetism). These are by no means the certain point.

only sources, and we
could consider, for example, If the galvanometer is deflecting properly, the
the direct radiation of charged particles from the current must be flowing from the cold to the hot
37
IRON WOE
o
OS
1500
ICtWATHl
Fig. 31. Thermoelectric Current Resulting from Temperature

Difference Between Junctions of Dissimilar Wires
junction through the copper wire, and from the

hot to the cold jimction in the iron wire. You can
verify this by reversing the hot and cold junctions,
100° 200° 300° 400? 500'
exchanging the positions of the ice water and the
candle. The meter will now attempt to deflect in TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE IN CENTIGRADE
the opposite direction (but cannot, of course), in-
dicating that the current has also reversed. To make Fig. 32. Graph of Thermal Current (or Emf) against Tem-
perature Difference for Copper-Iron Jimctions
it deflect properly, you will have to reverse the
connections to the meter terminals.
temperatiure difference. Other combinations have
In case you have available an accurate ther-
mometer with a range of about 600° C, you can
emfs somewhere in between.
Applications. You may have noted in experiment-
obtain some quantitative data on the thermoelectric
ing with various metal junctions that some provide
effect. Start vdth approximately equal junction
a sufficiently high thermal emf to make it un-
temperatures and slowly increase the temperature
necessary to artificially cool one junction. Heating
difference. (You can do this by starting with a
one junction and leaving the other at room temper-
candle on one end and a glass of hot water of equal
ature is usually enough to provide a readable meter
temperature on the other. Let the water cool off
deflection. As a matter of fact, one heated junction
and after it reaches room temperature drop ice
of dissimilar wires is all that is required to show
cubes into it.) If you keep an acciu-ate record of
the temperatiure difference between the copper-iion
the effect. The free ends of the ^viês may be con-
nected to a galvanometer, which then constitutes
junctions, you will be able to plot a graph of
the cold junction and measures the thermal emf or
galvanometer cvurent versus temperature differ-
ciurent at the same time. Such a single junction of
ence, as shown in Fig. 32. This graph shows that
two different metals that are twisted, brazed or
the current goes up almost linearly, up to a tem-
riveted together at one end, is called a thermo-
peratmre difference of 300° Centigrade (540° F),
but decreases for temperatiure differences greater
couple. A typical thermocouple for commercial ap-
than that, reaching zero again for a temperature

difference of about 600° C (1080° F). If you make
the temperatiure difference still greater, the current
will start to flow in the opposite direction.
Instead of current, usually the emf produced be-
tween the junctions is measured. This is very small,
in the order of some millionths of a volt. For
copper-iron junction, this emf is found to be about
7 microvolts (millionths of a volt) per degree centi-
grade of temperature difference between the junc-
tions. For a copper-constantan junction, a pair of
metals frequently used, the emf developed is as
high as 40 microvolts per centigrade degree of Fig. 33. Practical Thermocouple
plications is illustrated in Fig. 33. The free ends ELECTRICITY FROM LIGHT
are connected to a measuring device. (PHOTOELECTRIC EMF)
Thermocouples are not used at the present time
As early as 1888 experiments showed that freshly
to furnish electric power, since the efifect is small.
polished zinc would lose a negative charge of elec-
It is a fairly simple matter, though, to connect a
number of couples together (in series), in a so-
tricity when exposed to ultraviolet hght. It was
called thermopile, to multiply the emf to a desired

found later that a large number of substances
showed this photoelectric effect, when they were
voltage. A few large thermopiles have been con-
structed, capable of producing currents of several
illuminated by ordinary, ultraviolet or infrared
light. In the case of the polished zinc and similar
amperes, which may eventually develop into prac-
thermogenerators.
light-sensitive materials, elections are actually
tical
The is for measuring
chief use of thermocouples
emitted from the surface of the material and photo-
emission is said to take place. Actually, there are
work. Thermocouples permit measuring a wide
three types of photoelectric devices, classified either
range of temperatures and are known as pyrome-
as photoemissive, photovoltaic, or photoconductive.
ters, when so used. The thermocouple is inserted
into a flame or furnace whose temperature is to be

Between them these exciting gadgets account for
measured and the wire ends are connected to a we encoun-

a multiplicity of the contiol application
ter every day. Photoelectiic devices may be made
sensitive meter, cahbrated directly in degrees of
temperature. Iron-constantan thermoelectric to operate a relay whenever a beam of hght falls
py-
rometers permit temperatvu-e readings up to upon the device. The relay, in turn, can open a
1300° C and platinum/platinum-rhodium couples garage door from a car's headlights, automatically
have a range up to 1600° C. (Constantan is an alloy dim headlights, operate a telegraph to permit tians-
containing 55% copper and 45% nickel.) mission of messages by means of hght beams, and
Thermocouples are also frequently used for so on. In contrast, the interruption of a beam of
measviring small alternating or direct currents. In light, when an object passes between a photocell
this application the a-c or d-c current to be meas- and a light source, can be made to cut of the cur-
ured flows through a high-resistance heater wire, rent to a relay, which will then either open or close
which heats the thermocouple junction. The free its contacts. This, in turn, can actuate a mechanical
ends of the couple are connected to a sensitive d-c register for counting the objects passing the photo-
miUiammeter, which measures the thermal current cell, start an escalator, open a door, etc. All these
through the couple, and indirectly, the current applications and many more are controlled by elec-
through the heater. The instrument is very useful, tricity freed by light.
since it can measure either d.c. or a.c. up to very Photoemission (Phototubes). When light falls
high frequencies. upon a photoemissive material, such as cesium,

Thermoelectric EflFect. The production of a ther- strontium, lithium, barium or other alkali metals,
mal emf is a complex business and we can only hint part of the Hght energy (called photons) is trans-
at an explanation here. When two dissimilar metals and

ferred to the free electrons within the material
are pressed together, free electrons pass haphaz- literally kicksthem out from the siurface of the
ardly in both directions across the junction. Be- "emitter." To make the emitted electrons do useful
cause of the different atomic structure of the work, they must be collected in some way and then
metals, electrons pass more readily in one direction made to flow through a conducting circuit that con-
across the boundary than in the other. This results tains a "load." A positively charged metal plate,
in a displacement of charges, making one metal placed a short distance from the photoemitter, can
positive and leaving the other negative. A differ- serve as a collector by attracting the elections.
ence of potential, known as contact potential, ap- After arriving at the plate, the electrons are made
pears between the metals and this potential is in- to flow through an external conducting circuit. In
fluenced by the temperature of the junction. By practice, both the electron emitter (called photo-
keeping one junction of the two metal strips at a cathode) and the collector plate (anode) are en-
higher temperature than the other junction, the un- closed in a sealed glass envelope, which is either
equal drift of electrons past each junction main- highly evacuated or filled with an inert gas (argon,
tains a difference in contact potentials, and a con- neon). Such an arrangement is called a phototube.
stant thermal electromotive force can be obtained. The tubes must be evacuated to prevent the emit-
ted electrons from being scattered in all directions Ht6H VACUUH

by collisions with air molecules. The addition of INCOMINfr OR INERT GAS
LI6HT vvW-'
an can be used to multiply the current
inert gas
passing through the tube. As the electrons coUide
'METER
with gas atoms, they knock out orbital electrons
from the outer shell of the atom, thus electrifying ANODE
or ionizing the gas. The ionized gas greatly in-
creases the total current through the tube.
Fig. 34 shows a few typical phototubes. Note BATTeay
that the photocathode (emitter) is usually large in
Fig. 35. Action of a Phototube
area to expose as much siuâce to the light as
possible. It is generally in the form of a cylinder
projectors to convert the light variations passing
CLASS through the sound track of the film into the cor-
ENVEU3PE •.
responding electrical variations of the original
LIGHT-
SENSmVE >NODE sound waves. Phototubes are not true generators of
CATHODE RING
electricity, however, since they require an external
f- ANOOe -LIGHT
ROO SENSITIVE voltage (emf) for their operation.
CATHODE CUP
The Photovoltaic Cell. Photovoltaic cells (some-
SCREW BASe times called, simply, photocells) generate their own

emf when exposed to hght and thus convert hght
directly into electric current. The action of these
STANDAIlD TYPE &ME
cells is similar to we have
the thermoelectric effect
discussed, in that depends on the small difference
it
in potential present between two conductors in con-
UOHT-SENSITlVe tact (i.e., the contact potential). In the case of

CATHODE photovoltaic cells, however, the contact potential
varies with the illumination of the contact, rather
than its temperature.
iODE
The construction of one type of photovoltaic cell
is illustrated in Fig. 36. The cell is a metallic "sand-
wich," consisting of three layers of different mate-
rials. One outside layer, called the base, is made of
CARTRIDGE TYPE
iron. The other outside layer is a thin gold or silver
film, which serves as a semitransparent "vraidow"
Fig. 34. Typical Forms of Phototubes for the incident light. The center layer, consisting
of a thin, hght-sensitive selenium alloy, is sand-
that surrounds a metal rod, which serves anode as
or collector of electrons. A positive voltage must be
wiched between the two outside layers. The en-
tire assembly is held together by a collector ring.
applied to this anode to operate the tube. When
this is done, the amount of current flowing through
CUBRtHT
the tube and the external circuit is direcdy propor-
tional to the intensity of
hght striking the cathode.
(See Fig. 35.) The response
of the tube for various
wavelengths of hght (colors) depends on the mate-
rial used for the photocathode. The tubes can be LIGHT
made to approximate the response of tlie human

eye to hght, or they can be made sensitive to in-
visible (Tjlack") hght, either in the ultraviolet or
THIN METAl FILM 7 7"
infrared region. Phototubes are highly sensitive \iBnil
"""•
and (WINDOW)
GALVANOMEIB)
/ (BASE)
accurate devices, used widely for precision labora- SEENIUMMOr
tory hght measurements and for critical control ap- Fig. 36. Comtruction and Operation of Selenium
plications. They are also used in motion pictme Photovoltaic Cell
Because of its construction the device is sometimes ELECTRICITY FROM PRESSURE

called barrier-layer or dry-disk photocell. (PIEZOELECTRIC EMF)
When hght shines on the translucent "window"
When crystals of quartz, Rochelle salt and tour-
of such a cell, an electromotive force which is di-
maline are subjected to mechanical pressure, a dis-
rectly proportional to the illumination is generated
placement of charges takes place on the crystal
between Uie two outside layers. If a wire is con- faces, resulting in a difference of potential between
nected between the layers, a current vdll flow
them. Conversely, if a difference of potential (emf)
through the circuit in proportion to the illumina- is apphed between the faces of such a crystal, the
tion (i.e., the emf generated) and the resistance of
crystal willbe shghtly deformed in its dimensions.
the external circuit. The current, and hence the
This is known as the piezoelectric effect, and it was
light falling upon the window of the cell, may be
discovered bv the French physicists piekre and
measured by inserting a galvanometer into the ex-
JACQUES CURIE in 1880. Although the effect is only
ternal circuit. Because of their simphcity and rela-
temporary, while the pressure of potential differ-
tive accuracy photovoltaic cells are extensively used
ence lasts, it may be made continuous by alter-
in photographic exposure meters.
nating the pressure or emf. Thus, by alternating the
The Photoconductive Cell. The electrical resist- pressure applied to the crystal faces between com-
ance of selenium and a few other substances de- emf
pression and tension, a continuous, alternating
pends on the intensity of illumination falling upon (varying between plus and minus) may be gen-
the material, an efiect known as photoconductivity.
erated. Conversely, connecting the opposite sides
This effect is made use of in photoconductive cells,
of a piezoelectric crystal to a source of alternating
which have similar but more limited apphcations emf (a.c), continuous lengthwise vibrations may be
than photovoltaic cells and phototubes. Like the
set up in the crystal.
phototubes, photoconductive cells require an ex- EXPERIMENT 11: Obtain a discarded crystal
ternal emf. An emf may be dispensed with, how- phono-cartridge and connect its output terminals to
ever, if the cell is made part of a resistance-measur-
a sensitive galvanometer or millivoltmeter, as
ing device (such as a Wheatstone bridge), which on a
shown in Fig. 37. Place the cartridge flat
converts the resistance changes directly into a
table and strike it sharplv, but not too heavily, with
meter indication. a hammer. Each hammer blow should produce a
Basic Laws of Photoelectricity. Regardless of
slight, momentary deflection of the galvanometer,
type, photosensitive surfaces (phototubes and indicating that an emf is generated between the
photocells)obey the following empirical laws,
crvstal faces. (Note: Because of shock damping in
when hght falls upon them: a crvstal cartridge the meter deflection may be too
1. The number of electrons hberated from the small to be noticeable. A better way is to place a
surface, and hence the current, is proportional to between metal
fair-sized Rochelle salt crvstal
the intensity of the incident light. plates, and connect the plates to a meter. The mere
2. The maximum kinetic energy of each released
pressure of the hand on one of the metal plates will
electron (due to its velocity) is independent of the then be sufficient to produce an observable meter
light intensity, but is directly proportional to the deflection.)
frequency (equals velocity /wavelength) of the light.
(You will remember from basic physics that the .VMOCIB

wavelengths of hght are measured in Angstroms
and that the entire visible hght spectrum of the
rainbow colors extends from about 4000 Angstroms
for violet to about 7400 Angstroms for red.)
Fig. 37.A Rochelle Salt Crystal when Sharply Tapped Pro-
3. From the second law it is apparent that there
duces a Piezoelectric Emf That will Deflect a Galvanometer
must be some frequency, known as the treshold
frequency, below which the electrons will have in- Applicadons. The piezoelectric effect has many
sufBcient kinetic energy to be liberated from the and other crys-
practical applications. Rochelle salt
photosensitive siniace. This is indeed so, and each tals are used widely in phonograph pickups and
type of surface material has its characteristic tresh- crystal microphones to convert sound (mechanical)
old frequency, below which no photoelectric cur- vibrations into corresponding electrical variations.
rent takes place. Since the output of a crystal pickup is only about
one volt and that of a crystal microphone less than SUMMARY

1/100 volt, electronic ampliiication is necessary for
An electromotive force or difference of potential
either device. Piezoelectric crystals are also used
is generated by the work performed in separating
in underwater hydrophones and in the piezoelectric
electrical charges so as to create a surplus of elec-
stethoscope. In all these applications the crystal is
trons on the negative terminal (source) and a de-
used to generate an emf when subjected to mechan-
ficiency of electrons on the positive terminal (sink).
ical vibration or sound.
As we have an alternating volt-
seen, connecting
An emf is generated between the junctions of two
dissimilar metals, when one is at a higher tempera-
age to the opposite faces of a piezoelectric crystal
sets up mechanical vibrations in the crystal. This
ture than the other. This is called the thermoelec-
converse piezoelectric effect also has many indus- tric effect. It is used in thermocouples and thermo-
trial applications. The entire field of ultrasonics is
piles in a variety of applications.
based on it. Here a high-frequency alternating volt- Photoelectric devices are classified as photo-
age is applied to a crystal transducer, which then voltaic if the incidence of light on a photosensitive
produces mechanical vibrations of tlae same fre- surface generates an emf; as photoemissive if elec-
quency. The vibrations are called ultrasonic be- trons are emittedfrom the surface and must be col-
cause their frequencies are beyond audibility. The lected by use of a positive, external voltage; and as
ultrasonic sound waves may be used for reflection photoconductive if the incidence of light changes
from submarines (sonar), to drill holes into defec- the internal resistance of a substance. Photoelectric
tive teeth, or for ultrasonic surgery, to mention just cells are used in a variety of control applications,
a few applications. for counting and sorting objects.
The number of electrons liberated from a photo-
Practice Exercise No. 4 sensitive svuface (and hence the current) is propor-
1. Describe how work is involved in generating an tional to the intensity of the incident light. The
emf and what happens to the work when current flows. kinetic energy with which each electron is emitted
2. Explain why it is better to determine temperature is proportional to the frequency of the incident
by measuring the emf generated by a thermocouple light. Photoelectric emission cannot take place be-
rather than the thermoelectric current. low the characteristic treshold frequency of a pho-
3. How can you increase the emf supplied by a
tosensitive material.
thermocouple? How can you increase its capacity to
deliver a thermoelectric current?
When crystals of quartz, Rochelle salt and tour-
4. What are the basic laws underlying the photo-
mahne axe subjected to mechanical pressure, a dis-
electric effect? placement of charges occurs on the crystal faces
5. Distinguish between photomissive, photovoltaic and a difference of potential (emf) results. Con-
and photoconductive ceUs and describe the character- versely, when an emf isapphed between the faces
istics of each. of such a crystal, it becomes slightly deformed.
6. Which types of photocells require electronic am- This is known as the piezoelectric effect.
plification and which do not?
The piezoelectric effect is utihzed in crystal
7. Explain the role of certain crystals in phonograph
phono pickups, crystal microphones, and similar de-
pickups. Are all crystals piezoelectric? If not, which are?
8. What the converse piezoelectric effect and
vices to convert sound waves into corresponding
is what
are its amplifications? electrical variations;
it is used in idtrasonic gen-
9. Explain how you would go

about measuring the erators to produce high-pitched, inaudible "sound"
thickness a metal using an ultrasonic generator.
of waves by the application of a high-frequency al-
How would you measure the depth of the ocean? ternating voltage.
)
CHAPTER FIVE
ELECTRICITY FROM CHEMICAL ACTION

( ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Chemical action is the second most important EXPEauMENT 12: Obtain some strips of zinc and
source of electricity, the most important being copper foil and a quantity of sulfuric acid (diluted
electromagnetism (generators). We are all familiar 1:20). Wrap one end of a length of (#18) copper
with the numerous useful jobs done by electric cells wire around a zinc strip and one around a copper
and batteries. They start our cars and power its strip. Connect the free ends of the wires to the ter-
electrical equipment; drive submarines; energize minals of a sensitive voltmeter. Now place or clamp
mobile radio equipment; power flashhghts and fire the copper and zinc electrodes some distance apart
flash bulbs; provide emergency lighting; and do in a clean tumbler which has been partially filled
many other things that could not be done as con- with the sulfiuic acid. (See Fig. 38. ) Note liat the
veniently without batteries. To understand how voltmeter will deflect as soon as both electrodes are
chemical action can accomplish all this, we must immersed in the sulfuric acid electrolyte, and that
make a few basic distinctions. Two dissimilar metal an emf of about 1.1 volts wiU be indicated on the
electrodes placed in a conducting chemical solution meter. Note further the formation of bubbles on the
(called electrolyte) are capable of producing a po- copper electrode of this simple primary cell as long
tential difference (emf) between them. Such an ar- as current flowing through the external wires and
is
rangement is known as a primary or voltaic cell the meter. If you disconnect one wire from the
after its inventor, the Italian physicist ALESSA>fDRO meter, interrupting the circuit, bubble formation
VOLTA. Several cells connected together to provide wiU cease immediately.
either a greater emf (voltage) or a greater current
1. 1 VOLT
capacity than a single cell, are known as a battery.
(A single cell is often mistakenly called a battery.)
Instead of obtainiog electricity from chemical ac-
tion, we can reverse the procedure and obtain
chemical action from electricity. Thus, placing a
voltage on two metal electrodes in a special chem-
ical solution will result in a current flow by elec-
trolytic conduction. Moreover, the current flow re-
sults in chemical decomposition of the electrolyte
and the electrodes, a process known as electrolysis.
This action is made
use of in depositing a layer of
metal from one of the electrodes on top of the other
(electroplating) and also in reversible chemical
cells whose charge (emf) may be replenished by ap- COPPER
plying an external voltage to their electrodes. An
important application of these reversible or second-
ary cells is the storage cell or storage battery (a
group of secondary cells). All these interactions be-
tween chemistry and electricity are grouped to-
gether under the heading of electrochemistry. DILUTE
SULFURIC
PRODUCTION OF CHEMICAL EMF- ACID
PRIMARY (VOLTAIC) CELLS Fig. 38. Simple Primary (Voltaic) Cell
To clarify how an electromotive force can be
generated by chemical action, let us perform a Hasic Cell Action. Let us see what happens in the
simple experiment: simple primary cell, illustrated in Fig. 38. The ac-
43
tion here is essentially the same for all primary in contrast, are said to have a positive (+) poten-
cells. Assume first that tlie wires are not connected tial and such an electrode is labeled plus (+). In
and, hence, no current flows through the external this way, aU the metals can be grouped by compar-
you have, then, are a copper and a zinc
circuit. All ing their relative chemical activity with that of
electrode immersed in sulfuric acid. The sulfuric hydrogen, and this activity may be expressed in
acid (chemical symbol HjSO^), like all other acids, volts of electrode potential (emf). Such a grouping
salts and bases, breaks apart or dissociates in a is known as the electromotive series of the metals;
water solution into its constituent atoms. In this Usted in Table IV for some typical metals.
it is The
process, the sulfate (SO^) molecules steal electrons value of the electrode potential in each case is a
from the hydrogen (Hj) atoms, so that the sulfate measure of the tendency of the metal's atoms to
molecules become negatively charged sulfate ions lose electrons and thus form positive ions, which go
(SO^"" ) and the hydrogen atoms become positively into solution. Keep in mind that an electrode d-
charged hydrogen ions (H + ). The ionization of an ways becomes negatively charged when this hap-
acid (or water thus leaves charged particles
salt) in pens, regardless of the sign (+ or — ) of the elec-
which are capable of carrying
(ions) in the solution, trode potential. The sign of the potentialis a rela-
an electric current. Such a conducting solution is tive matter with respect to the potential of a hydro-
called an electrolyte. (Pure water, oil, or a sugar gen electrode, which is arbitrarily set at zero volts,
solution are not electrolytes.) as we have explained. The electromotive series is a
When the highly active zinc electrode (chemical continuous listing of the chemical activity of the
symbol Zn) is inserted into the acid solution, zinc metals, with the most active element being on top
atoms are thrust into the solution and tlie zinc and the least active one on the bottom.
slowly dissolves. Because of their high chemical
activity, however, each of the zinc atoms readily Table IV
parts with two electrons in its outer shell, leaving ELECTROMOTIVE SERIES OF
them behind on the metal electrode, while the THE METALS
positively charged zinc ions (Z++, indicating a
Chemical Electrode Potential
double positive charge) go into the solution. As Metal Symbol (volts)
more and more zinc ions become detached, the
Lithiimi Li —3.02
zinc electrode acquires a strong negative charge
due to the surplus of electrons left behind on it.
Potassiiun K —2.92
Barium Ba —2.90
After a while the action stops because the electro-
static attraction between the positive zinc ions and
Sodium Na —2.71
the negative electrode is just sufiBcient to offset the
Aluminum Al — 1.67
Zinc Zn —0.76
tendency of zinc ions to go into solution. If more
Chromiiun Cr —0.71
zinc ions attempt to move into the solution, they
Iron Fe —0.44
are attracted back to the electrode by its highly
Nickel Ni —0.25
negative charge. After a balance has been attained,
Tin Sn —0.14
the electrostatic force between the zinc strip and
Lead Pb —0.13
the solution amounts to —0.76 volts. In other
words, the amount of chemical work performed in
Hydrogen H 0.00
Bismuth Bi -t-0.20
separating the charges equals a potential of —0.76
Copper Cu -|-0.34
volts on the zinc electrode. (See the definition of
Silver Ag -f0.80
potential in Chapter 2.)
Mercury Hg -fO.85
The value of the potential for a particular metal
Gold Au -fl.68
electrode is by comparing it in a chemi-
arrived at
cal cell with a hydrogen electrode, which serves as To return now to the rudimentary cell. As you
zero reference potential. Metals that develop an can see from Table IV above, copper is much less
electrode potential more negative than the hydro- active than zinc and develops an electrode poten-
gen reference electrode are said to have a negative tial of only 0.34 volts when it is inserted into the
—
( ) potential and the electrode itself is labeled acid solution. The action is the same we have dis-
minus ( — ). Metals that develop an electrode poten- cussed for the zinc electrode, except that it is much
tial less negative than that of a hydrogen electrode. milder. After a few positively charged copper ions
)
(Cu+ + ) have been delivered to the solution, the or from —to +• Because of the Franklinian error
copper electrode becomes sufficiently negatively which we described earlier, "conventional current"
charged by its surplus of electrons to stop tlie ac- is said to take place from plus (-(-) to minus (—
tion, A balance is reached when 0.34 volts potential through the external circuit, or from the copper to
have been developed on the copper electrode, com- tlie zinc electrode. Unless otherwise stated we shall
pared to a hydrogen electrode. Since the copper ignore this conventional current in this volume, and
electrode is 0.34 volts less negative in the emf series deal only with electron flow, whose direction is op-
than a hydrogen electrode, the potential is desig- posite to that of conventional current.
nated as positive, or -f 0.34 volts, and copper is As more electrons flow over from the zinc to the
called the positive electrode. Moreover, the poten- copper electrode, more zinc dissolves and addi-
difference (emf) developed between the copper
tial tional zinc ions (Zn++) enter the solution. These
and the zinc electrode is the difference between zinc ions displace the hydrogen (H+) ions in the
their individual potentials; that is, -(-0.34 — (—0.76) solution near the zinc electrode and drive them
= 1.10 volts. A copper-zinc chemical cell— also over to the copper electrode. There is thus an in-
known as gravity cell— thus develops a potential ternal flow of hydrogen ions within the cell from
difference (emf) of 1.1 volts between its terminals. the zinc to the copper electrode. As each hydrogen
This emf is known as the open-circuit voltage of the ion arrives at the copper electrode, it combines
cell, since it exists when the external circuit (wires) with an electron reaching the electrode through the
isopen and no current is delivered. A sensitive volt- wire, thus forming neutral hydrogen gas. (That is,
meter, which draws only a tiny current for its op- =
H+ -f e~ H" or neutral hydrogen.) This neutral
eration, vdll indicate this open-circuit voltage when hydrogen gas begins to bubble out of the solution
it is connected between the terminals of a chemical at the copper electrode, as you observed in the ex-
cell. periment (Experiment 12).
Current Flow Through Cell and External Circuit. As the action continues, the copper electrode be-
What happens when the electrodes of a cell are comes almost completely coated with hydrogen gas
connected togetlier externally by a wire (or load), bubbles, a condition termed polarization. The cop-
as illustrated in Fig. 39? The equihbrium previously per electrode now behaves more Uke one of hydro-
^ ELECTRON FLOW
gen and the potential at this electrode drops to
zero. The difference in potential between the cop-
per and zinc electrodes is now only 0.76 volt (see
Table IV), and the emf at the terminals therefore
COPPER drops to this low value. Because of this lowered
emf, the external current also drops, or equivalently,
the internal resistance of the cell is said to have in-
creased. (More about this later.) A substance, called

depolarizer, is added in practical cells to prevent
the formation of hydrogen gas by converting it into
water. Even without depolarizer, the current con-
tinues to flow at the reduced emf until either the
entire zinc electrode "burned up" or various im-
is
purities caused by "local actions" have increased

the internal resistance of the cell to a point where
current stops flowing. The death of a cell is usually
a messy affair, with both the copper and zinc cov-
ered with various impurities and gases, and the
zinc almost completely eaten up.
Fig. 39. Current Flow in Primary Cell
Construction of a Dry Cell. Primary cells come in
established at each electrode for the open-circuit many shapes and types, consisting of various metal
condition is now upset, and the surplus of electrons electrodes and acids or salts as electrolytes, depend-
on the zinc electrode starts to flow through the ex- ing on the application. The cell most widely used
ternal wire to the copper electrode. The external as a convenient soiu-ce of portable electricity is the
electron flow thus takes place from zinc to copper, "dry cell," which actually is a hermetically sealed.
non-spillable wet cell. (A completely dry cell would the total number of parallel cells. Such a battery of
have no chemical action and hence no emf.) Dry parallel cells can supply a current that is the prod-
cells are used for innumerable applications, such as uct of the individual cell current and the total mmti-
small pencil flashhghts, emergency lanterns, hearing ber of cells. Note that the schematic circuit symbol
aids, small radios, etc. The construction of a typical for a parallel battery is the same as for a single
dry cell is shown in Fig. 40. cell.

[
TERMINALS
C+)/ \C-)
ÂMDAUIlID
COMPOUND It^
CHEMICAL PAsre
CAN OF AMMONIUM CHLORIDE
(fttOMTivf) AND MAN6ANESE PIOXIPE V. J
CELLS IN PARAUa
CARBON
ROP (POSITNIO hH^ CIRCUIT SYMBOL
8
A PRY CELL IN CROSS>SECnON
Fig. 41. Battery of Cells Connected in Parallel and
Fig. 40. A dry cell in cross section
Circuit Symbol
As shown in the illustration, the entire zinc metal EXAMPLE: A No. 6 dry cell has an internal r«-
housing acts as the negative plate, while the carbon
sistance of about 0.1 ohm and can dehver a maxi-
rod in the center serves as the positive plate. Screw
mum current of about 15 amperes. What is the in-
terminals are provided on the zinc can and carbon
ternal resistance and the total current capacity of
rod to make external connections. The electrolyte
five No. 6 dry cells, cormected in parallel?
is a chemical paste consisting of ammonium chlo-
SOLUTION: The internal resistance of five cells in
ride mixed with manganese dioxide, which acts as
"depolarizer" to take up the hydrogen. The cell
sealed at the top wdth a compound of pitch or wax.
is parallel is one-fifth that of a single cell, or —=
5
A dry cell provides an open-circuit voltage of about 0.02 ohm. The total current-carrying capacity of
1.5 volts, which drops considerably if any sizeable the five cells is five times that of a single ceU, or
current vdthdrawn. In operation, the metaUic
is 5 X 15 amps = 75 amperes.
zinc delivers zinc ions (Zn+ +) to the electrolyte and Series Coimection. Batteries are more frequently
is consequently eaten away until the cell becomes made up by connecting cells in series than in paral-
useless. Moreover, after considerable use, the de- lel.The reason for this is that cells in series multi-
polarizer no longer is able to take up the hydrogen ply the emf (potential difference) of an individual
as fast as it is released; as a result, the internal re- cell by the number of cells, thus permitting the
sistance of the ceU increases and its open-circuit buildup of fairly large voltages, which are fre-
voltage drops until the cell can no longer dehver a quently needed in practice. As shown in Fig. 42, a
useful ciurent. No method has been found as yet series connection is made by hooking a wire from
to recharge an exhausted primary cell. the positive terminal of one cell to the negative
Batteries. A battery consists of a number of pri- terminal of the next in chain fashion, until all the
mary (or secondary) cells connected together. Cells cells are connected. The total emf of such a bat-
may be connected either in series or in parallel. A tery is the sum of all the individual emf's, or
parallel combination is made by coimecting to- equivalently, the product of the cell emf by the
gether all the negative terminals of the individual totalnumber of cells, provided all the cells have
cells and also all the positive terminals, as illus- the same emf. The total current-carrying capacity
trated in Fig. 41. In effect, this adds together the of such a series battery, however, is the same as
areas of the negative plates to make one large nega- that of a singlecell, because the total internal re-
tive electrode and also those of the positive plates sistance hasgone up by the same factor as the total
to make up one large positive electrode. Since the emf. (We shall have more to say about that in the
electrolytes are also added together, the resulting Chapter on Ohm's Law.) Note that the schematic
action is that of a single large cell with an internal circuit symbol of a series battery shows the addi-
resistance equal to that of a single cell divided by tion of the individual emf's.
or dissociates into positively charged hydrogen

(H + ) and negatively charged chlorine (CI")
ions
ions. This may be written in the language of chem-
istry
HC1^H+ C1- +
CELLS \H SERIES where the double arrow signifies that the reaction
may go both ways; that is, HCl molecules may dis-
sociate into ions and these ions may also recombine
B into hydrochloric acid molecules. What happened
I M I I
is that in the process of breaking up
in this reaction
a chlorine atom steals an electron from a hydrogen
atom, thus giving the chlorine atom a negative
CIRCUIT SYMBOL charge and the hydrogen atom a positive charge.

The net effect is that the liquid now contains elec-
Fig. 42. Series Connection of Cells and Schematic
Circuit Symbol triccharges and can conduct electricity. Such a
conducting liquid is called an electrolyte.
EXAMPLE: The five No. 6 dry cells mentioned in Electrolysis. Let us now place two chemically
the last example are connected in series this time. inert electrodes (platinum or carbon) into an elec-
If tlie emf of a single cell is 1.5 volts, v^'hat is the trolyte, say sulfiuric acid in water, and connect a
total emf of all five in series? What is the total in- battery between the electrodes. (See Fig. 43.) The
ternal resistance and the current-carrying capacity electrodes may both consist of the same metal, but
of the combination? they must be chemically inert, since we are inter-
Solution: The total emf of identical cells con- ested only in the chemical action going on in the
nected in series is the product of the single-cell emf electrolyte and do not want to decompose the elec-
and the number of cells, or 5 X 1-5 = 7.5 volts. The ttodes. To distinguish between the electrodes, the
internal resistance of the battery is the sum of all plate connected to the positive terminal of the bat-
internal resistances; in this case 5 X 0.1 ^ 0.5
ohm. tery is called the anode, while the plate connected
The total current-carrying capacity is the same as to the negative terminal is called the cathode. Elec-
that of a single cell, or 15 amps. (You can show this trons enter the solution through the cathode and
by using Ohm's Law: leave it through the anode, while conventional ciur-
rent flow in tlie opposite direction.

total current =
total voltage
— 7.5 15 amps.)
is
total resistance 0.5
ELECTROLYTIC CONDUCTION
Let us now reverse the earlier procedure and ob-
tain some chemical action from electricity. Specifi- ANODE.
cally, let us see what happens when an emf from a -CATHODE
(PLATINUM)
\,^ (PUTINUM)
battery or other source is applied through two elec-
trodes to a liquid. If this liquid is pure water al-
most nothing will happen, since water is a very

O
poor conductor of electricity. To render it conduc-
tive we must add some charged particles that act
as carriers of electricity. This is easily done by dis-
solving any acid, salt, or base in water. We have
seen before that acids, salts, or bases break up into
charged particles called ions, when in solution. You
will recall that a positive ion is an atom tliat has
lost one or more electrons, while a negative ion is ELECTROLYTE
an atom that has gained a surplus of electrons. For

example, when hydrochloric acid (chemical symbol
HCl) is placed into a water solution, it breaks up Fig. 43. Electrolysis of Water (Sulfuric Acid Solution)
The electrolyte of sulfuric acid (H^SO^) has dis- you vdll recall, depends on the place a metal holds
sociated into positive hydrogen (H+) ions and nega- in the electromotive series (Table IV). The higher
tive sulfate (SO^") ions, each of the two hydrogen the position of the metal in the series (or the greater
atoms in the HgSO^ molecule having lost an elec- its negative electrode potential in respect to hydro-
tron to the sulfate group. The sulfate ion, conse- gen), the more active is the metal. It is possible,
quently, has gained two electrons and is doubly tlierefore, to plate practically any metal upon any
charged, as indicated by the double minus sign in other whose place in the electromotive series is
the symbol (SO4 —
nected to the plates, the
). As soon
H+
as the battery
ions are attracted to
is con- above the former. Referring to Table IV, you can
see that silver, for example, may be plated on lead,
the negative plate (cathode) and the SO4 ions tin, nickel, iron, chromium, zinc, aluminimi, and
are attracted to the positive plate (anode). At the all other metals above it in the series. Copper or
same time free electrons flow out of the negative gold may also be plated upon these same metals,
battery terminal into the cathode and enter the since all of them are more active than either cop-
solution there. an H+ ion reaches the cath-
When per or gold. You can make
a simple experiment
ode, it combines with an electron to form a neutral with copper plating which will show you the me-
hydrogen atom. Two hydrogen atoms make up a chanics of the process.
molecule of hydrogen gas (Hg), which bubbles up EXPERIMENT Obtain some bright, shiny iron
13:
to the surface and escapes. The reaction may be nails, a strip of copper foil or heavy copper wire, a
written few copper two to three large (No.
sulfate crystals,
2H+ + 2 e- -» Hj t (Hydrogen gas) 6) dry cells, connecting wire and a fair-sized glass
where e" stands for an electron and f represents tumbler. Fill the timibler partially with water and
a gas. make a saturated copper sulfate solution by dis-
At the anode another reaction takes place. Here solving as many copper sulfate crystals as possible.
each SO4 —
ion steals two hydrogen atoms from a (Adding a small amount of sulfuric or other acid
water molecule (formula HjO) to recombine to a will aid the reaction.) Cormect the dry cells to-
neutral HjSO^ (sulfiuic acid) molecule. The re- gether in series to obtain an emf of 3 to 4.5 volts.
maining oxygen atoms are and combine
set free Wrap (or solder) some connecting wire around the
mto molecules of oxygen gas (Og), which bubble up iron nail and the copper strip or wire. Connect the
to the surface. To balance the charges, some elec- free end of the wire from the iron nail to the nega-
trons are also set free in the process; these enter the tive terminal of the dry-cell battery so that it be-
anode and return to the positive terminal of the comes the cathode. Connect the free end of the
battery, thus sustaining the current through the wire from the copper electrode to the positive ter-
external circuit. Evidently, what is happening here minal of the batter)', so that the copper serves as
is the decomposition or electrolysis of water (HjO) anode. (See Fig. 44.)
into its constituent elements, hydrogen gas (H2) and JT uvotts
oxygen gas (O^). The sulfuric acid acts only as a

catalyst, which permits the chemical reaction, but
is not itself used up. Note also that current flow in
the external circuit (through the battery) takes

ANODE
place by means of electrons, while current flow
vwthin the electrolyte is carried on by positive (H+)
and negative (SO4
Electroplating.
— ) ions.
Electrolysis is a highly useful COPPER AND SULFATE
fO«M
process, since it carries ions of matter from one IONS COMBINE TO
NEW COPPER SULFATE
electrode to another. The entire industry of electro- MOLECULES
plating one metal upon another is based on the

simple fact that the ions of an electrolyte will trans-
(COPPER SULFATE SOLUTION)
port atoms from a metallic anode and deposit them
on the surface of the cathode. Any metal may be Fig. 44. Electroplating an Iron Nail with Copper
plated by making it the cathode in an electrolytic
cell, provided it is chemically more active than If you now place the copper and iron electrodes
the metal to be plated upon it. Chemical activity, some distance apart in the copper sulfate solution.
—
you will observe an immediate chemical reaction. copper is simply transferred from the anode to the
Copper will start to deposit on the iron nail and cathode.
after a few minutes the nail will be completely Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis. The Enghsh
copper-plated. The longer the current lasts, the chemist and physicist Michael Faraday discovered
heavier will be the coating of copper on the nail. in 1832-33 two fundamental laws of electrolysis,
Do not try this too long, however, in order not to which are still the basis of all quantitative calcula-
exhaust the dry cells. You wdll find that the plating tions today. These laws may be formulated as fol-
will be much more uniform in thickness and adhere lows:
better, if you bend the copper into cylindrical form 1. The weight of any material deposited on the
so that it encircles the iron nail, but does not touch cathode during electrolysis is directly proportional
it. If you should now reverse the battery connec- to the quantity of electric charge passing through
tions, to make copper the cathode and iron the the circuit.
anode, you will find that the layer of copper on the 2. The passage
of 96,500 coulombs of charge
iron nail may loosen and partially dissolve; you will (called one Faraday) through an electiolytic cell
not be able to deposit iron on the copper electrode, deposits a weight (in grams) of any chemical ele-
since only a less active metal can be deposited on ment equal to the atomic weight of the element
a more active one. You can even substitute a clean divided by its valence.
carbon rod from a spent dry cell for the iron nail The first law appears fairly simple. It tells us that
(as cathode) and you will see that the carbon be- the weight of a substance deposited on the cathode
comes readily copper-plated. (or, equivalently, hberated at the anode) is propor-
Fig. 44 illustiates what takes place in our simple tional to the quantity of electricity. The quantity
copperplating experiment. When you dissolved the of charge is usually measured in coulombs, which
copper sulfate crystals in water, a large of number is amount of electricity transported by a cur-
the
positive copper ions (Cu++) and negative sulfate rent of one ampere flowing for one second (ampere-
ions (SO^~~) were set free, in accordance with the second). (Equivalently, one ampere is a rate of
reaction: flow of charge of one coulomb per second.) To ob-
CuSO^^Cu++ +SO, tain the total charge (incoulombs ) that has passed
where the double plus (++) and double minus through a circuit, you simply multiply
therefore,
(
—
changed
) signs indicate that
in
two electrons are inter-
the breakup of each copper sulfate
the current (in amperes) by the time (in seconds).
Sometimes a larger unit than the coulomb, called
molecule, so that the ions are doubly charged. the ampere-hour, is used. An ampere-hour is the
The positive Cu++ ions are strongly attiacted to amount of charge transferred in one hour when the
the negative iron electrode (i.e., the cathode) and current is one ampere. (Since an hour contains 3600
move toward As each copper iron reaches the
it. seconds, one ampere-hour =
3600 ampere-seconds
cathode it combines with t\vo electrons, furnished or 3600 coulombs.)
by the battery, to form a neutral copper atom. Cop- EXAMPLE: A weight of 20 grams of a certain sub-
per is thus deposited on the (iron) cathode, in ac- stance is deposited during electrolysis by the pas-
cordance with this reaction: sage of 72,000 coulombs of charge. What weight of
Cu++ 2e~ -» Cu (neutral copper) the substance will be deposited if a current of 2

-f-
In the meantime, the negative SO^-- (sulfate) amperes is maintained for 10 hours? What i>> the
ions are drawn over to the positive copper anode, weight for a current of 4 amperes passing for 5
where they combine with copper (Cu"^+) ions dis- hours?

solving from the anode. (The electrons freed by the Solution: The weight in each case is the same,
Cu++ ions flow back to the positive terminal of namely 20 grams. A current of 2 amps for 10 hours
the battery.) This combination of copper and sul- amounts to a charge of 2 X 10 = 20 ampere-hours.
fate ions results in the formation of new molecules Since 1 ampere-hour equals 3600 coulombs, 20 am-
of copper sulfate in accordance with the reaction pere-hours =
20 X 3600 = 72,000 coulombs or the
SO, -f — Cu++^CuSO, same as the original charge. Finally, a current of 4
The reaction shows that for each copper sulfate amps for 5 hours equals 4 X5= 20 ampere-hours,
molecule that has given up a copper ion to the or again a charge of 72,000 coulombs.
cathode, a new molecule is formed at the anode. Faraday's second law tells us that the same quan-
The solution thus retains its full strength and the tity of electricity will produce weights of different
substances that are proportional to the ratio of the (current) passes through each of them. (See Fig.
atomic weight to the valence for each substance. 45.) The first cell contains a solution of copper sul-
(This ratio is called the chemical equivalent.) More- fate and deposits copper (atomic weight 63.5,
over, it states that a charge of J faraday (96,500
valence +2) on the cathode. The second cell is
coulombs) will hberate or deposit the chemical filled with silver nitrate and deposits silver (atomic
equivalent (atomic weight/valence) of any sub- weight 107.9, valence +1). The third cell is filled
stance. You can see that the atomic weight
must with alimiinum nitrate and deposits aluminum
enter into it, since any substance is deposited
atom (atomic weight 27, valence +3). If one faraday of
by atom on the cathode, and the number of atoms charge has passed through the circuit, what is the
in a gram depends on the atomic weight. Further-
weight of the metal deposited at the cathode of
more, each ion of the substance combines with one
each cell? What is the weight per coulomb?
or more electrons to form a neutral atom of the
Solution: According to Faraday's second law,
substance. Thus, the copper ion (Cu++) with a
96,500 coulombs (1 Faraday) of charge will deposit
valence of +2 requires two electrons to form a neu-
the atomic weight/valence of any substance. Hence,
tral copper atom; the hydrogen ion (H+) with a
we obtain for
valence of +1, in contrast, requires only one elec-
tron to form a hydrogen atom. The greater the
Cell 1: = 31.75 grams of copper;
valence, therefore, tlie more electric charges (elec-
trons) are required to form neutral atoms of the
107.9
substance deposited. Hence, for a given total charge for cell 2: 107.9 grams of silver;
(total number of electrons) the weight deposited
27
must be inversely proportional to the valence of
the substance.
and for cell 3: — = 9 grams of aluminum.
An example will fiurther clarify the meaning of To obtain the weight deposited for each coulomb
Faraday's second law of electrolysis. of charge, we must divide the figures above by
example: Three electrolytic cells are connected 96,500. This turns out for copper 31.75/96500 or
in series with a battery, so tliat tlie same charge 0.0003294 gm/coulomb; for silver it is 107.9/96500
^\V^RADAY)
/9gms
/ DEPOSITED
caL #1 ->
COPPER SULFATE SILVER NITRATE ALUMINUM NITRATE

ATOMIC WEIGHT = 63.5 ATOMIC WEIGHT = 107.9 ATOMIC WEIGHT = 27
VALANCE = + 2 VALENCE = -f I VALENCE = -f 3
Fig. 45. Faraday's Second Law for Electrolytic Cells in Series
or 0.001118 gm/coulomb; and for aluminum it is cal reaction in a secondary cell is reversible, per-
9/96500 or 0.0000933 gram/coulomb. The amount mitting itbe restored to its original condition.
to
of material deposited for each coulomb of elec- All you have to do to restore or recharge a secondary
tricity, which we computed for the three elements cell is to pass a current through it in a direction
above, is known as the electrochemical equivalent opposite to that of its normal use or discharge.
of the element. Combinations of secondary cells, called storage bat-
The electrochemical equivalent of silver forms teries, can furnish a relatively large amount of cur-
the basis for the legal definition of the international rent for a short time, and since they can be re-
ampere. By an act of the U.S. Congress, the inter- charged, they are a highly convenient source of
national ampere is specified as "the unvarying cur- power for mobile appHcations.
rent, which, when passed through a solution of Lead-Acid Storage Cell. The most familiar type
nitrate of silver in water in accordance with stand- of storage battery is made up of lead-acid storage
ard specifications, deposits silver at the rate 0.001118 cells, each producing an emf of about 2 volts. A
gram per second." Since 1 ampere per second is 1 six-volt auto battery, thus, has three such lead-acid
coulomb, this is the same as the electrochemical cells, while a 12-volt battery has six lead-acid stor-
equivalent which we just computed. age cells. The case of a lead-acid cell (Fig. 46) is
Since the electrochemical equivalent of a sub- made of hard rubber or glass to prevent corrosion
stance is the weight deposited per unit charge and acid leaks. The top of the case is removable
(coulomb), you simply need to multiply the electro- and serves as support for the active plates (elec-
chemical equivalent by the total charge to obtain trodes). To attain the maximum chemical action, a
the weight of a substance deposited during elec- number of positive and negative plates are placed
trolysis. If you do not know the electrochemical in the same electrolyte. The positive and negative
equivalent, you can compute it by the relation plates alternate and are separated by porous in-
atomic weight sulators (wood or porous glass) which permit the
electrochemical equivalent := electrolyte to pass through. Lead bars connect the
^ valence X 96500 plates of each polarity and serve as terminals on
Moreover, the total charge transferred is the prod-
top of the case. A vent cap on the cover permits
uct of the current (I) in amperes and the total time
gases to escape. This cap may be removed to per-
(t) in seconds, so that we can worite the simple for-
mit battery testing, refilhng the electrolyte, or add-
mula for Faraday's laws:
ing distilled water.
Total weight deposited = electrochemical equiva-
VENT CAP
lent times total charge or
(FORTKTINGAND
=
atomic weight X current X time REPLENISHING ELECTROLYJQ
Total weight
*
TEBMINALS
valence X 96,500
Alt
V 96500
example: How much zinc (at. weight 65.38, va- ELECTHOLYIEOF
/ence +2) is deposited at the cathode of an electro- SULPHURIC ACID
lytic cell, if a current of 12 amps is passed through

POSmVE PLATES
a solution of zinc salt for 20 minutes? lEAD GRILLS
A11 65.38 X 12 X (20 X 60) naEDWITH

Solution: W = V 96500— = UAD PEROXIDE (PtOiy
2 X 96,500
= 4.88 gms zinc. NEGATIVE PLATES
FILLED WITH
You can up the atomic weights and valences
look of
SPONGY LEAD (.?*•)
the elements in any handbook of chemistry or
physics.
Fig. 46. Construction of Lead-Acid Storage CeD
SECONDARY CELLS (STORAGE
The chemical action in a lead-acid storagu cell
BATTERIES)
involves reactions between lead compounds on the
A secondary dehvers current to a load by
cell electrodes and the electrolyte of sulfuric acid
chemical action like a primary cell, but the chemi- (HjSO^). The positive plates consist of a griD or
DISCHARGE CURRENT CHARGING CURRENT
/electron FLO'
OfAD PEROXIDE) Xjf -^ SPONGY LEAD (Pb)
PfrSO*
(LEAD SULFATE)
Pssoi
(LEAD SULFATE)
/^
CONCENTRATED SULFURIC ACID DILUTED SULFURIC ACID
SPEC. GRAVITY: 1.285-1.30 SPEC. GRAVITY: 1.15-1.175
(a) BEGINNING OF DISCHARGE (b) COMPLETELY DISCHARGED (c) RECHARGED
Fig. 47. Action of Lead-Acid Storage Cell During Discharge (a and b) and During Recharge (c)
lattice of a lead alloy coated with an active ma- with lead sulfate and the electrolyte has become
terial of porous lead peroxide (chemical symbol quite weak, as illustrated in Fig. 47&. Because of
PbOg). The negative plates are a similar structure the consumption of sulfuric acid, its specific gravity
coated with spongy lead (Pb). Let us consider first drops from an value of about 1.30 (maxi-
initial
the reactions taking place during discharge of the mum) to about 1.15
(minimum), and the open-cir-
cell, when a current is being withdrawn from it. cuit voltage of the cell drops from about 2.1 volts
(See Fig. 47a and h.) at the start to about 1.75 volts for complete dis-
The sulfuric acid electrolyte is dissociated into charge. The best way to check whether the cell is
positive H+ and negative SO^
ions ions. At the — charged is to measure the specific gravity of the
negative electrode the spongy lead dissolves slightly, electrolyte with a hydrometer. By sucking in some
forming positive lead (Pb++) ions and releasing at of the electrolyte into the hydrometer, the position
the same time two electrons, which flow through of a "float" indicator will show the specific gravity,
the negative terminal and the external circuit. The and hence tlie condition of the cell.
negative sulfate (SO^ ) —
ions combine with the
positive lead (Pb + +) ions into lead sulfate (PbS04),
Recharge. The cell may be recharged by connect-
ing the positive and negative plates, respectively,
which adheres to the negative plates. The negative to the positive and negative terminals of a d-c
plates, thus, become coated with, lead sulfate. source. Current now flows from the negative ter-
At tlie positive electrode a more complicated re- minal of the source through the cell to the positive
action takes place. The lead peroxide first reacts terminal, in a direction opposite to that of the dis-
with water (HgO) to form quadrivalent lead ions charge current. As a consequence, all the reactions
(Pb+ + + +), which have four plus charges, leaving previously described are reversed, and the lead sul-
four negative hydroxyl (OH~) ions. The highly ac- fate on the positive plate is restored to lead perox-
tive Pb+ + + + ions then pick up tlie two electrons ide (PbOj) and the negative plate is restored to
previously released by the spongy lead, thus be- spongy lead. Moreover, the electrolyte retiuns to
coming ordinary doubly charged lead (Pb++) ions. its original density and the open-circuit voltage
The Pb++ ions now react with the SO4 ions to — again reaches about 2.1 volts. A cell may be re-
form again insoluble lead sulfate (PbSO^), which is stored to about 90 percent of its original condition
deposited on the positive plate. during each recharging process and it may have a
The net result of these reactions is that both useful hfe of about two to three years.
platesbecome coated with lead sulfate during dis- The chemical reactions during charge and dis-
charge and the sulfuric acid is partially replaced by charge that we have described may be conveniently
water, thus becoming less dense. The cell is com- summarized by a combined formula, which is in
pletely discharged when both plates are covered the form of a reversible chemical equation:
discharge Generation of Emf by Magnetic Action. We have

+ Pb + 2H2SO, ^ 2PbS0, + 2H2O discussed the major sources of electric current in
PbOj,
(Pos.
ft (Neg.
t charge
(Elec-
all
the last two chapters, except the most important

one. This is the generation of an electromotive force
Plate) Plate) trolyte) by the motion of a conductor in a magnetic
relative
This shows that during discharge both the positive field. We on Electro-
shall see later (in the chapter
plate (lead peroxide) and the negative plate (spongy magnetism) that every current-carrying conductor is
lead) react with the sulfuric acid and become surrounded by a magnetic field, and conversely, an
coated with lead sulfate (PbSOJ. The electrolyte is emf is generated in any conductor that moves
diluted by the formation of water. During recharg- through the lines of force of a magnetic field. This
ing all reactions are reversed, as indicated by the latter action accounts at the present time for most
arrow. of the electric power commercially produced. We
Edison (Nickel-Iron Alkali) Most of the
Cell.
shall defer the discussion of electric generators vmtil
faults present in the lead-acid ceU are overcome by understand more fully the principles of electro-
we
the Edison or nickel-iron-alkaU Because of itscell.
magnetism.
high cost the Edison cell is not as widely used in
storage batteries as the lead-acid cell, though it is
far superior to For the same ampere-hovur ca-

it.
Practice Exercise No. 5
pacity the Edison cell weighs only about half as 1. A tingling, sour taste results when a clean copper
much as the lead-acid cell, it is mechanically more penny and a clean dime are touched to opposite sides
rugged and not damaged by overloads and short of the tongue. Explain.
circuits. The life of an Edison cell is substantially 2. Explainwhat happens when copper and sdnc
greater than its lead-acid cousin, though its operat- electrodes are immersed in sulfuric acid solution. What
somewhat lower. reactions take place when the two electrodes are con-
ing eflBciency is
nected by a wire?
The positive plate of the Edison cell consists of
3. Mercury and aluminum electrodes are placed in
nickel hydroxide, Ni(OH)2 contained in pencil-
acid solution, (a) What emf do they generate? (b) What
shaped, perforated steel tubes, which in turn are in-
is the emf if the mercury is replaced by copper?
serted into a steel grid. The negative plate is of
4. How is the electromotive series of the metals ob-
similar constructionand contains perforated pockets tained?
that hold iron oxide, FeO, as active material. The 5. Why does hydrogen form on the positive elec-
electrolyte a 21 percent solution of potassium hy-
is trode of a primary cell? What are the effects on the
droxide (KOH), to which a small amount of hthium emf generated and what can be done about it?
hydroxide (LiOH) is added. Once the forming proc- 6. How does a depolarizer affect the internal re-
sistance of a cell?
ess is completed, the positive plate is essentially
7. Explain the construction and action of a dry cell.
nickel dioxide (NiOj) and the negative plate is made
8. How would you make up a battery of dry cells to
up of iron (Fe). During discharge, the nickel dioxide
generate an emf of 15 volts?
is chemically reduced to nickel oxide (NiO), while
9. If one cell has an emf of 2 volts and a maximum
the iron is oxidized to iron oxide (FeO). During current capacity of 12 amps, how could you obtain 60
charge the reverse of this process takes place, with amps from five cells?
the electrolyte remaining unaffected in either case. 10. What is necessary to make a liquid an electro-
The terminal voltage of a charged Edison ceU is lyte? Name some.
about 1.2 volts after a few hours of operation. 11. Explain the electrolysis of water, including the
The Silver Cell. Another secondary cell has re- reactions taking place at the anode and the cathode.
cently come into use, which is suitable in small re- 12. How would you plate a nickel spoon with silver?
how a tin can with gold? Can you nickel-plate a silver
chargeable batteries for portable devices. This is the
spoon?
silver oxide-zinc cell, consisting of a positive silver
13. State Faraday's laws of electrolysis and explain
oxide plate and a negative sheet of zinc. The electro-
them.
lyte is a solution ofsodium or potassium hydroxide. 14. A current of 5 amps for 4 hours deposited 15
The silver cell has a high ampere-hour capacity per grams of a substance during electrolysis. How much of
unit weight and is able to withstand relatively large the substance will be deposited if a current of 15 amps
overloads or short circuits. Its terminal voltage re- is maintained for 6 hours?
mains constant at approximately 1.5 volts. 15. (a) What is the electrochemical equivalent of
nickel, which has an atomic weight of 58.7 and a Acids, salts and bases in liquid solution dissociate
valence of +2? (b) If 50,000 coulombs of charge pass into electrically charged (positive and negative) ions
through a nickel chloride solution, how much nickel that render the liquid electrically conductive; such
will be deposited?
a liquid is called an electrolyte. The breaking up
16. Distinguish between primary and secondary
into ions is known as ionization.
cells?
The passing of an electric current through an
17. Describe the reactions taking place in a lead-
acid storage cell at the positive and negative plates
electrolyte (acid, base, or salt) results in its chemical
dtiring discharge and charge. decomposition, a process termed electrolysis. It
takes place in an electrolytic cell.
In electrolysis the (electron) current enters the
SUMMARY solution through the negative electrode (cathode)
A primary or voltaic cell consists essentially of two and leaves it through the positive electrode (anode).
dissiiiu'lar metal electrodes placed in an electrically Electroplating consists of passing an electric cur-
conducting solution (electrolyte). An emf is pro- rent through an electrolytic cell in which the
duced in such a cell by the separation of charge cathode is made the metal to be plated and the
brought about by chemical action between the anode supplies the metal to be deposited. The cur-
electrodes and the electrolyte. rent wiU transport the anode metal and deposit it
The electromotive force generated by a primary on the cathode, provided the cathode is electro-
cell depends on the relative positions of the elec- chemically more active than the anode and the
trodes in the electromotive series of the metals; the electrolyte contains ions of the anode metal.
greater their separation in the series, the higher the Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis: 1. The weight of
emf. The emf can be calculated by taking the any material deposited or liberated during elec-
algebraic difference between the individual electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of
trode potentials in the electromotive series. electric charge passing through the cell.
A dry cell consists of a zinc metal housing, serv- 2. The passage of 96,500 coulombs of charge (1
ing as negative terminal, a positive carbon elec- Faraday) through an electrolytic cell deposits or
trode, and an electrolyte of ammonium chloride liberates a weight in grams of any chemical element
mixed with a manganese dioxide "depolarizer." A equal to its atomic weight divided by the valence.
dry cell, when fresh, generates an emf of about 1.5 Electrochemical Equivalent of Element =
volts. Atomic Weight
Chemical cells may be connected as batteries, valence X 96500
either in series or in parallel. The series connection A lead-acid storage (secondary) cell has positive
multiplies the emf generated by the number of plates of lead peroxide (PbOg), negative plates of
cells,but permits a current no greater than for a spongy lead (Pb), and an electrolyte of sulfuric acid
single cell; the parallel connection multiplies the (H2SO4). The formula for charge and discharge is:
current capacity of a single cell by the number of discharge
cells, but generates an emf (voltage) no greater PbOj + Pb + 2H2SO4 ±5 2PbSO^ + 2H2O
than that of a single cell. charge
CHAPTER SIX
ELECTRICAL UNITS AND OHM'S LAW

We have discussed some aspects of electricity EXAMPLE: a current of 8 amperes passes through
and have explored its souices. Now we are almost a wire for a period of 3 hours. What is the total
ready to make quantitative calculations in practical charge transferred?
electrical circuits, which are so familiar in our Solution:
everyday lives. But first we must accurately define Q = I X = 8 X (3 X 60 X 60) = 86,400 coulombs.
t
the quantitative units of electricity, namely, charge, Smaller units of current than the ampere (ab-
current, voltage (emf or potential difference) and breviated amp.) are frequently used in practice.
resistance. The relationship between current, volt- Thus, tlie milliampere (abbreviated ma) represents
age, and resistance was discovered in 1828 by the one thousandth of an ampere (1 ma 10"^ amp) =
German scientist georg simon ohm (1787-1854) and and the microampere (abbr., ;aa) represents one mil-
bears his name. Ohm's law makes possible 99 per- lionth of an ampere (1 fxa. =
10"^ amp). To con-
cent of all direct-current electrical calculations. vert amperes to milliamperes, simply move the
decimal point three places to the right and to con-
vert amperes to microamperes move the decimal
PRACTICAL ELECTRICAL UNITS point six places to the right. Conversely, to change
Charge. Electrical current consists of charges in miUiamps to amps move the decimal point three
motion. The smallest possible charge is that carried places to the left; and to change microamps to
by an electron. Its charge is incredibly small, equal- amps, move it six places to the left.
ing about one-half billionth of an electrostatic unit EXAMPLE 1: Change 0.000357 amp into milhamps
and into microamps.
(esu) of charge (more precisely, 4.8 10"^" esu). X
Even the electrostatic unit of charge (esu) is much Solution:
too small a quantity of electricity for practical pur- 0.000357 amp = 0.357 milliamps = 357 microamps.
poses; a much larger unit, the coulomb, is used. We EXAMPLE 2: Change 7,584 microamps into milli-
have met both the esu and the coulomb before and amps and into amperes.
you may recall that a coulomb is the equivalent of Solution:
three billion (3 X 10^) electrostatic units of charge. 1 microamp is 1/1000 milliamp 0.001 ma. =
It may also be shown that a coulomb corresponds Hence, to convert microamps to miUiamps, move
to the charge carried by a fantastic number of the decimal point three places to the left. Thus
roughly (more precisely,
six billion billion electrons 7,584 microamps = 7.584 milliamps
6.28 X 10^^ electrons). You will understand why we 0.007584 ampere. =
prefer to calculate with coulombs rather than with Current Standards. It is desirable to have inde-
electrons. pendent standards of electrical quantities, which
Current. Electric current is the rate of flow of are based on physical phenomena and can be ar-
electric charge. The unit of current, the ampere rived at by going through a certain experimental
(named after the French scientist andre m. am- procedure in the laboratory. Until 1948 the so-
pere), represents a rate of flow of I coulomb per were com-
called international units of electricity
second. Thus, if 10 coulombs pass a given point of

monly accepted, but in that year new absolute
a circuit in 5 seconds, the rate of flow of charge is units were adopted, which differ only slightly from
10/5 = 2 coulombs per second, or 2 amperes. In the international units. The international ampere,
general, current equals charge per unit time, a fact which is based on the chemical efiêct of an electric
that may be expressed by the formula current, is defined as the current that will deposit
0.0011183 gram of silver from a standard silver solu-
Q
I=-,orQ = tion in one second. The new absolute ampere is de-
IXt
t fined in terms of the electromagnetic effect of an
where I is the current, Q is the charge, and t rep- electric ciurent, which we shall describe in a later
resents time. chapter. The new definition makes the absolute
55
ampere somewhat larger than the intemationa] am- the source). The energy for doing this work must
pere, so that be suppHed, of course, by the source of electricity.
1 absolute ampere = 1.000165 international ampere Moreover, since the energy expended must equal
and the energy supplied, it follows that the sum of all
1 international ampere = 0.999835 absolute ampere the potential drops (voltage drops) around the en-
It is very doubtful that you will ever have to worry tire circuit must equal the emf of the source. This
about the difference between the absolute and the is an important fact to remember.
international ampere. As in the case of ciunrent, the prefixes milli- and

Voltage. As we shall see later on, the term "volt- micro- are frequently used to designate smaller
age" is a catchall for a variety of electrical con- units of voltage. Thus, one millivolt (abbreviated
cepts. Voltage may stand for the electromotive mv) equals one thousandth of a volt (1 mv 10~' =
force or potential difference between the terminals volt) and one microvolt (abbreviated ^v) equals one
of an electric source. (The symbol E is often used millionth of a volt. As before, to change volts to
for this appHcation.) As you know, the open-circuit millivolts move the decimal point three places to
voltage of such a source drops to a lower value, the right; and to change volts to microvolts move
called terminal voltage, when a current is with- the decimal point six places to the right. Con-
drawn from the source. (The symbol V is generally versely, move the decimal point three or six places
used to designate terminal voltage.) Finally, when to the left, a you want to change miUivolts or
a current flows through a resistance it develops a microvolts, respectively, to volts. In addition to
these units, there is also a larger unit of voltage,
potential difference between its ends, which is re-
ferred to as a voltage drop (symbol V) to dis-
called the kilovolt (abbreviated kv), which repre-
sents 1000 volts. Consequently, to change volts to
tinguish it from the voltage rise taking place in a
battery or other somrce. All these varying concepts,
kilovolts move the decimal point three places to the
with which we become more famihar, are

shall
left; and to change kilovolts to volts, move it three
places to the right.
designated as voltage and are measiued in units of
volts.
example: Change 0.00045 kilovolt into volts,
For the purposes of definition, we shall recall the

and microvolts.
millivolts,
work concept of voltage, which makes the potential Solution: 0.00045 kv = 0.45 volts = 450 milli-
difference synonymous with the work done in trans-

volts = 450,000 fiv.
porting a unit charge from one electrical level (po- Voltage Standards. The definition of volts as
tential) to another. In accordance with this concept
joules per coulomb automatically gives us the pres-
we define the potential difference between two ently adopted absolute volt. The absolute volt is
points in a circuit as one volt if one joule of work 0.999670 of the old international volt, which was
must be expended to move a positive charge of one defined as the emf required to drive a current of
coulomb from the point of low potential to the one international ampere through a resistance of
point of high potential. Instead of moving the one international ohm. As laboratory standards of
charge against the force of the field from a low to voltage, stable chemical cells are used, which main-
a high potential, we can let it be repelled by the tain their emf over long periods of time. One of
these standard cells is the Weston normal or satu-
field from a point of high potential to a point of
lower potential, in which case work will be done by rated cell, which maintains an emf of 1.01865 volts
the charge. Again, the potential difference is one at 20 degrees centigrade (68° F), provided no more
volt, if the charge performs one joule (W ergs) of than 50 microamperes current are drawn from it.
work in moving from the point of high potential to Another laboratory standard cell is the unsaturated
the point of low potential. cadmium cell, which has an emf of 1.0192 volts.
The work or energy concept of voltage is useful Resistance. We
have said that the opposition
in another way, as we shall see more clearly later which free electrons encounter in moving through
on. When a current (i.e., charges in motion) flows a material (conductor or insulator) is called the re-
through a circuit, the charges perform a certain sistance of the material. (Conversely, the ease with
amount of work in moving from a point of high which electrons move through a material is known
potential (at one terminal of the electric source) to as the conductance (symbol G) of the material.) Re-
a point of low potential (at the other terminal of sistance (symbol R) is akin to mechanical friction.
since it is caused by collisions between free elec- RESISTANCE OF WIRES AND

trons and the atoms of a material. The atomic or RESISTORS
crystal structure of a material, therefore, determines
Every material offers some resistance to the flow
its inherent resistance per unit length and area,
of electric current.Conductors have a relatively low
which is sometimes called specific resistance or re-
resistance; insulators have a very high resistance.
You can calculate tlie resistance of a con-
sistivity.
Moreover, the resistance of a wiie conductor is af-
ductor if you know its resistivity, its length and its fected by a number of factors, including the in-
cross-sectional area, as we shall see presently.
herent resistivity of the wiie, its length and cross
Resistance is measuredohms. The ohm
in units of section, and also by the surrounding temperature.
is defined as the resistance of a conductor across we must become acquainted
To calculate resistances
which there is a potential drop of 1 volt, when a with the interrelation between these factors. Also,
current of 1 ampere flows through it. If the current it is frequently necessary to insert a fairly large re-
and voltage are in absolute units, then this state- sistance into a circuit vwthout taking up too much
ment defines the absolute ohm. The absolute ohm space. A thousand feet of No. 10 copper wire is ob-
is 0.9995 as large as the old international ohm (1 viously not a practical way to obtain a resistance of
international ohm = 1.000495 absolute ohms), one ohm. Specially designed resistors, consisting of
which was defined as "the resistance offered by a high-resistance wire, carbon, or a composition ma-
column of merciuy of 14.521 grams mass and 106.3 terial, are available to serve as Itunped resistances
cm length, kept at the temperature of melting ice." of small dimensions.
If this definition sounds somewhat abstruse, you Resistance of Wire Conductors. It has been found
can get a better idea of an ohm by considering that experimentally that the resistance of a wire in-
a 1000-ft long copper wire, 0.1 inch in diameter creases directly with its length and decreases in
(No. 10 American Wire Gage), has a resistance of direct proportion to the area of its cross section
1 ohm; so does a copper wire 2.4 feet long and (i.e., its thickness). The resistance of a wire also
0.005 inch in diameter (No. 36 gage). (We shall dis- depends on its inherent resistivity (symbol p, pro-
cuss resistance in terms of the heat it liberates in
nounced rho), where resistivity is defined as the
resistance of a wire sample of unit length and unit
the chapter on Electric Power and Heat.)
cross section. These experimental findings may be
The ohm is frequently abbreviated in numerical
quantitatively expressed by the formula
examples and on diagrams by the Greek letter
omega (n or w). Large values of resistance are ex- L
R = ,-
pressed in megohms (1 megohm = 10* or 1 million
ohms) and in kilohms (always abbreviated K = where R is the resistance in ohms, p is the resistiv-
1000). To change kilohms to ohms, move the deci- ity, L is the length of the wire and A is its cross-
mal point three places to the right; and to change sectional area.
megohms to ohms move it six places to the right. Two systems of units are in use to express the
(To do the converse, move the decimal point left length, area, and resistivity of a wire. One system
the same amount.) Thus, a resistance of 500K of units, mostly in use in Evu-ope, expresses the
equals 500,000 ohms or 0.5 megohm. The term length in centimeters (cm) and the area of the cross-
microhm also is occasionally used to designate a section in square centimeters (cm^), in which case
milhonth of an ohm (1 microhm 10"^ ohm). A = the resistivity (p) comes out in ohm-centimeters.
resistance of 0.005 ohms, for example, equals The other system, used by electricians in the United
States, is based on the length of the wire expressed
0.005 X
10* or 5000 microhms.
in feet and the cross-sectional area expressed in
sometimes convenient to speak of the con-
It is
circular mils. The resistivity in this case is called
ductance of a wire rather than its resistance. Con-
the ohm-circular mil per foot, which is abbreviated
ductance is the reciprocal of resistance (G =— ); and in the electrician's language to ohms per mil-foot.
Fig. 48 illustrates the two systems. Part (a) shows
to indicate this inverse relationship, the units of a wire 1 cm in length and 1 cm* in cross section
conductance are mhos (ohms spelled backwards). A whose resistance in ohms is equal to its resistivity,
millionth of a mho is called the micromho (1 expressed in ohm-centimeters. For such a specimen
/imho = 10~® mho). of copper wore, the resistivity turns out to be
1.724 X 10~' ohm-cm, and hence the resistance is (The exact value, as given in standard wire tables,
1.724 X 10-« ohm. Part (fe) shows a wire 1 ft in is 0.9989 ohm.)
length and 1 circular mil in cross section. (Diameter Kinds of Wires. Wires come in various types and
is 1 mil =
0.001 inch.) For copper the resistivity is sizes depending on use (indoors, outdoors, fixed,
about 10.4 ohms per circular mil-foot at ordinary mobile, etc.) and current-carrying capacity. For
room temperature, indicating that the resistance of electricalpurposes most wares have at least two
this specimen is approximately 10.4 ohms. things in common: they are round and they are
made of copper. Copper is practically always used
because of its excellent conductivity (low resistiv-
ity).The insulation around solid copper wire de-
pends on the application. For house wiring and in-
door uses, the wire is usually covered wdth rubber
and a layer of fabric on the outside, and it is run
in a cable or conduit containing many insulated
wires. For outdoor lines rubber is not used, the in-
^lllfl
DIAMETER.^ 0.00111(11
AREA-lCIRCUURmlt sulation generally consisting of several layers of
lU J = «U7ohm-CIRCULARmilperft weatherproofed fabric braids.

W-foot) The type of wire which you are most hkely to en-
counter for the usual household applications is
Fig. 48. Units of Resistivity (a) ohm-centimeter, (b) ohm-
circular mil per foot (mil-foot) flexible cord, consisting of a number of stranded
copper wares twisted together into a single con-
A circular mil is a convenient unit for expressing ductor. Fig. 49 illustrates three types of flexible
As you may know, the ordinary mil is
circular areas. cords with different insulations. The lamp cord con-
a thousandth of an inch (1 mil 0.001 inch). To find = sists of two insulated stranded-wire conductors
the cross-sectional area of a vdre in circular mils, enclosed by a cotton or rayon outer braid. Even
simply express its diameter in mils and square this more popular is rubber-covered flexible cord, con-
number (i.e., circ. mils = (mils)^ .) This unit avoids sisting of a parallel pair of stranded copper con-
the use of the 'V-factor." Thus, a wire of 0.08 in. ductors.These two types of cords are used for 90
diameter, has a cross section of (0.08 1000)^ X = percent of all small household apphances, lamps,
(80 mils)* = 6,400 circular mils. portable radios, TV sets, etc. Devices which de-
EXAMPLE 1: What is the resistance of 100 meters velop a considerable amount of heat, such as elec-
of No. 16 aluminum wiie (diameter 0.13 cm.) hav- tric irons, toasters, heaters, etc., are connected by
ing a resistivity of 2.63 X lO"® ohm-cms? means of ironing cord, which uses copper con-
Solution: The cross-sectional area of the wire ductors covered with rubber, an intermediate layer
Trd* 3.14 X (0.13)2 of fireproof asbestos and an outer covering of
A= = ^ = 0.0133 cm" fabric.
4 4
Hence, the resistance
L
= 2.63 X
10-« X 100 X 10*
R = P- = 1.98 ohms
A 0.0133
EXAMPLE 2: Compute the resistance of 1000 feet
of No. 10 copper wdre (diameter 0.102
resistivity of 10.4 ohms/mil-foot.
in.) with a /
ASBESTOS
/ /
GENERAL PURPOSE
IRONING CORO BRAIDED LAMP CORD
Solution: Express the area in circular mils first by RUBBER CORD
squaring the diameter in mils. Thus, 0.102 in. 102 = Fig. 49. Three Types of Flexible Cords
mils;hence the area is (102)^ 10,400 circular mils. = for Household Uses
The resistance, therefore, is
Wire Sizes and Tables. The tliickness of a wore
L 10.4 X 1000
R=P—= = 1 ohm. determines its resistance for a given length and,
A 10,400 hence, also its current-carrying capacity in a cir-
(Thus, the resistance of 1000 ft of No. 10 copper cuit. The diameter (thickness) of copper wire is
wire is 1 ohm, which is a good value to remember. specified by standard gauge numbers, knowTi in the
United States as American Wire gauge (AWG). cross section is cut in half each time you go up
The thicker the wire, the smaller is its gauge num- three gauge numbers. Conversely, the resistance
ber; the thinner the wire, the greater gauge is its drops to half and the cross section doubles, each
number. Sizes of sohd copper wire start at No. 0000 time you go down three gauge numbers. (For ex-
for a diameter of 460 circular mils and run all the ample. No. 13 wire has a resistance of about 2 ohms
way to gauge No. 40 for a wire of 3.145 circ. mils per 1000 ft and a cross section of roughly 5000
diameter. Fig. 50 illustrates the relative sizes of circular mils; No. 7 wire has a resistance of 0.5
gauge numbers up to #18. ohm and a cross section of about 20,000 mils.)
The diameter of the wire is multiphed by 1.41
9 9
2.
* • ^ # as the gauge No. drops by a factor of 3; and
when the gauge number goes down by 6.
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 00 doubles,
If the gauge number goes up by 3, divide the di-
fig. 50. Relative Thickness of Wires (American Wire Gauge)
ameter by 1.41, and if it goes up by 6, the diameter
is one-half. (For intermediate gauge numbers, take
Wires used in buildings run from gauge No. 12
the square root of the area).
to about gauge No. 18. For house and building
3. To obtain the resistance of a wire one higher
wiring you are not permitted to use anything
in gauge nvunber than that of a knovkoi resistance,
smaller than No. 14 gauge, which is rated at 15
amperes cvirrent (maximmn) for rubber-covered
multiply the known value by 1.26; to obtain its
cross section divide the known cross section by
wire in a conduit or cable. With the large power
demand for air conditioners, television, and many 1.26. Do the converse to find the resistance and
other apphances, most modern houses actually use cross section of a wire one lower in gauge number
either No. 12 or No. 10 wire, rated at 20 and 25 than one of known resistance and area. (For ex-
amperes, respectively. Thinner wires heat up un- ample, No. 11 wire has a resistance of 1 1-26 X =
duly and their relatively high resistance leads to a 1.26 ohms per 1000 ft and a cross section of 10,-
considerable loss of hne voltage due to the voltage 000/1.26 =

8000 circular mils; No. 9 wire, in con-
drop in the wire, which in turn causes decreased trast, has a resistance of 1/1.26 0.8 ohm per 1000=
efficiency of appliances coimected to the wire. No. ft (approx.) and a cross section of 10,000 X 1-26 =
16 and No. 18 gauge wire is used inside lighting 12,600 circular mils, roughly.)
fixtures and in flexible cords. Flexible cords of EXAMPLE: Compute the approximate resistance
stranded copper wire have somewhat larger current- per 1000 ft and the cross-sectional area of No. 17
carrying capacity than soUd wire in cables or con- copper wire.

duits. Thus, No. 16 flexible cord may carry up to Solution: Resistance of No. 10 wire is 1 ohm and
15 amperes current, and No. 18 wire up to 10 amps. the cross section is 10,000 circular mils. The resist-
It is most important to choose the right size wire ance of No. 16 wire, therefore, is about 4 ohms and
for efficient and safe vdring. In a later chapter you its 2,500 circular mils. Hence, for
cross section is
wiU learn how to figiu-e the current requirements No. 17 wire, the resistance is 1.26 4 5.04 ohms X =
of various household apphances, which will enable (roughly) and the cross section is 2,500/1.26 = 2,000
you choose the right size of wire.
to circular mils, approximately.
In the appendix of this volume you will find Resistance of Conductors in Series and in Paral-
AWG copper wire tables, which will give the gauge L
numbers, diameter, cross section, resistance per lel. According to the formula R = p — the ,
resistance
1000 and other useful data for standard copper

feet,
of a conductor is directly proportional to its length
wire. It however, quite convenient to memorize
is,
and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional
some data. In oiu: last example we computed that
area. Consequently, if we join a number of identi-
1000 feet of No. 10 wire (diameter 100 mils, ap-
cal conductors of equal length and cross section
proximately) have a resistance of about 1 ohm. The
cross-sectional area of No. 10 wire we found to be end to end, the resistance of a single conductor will
roughly 10,000 circular mils. Keeping these facts be multiplied by the number of conductors thus
in mind and observing the regularities in the wire joined in series (See Fig. 51.) For the example of
tables, you can figure the size and resistance of any three conductors in series, illustrated in Fig. 51a,
wire roughly by means of the follovvdng rules: the resistance of the combination is three times the
1. The resistance of copper wire doubles and its resistance of a single conductor. In contrast, if we
join several identical conductors side-by-side, or cations. For example, metals of high resistivity,
in parallel, the cross-sectional area goes up in direct such as Constantan, Manganin, and Nichrome, are
proportion to the number of conductors and, hence, used for heating apphcations and for resistors.
the resistance of the parallel combination is that Table V below hsts the resistivities of some com-
of a single conductor divided by the number of monly used metals.
conductors in parallel. Again, for the example of
three identical conductors in parallel, illustrated in
V Table
Fig. 51b, the resistance of the parallel combinations RESISTIVITIES OF METALS
is one-third that of a single conductor. (AT 20°C)
Material Resistivity
ohm-cm X 10~* ohm-circular mil/ft

(Microhm-cm) (ohms per mil-foot)
Aluminum 3.2 17
Copper 1.724 10.37
Iron 10 to 12 58.8
Silver 1.65 9.8
Nickel 8.7 51
Zinc 5.9 35.5
Constantan
(Cu + Ni) 49 296
Manganin
(Cu -f Mn -I-
and
Ni) 45 270
Fig. 51. Resistance of Identical Conductors (a) in Series
(b) in Parallel Nichrome
(Ni + Cr +
If the conductors are not identical, you must add Fe) 112 675
the resistance of each to get the total resistance of
a series combination; and you must add the con^ Effect of Temperature on Resistance. Note in
ductance (1/resistance) of each to obtain the total table V that we have specified the resistivity at a
conductance (1/total resistance) of a parallel com- temperature of 20°C (68°F). This is necessary be-
bination. As we shall prove in the next chapter, cause the resistance of pure metallic conductors in-
these relations hold not just for wire conductors, creases with temperature. A simple relation gives
but in general for resistances in series or in parallel. the law of increase of resistance with temperature:
More about this later on. R, = R.(I + at)
EXAMPLE: Sixteen wire conductors with a resist- where R^, =: original resistance at the reference
ance of 2 ohms each are joined to make four series temperature (usually 20°C or 68°F).
combinations of foiu- conductors each. The four Rj = final resistance at the higher tem-
series combinations are then joined in parallel to perature.
make up a single composite conductor. What is its t =: the increase in temperature (i.e.,
total resistance? final temperature less original tem-

Solution: Each series combination has a resist- perature),
ance of 4 X2=8ohms. Joining these foiur 8-olun and a = temperature coefficient of resistance.
"conductors" in parallel, we obtain a resistance of The temperatiu'e-resistance coefficient of most
8/4 =
2 ohms, or exactly the same as that of a metallic conductors averages about 0.004 per degree
single conductor. The only advantage here is that change of centigrade temperature. Certain alloys,
the composite conductor can carry a far heavier such as Manganin and German silver, have ex-
current tlian each of the conductors. tremely smaU temperature coefficients (about
Resistivities of Different Conductors. The re- 0.00001 to 0.0004), which makes them useful for the
sistivities of various metals and, hence, their ability construction of high-precision resistors with stable
to conduct electricity differ widely. Although cop- resistance values. Various semiconductors actually
per is the chief metal for electrical conductors, other exhibit a negative temperature-resistance character-
metals are employed frequently for special appli- istic, which means that their resistance decreases
with an increase in temperature. This characteristic The carbon resistors (a), consisting of a rod of
is used to make temperature-sensitive resistors compressed graphite embedded in binding ma-
(called thermistors) to compensate for the rise in terial, are very popular for low power applications
resistance of other components, and for use in con- (radio, electronics) requiring not too great preci-
trol and measuring applications. Some thermistors sion. They come in resistance values below 1 ohm
drop in resistance as much as 10,000,000:1 when to several megohms, and have tolerances from 5 to
heated over a range of about 500° C. 20% of the indicated value. The value and tolerance
EXAMPLE: A wire resistor has a resistance value of of the resistor are generally indicated by colored
50 ohms at 20°C (68 °F) and a temperatme coeffi- bands around its body, in accordance with a stand-
cient of 0.004. What is the value of the resistor ard color code (see Appendix). Metal film resistors
when the surrounding temperature is 100° C? (c) are made by spraying a thin layer of a metal on
Solution: The change in temperature, t = 100 — a glass rod. For higher powers and greater preci-
20 = 80 degrees sion, wire-wound resistors (d) are generally used.
Hence the new resistance R, = R, (1 + at) = These are constructed by winding resistance wire
+ 0.004 X 80)
50(1 of a low temperature coefficient (Nichrome, Man-
= 50 X 1-32 = 66 ohms. ganin, German Silver)mica card, or on a
on a flat
Types of Resistors. Resistors are compact sources porcelain or bakeHte form. Precisions of about ±
of 'lumped" resistance. They come in a great 1% tolerance of the indicated resistance value are
variety of types depending on usage, resistance, possible.
power rating, required precision (tolerance), etc. Variable Resistors. Variable or adjustable resis-
Resistors range in size from very tiny (M-inch long) carbon type for low
tors are generally either of the
rod types for low power applications Qi to 2 watts) power applications or of the wire-wound type for
to huge "stick" structures used as high-power "bal- greater power needs. (See Fig. 53.) The carbon
lasts" and for starting large motor-generators. Fig. types (a) are usually circular in shape and consist
52 illustrates a few types of "fixed" resistors of con- of a shding contact attached to a rotating shaft,
stant resistance. which rotates the movable contact over the carbon
A/V\AAA-
CIRCUIT SYMBOL
-PIGTAIL" LEADS
-^^^ffi)-^
2 WATTS
1/2 WATT
(b) LARGE CARBON (C) MCTAL FILM

(a) CARBON-ROD TYPES
FIXED RESISTANCE TAPS

RESISTOR TtRMINALS
/
MOUNTING BRACKET
MOUNTIN PRECISION TYPE
BRACKET
•(d) WIRE-WOUND TYPES'
Fig. 52. Various Tv»e» of Fixed Resistors: (a) Carbon-rod types; (b) large carbon; (c) metal film; (d) wire-wound typ«f
COVES
HESISTANCe
CERAMIC TUBE
WINDING
RESISTANCE
COVER SLIDER eiEMenT ROTATING L
CONTACT / SHAFf
SLIDING BAND
ttûLa, TERMINAL
TERMINAL p^fi^ TERMINAL \
SLIDER CONTACT
s^W-SHAFT
RESISTANCE
FIXED WINDING
VARIABLE
TERMINAL TERMINAL END.
TERMINAL t " '"^ END TERMINAL
W/IRE-VKOUND ADJUSTABLE VARIABLE
(a) CARBON ROTARY TYPE "STICK" TYPES (SLIDER) TERMINAL
(c) W/IRE-WOUND ROTARY TYPE
(d) RHEOSTAT AND SYMBOL (e) POTENTIOMETER AND SYMBOL
Fig. 53. Types of Variable Resistors: (a) Carbon Rotary Type; (b) Wire-Wound Adjustable "Stick" Types; (c) Wiw-
Wouiid Rotary Type; (d) Rheostat and Symbol; (e) Potentiometer and Symbol
resistance element. Wire-wound variable resistors sisting of a source of electromotive force (voltage)
may be either of the "stick" type (fo) or rotary type —a dry cell in this case— and a resistance or load
(c). In the stick type a high-resistance wire is connected to the terminals of the voltage source.
wound on a straight ceramic tube and the resist- (See Fig. 54.) The resistance (R) in Fig. 54 may
ance is changed by moving a shding band contact represent an actual resistor or some electrical de-
along the exposed resistance winding. In the rotary vice (called a load), such as a lamp, a toaster or an
type, the resistance wire is wound on a circular electric iron, from which useful work is obtained.
form and the desired resistance can be tapped off We have connected a switch (S) into this sim-
also
by means of a contact arm that can be rotated over ple circuit, to permit opening or closing the circuit.
the wire surface. As long as the sv^dtch in the circuit of Fig. 54 is
Variable resistors may have either two or three in theUP or open position (shown dotted), there is
terminals. Resistors with two terminals, one con- no complete path for a current to flow and we have
nected to one end of the resistance winding and what is known as an open circuit. As soon as the
the other to the sliding contact, are called rheo- switch is placed in the down or closed position
stats (Fig. 53(i). Resistors with three terminals, one (shown sohd), a complete, unbroken pathway
at each end winding and one con-
of the resistance (closed circuit) is formed through which electric
nected to shding contact, are known as poten-

tlie current may flow. Electron current then flows from
tiometers (Fig 55e). A potentiometer permits "tap- the negative (— ) terminal of the dry cell, through
ping off" the voltage applied across it in proportion the switch and the resistance load, and back to the
to the resistance included between one fixed end positive (-f) terminal of the dry cell. (Conventional
and the shding contact. current flows in the opposite direction, of course.)
The switch, the resistor and the connecting wires
OHM'S LAW are knovra as the ejrtemal circuit. Ciurent also flows
We have discussed the soiu'ces of electric current in an internal circuit,from the positive to the nega-
and the resistance that opposes the flow of cmrent. tive terminal inside the dry cell, thus completing
Let us now consider a simple electric circuit, con- the electrical path. In such a circuit electrical
1-
R
^^ UP
DOWN
R
(LOAD)
RESISTOR
(LOAD)
ACTUAL CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Fig. 54. Ohm's Law in Simple Electric Circuit
energy is supplied to the temiinals of the dry cell is frequently used for a voltage drop or potential
by the chemical action inside the cell. This energy difference). The relation E =IXR may also be
is then expended in the external circuit, either by used to give tlie applied voltage (emf) acting in a
heating up the connecting wires and the resistor, or complete circuit, if the current through the circuit
by performing useful work in a load. The action and its known.
total resistance are
continues as long as tlie voltage source can main- If emf (voltage) acting in a circuit and the
the
tain an emf at its terminals; it stops when the dry current are known, the total resistance of the cir-
cell is exhausted. Since current always flows in the cuit, by Ohm's Law, is the applied voltage divided
same direction, the circuit is known as a direct- by the current. Putting this in mathematical form
current (d-c) circuit.
VOLTAGE
Georg Simon Ohm discovered in 1827 that the RESISTANCE =
CURRENT
cturent flowing in such a d-c circuit is directly
=E
proportional to the applied voltage (emf) and in- (volts)
versely proportional to the resistance of the circuit.

or R (ohms)
I (amps)
Putting this statement, known as Ohm's Law, into You can use this latter equation also to compute
mathematical form, we obtain the resistance value of a single resistor in a circuit,
EMF (voltage) by dividing the voltage drop developed across it
CXrHRENT:= •
RESISTANCE by the current flowing through it. All three forms

E (volts) of Ohm's Law are used constantly in all types of
or using symbols: I (amperes) electrical work. A few examples will help to clarify
R (ohms) their use.
This equation gives the value of the current in a
EXAMPLE 1: A resistor of 50 ohms is connected
circuit when its resistance and applied voltage to a battery with an emf of 12 volts. What is the
(emf) are known. Ohm's Law not only applies to a
current through the resistor?
complete circuit, but also to any part of such a cir-
Solution: By Ohm's Law,
cuit, such as a single resistance. Thus, when the
E 12
resistance (R) in ohms and the current (7) in am- the current I = — = — = 0.24 ampere.
^
peres are known, the voltage drop (£) developed R 50
across the resistance is simply the product of the EXAMPLE 2: A radio tube requires 0.15 ampere
current and the resistance, or in equation form: current to heat its filaments. What voltage must be
VOLTAGE = CUBEENT X RESISTANCE Or E (volts) = applied to the filaments if their resistance is 42
I (amps) X R (ohms) (Note that we have used the ohms (when lit)?
symbol £ here to represent a voltage drop, though Solution: The applied voltage E = I X R = 0.15
used more correctly for an emf. The symbol V
it is X 42 = 6.3 volts.
I
EXAMPLE 3: An ampere-meter (ammeter) inserted

into a circuit reads a current of 5 amperes, when
an emf of 170 volts is applied to the circuit. What
is the total resistance of the circuit?
Solution: The circuit resistance
E_
=
R= = 34 ohms.
r~
.
5
Let us perform a simple experiment to confirm
Ohm's Law and obtain an idea of the relationships

involved:
EXPEBiMENT 14: Obtain five small 1.5 volt flash-
Ught batteries, five 10-ohm resistors (rated at 5
watts), an inexpensive 0-10 V voltmeter, a 0-1 A am-

meter (or instead oftwo meters, a simple multi-
meter), and some connecting wire. Connect two of
VOLTMETER
/ 10 ohms 10 ohms
AMMETER
(amps)
and they are the only ones that obey Ohm's Law.
Lest you despair, most d-c circuits are made up of
such linear conductors and, hence, obey Ohm's
Law.
Whenever the resistance of a device does not re-
main constant, the relationship between voltage
\^X and current will be non-linear (i.e., a curve) and
Ohm's Law does not apply. Roughly, such a non-
\\ linear voltage-current relation

ductors, electrolytes
of fact,
and ionized
exists
As a matter
gases.
even the ordinary incandescent lamp is a
in semicon-
AMMETER
non-linear conductor. The "hot" resistance of such
a bulb, when it is brilliantly lit, may be some 15 to
lOJi last lojT. lojv 10^
20 times the "cold" resistance of the bulb, when no
(RESISTORS) current flows through it. As a result, if you start
increasing the applied voltage across such a lamp
from zero to full voltage, the resistance of the bulb
will go up almost as fast as the applied voltage and,
hence, the cvurent (I =
E/R) will remain practically
constant. This constant-current characteristic is
quite useful for regulating the amount of current

flow through a circuit and lamps are used fre-
quently for this purpose. Note that you can use
Ohm's Law even for an incandescent lamp, pro-
10 20 30 40 50 (ohms) vided you know two out of three quantities at all
RESISTANCE ^ times. Thus, you can calculate the current through
"ig. 56. Verifying that Current is Inversely Proportional to

the lamp by Ohm's Law (I =
E/R) provided you
Resistance (Ohm's Law) know the voltage and the resistance at the particu-
lar current. is not independent
Since the resistance
istance, if the applied voltage is kept constant, of the current, this means
you have to measure
that
'ou can verify that an inverse relation results in a or calculate the resistance in some independent
lyperbola, by plotting the quotient of dividing a way for each voltage or current value. You cannot
ixed number by increasingly larger numbers against predict the magnitude of the current for a particu-
hese numbers. (For example, plot 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . lar voltage by Ohm's Law, since the resistance is
:tc. against %, %, %, Vs-)

1, not a constant.
Where Ohm's Lave does not Apply. Ohm's Law Vacuum tubes, used in radios and TV sets, are
5 not a universal law, like gravitation, but an ex- an interesting hybrid of a linear and a non-linear
lerimental fact that holds for certain types of con- device, exhibiting a little of both. As a voltage is
luctors. It does not apply to everything, though applied across the tube and a current starts to flow,
lost electricians think it does. Our last experiment the internal resistance of the tube, which is initially
lemonstrated an important fact; namely, that the high, drops rapidly to a fairly low value and then
ilot of current versus voltage in a simple d-c cir- remains essentially constant. As a consequence, the
^lit is a straight line. (See Fig. 55.) Ohm's Law current through the tube increases slowly at first
pplies wherever there is such a linear relationship with increasing voltage, then more rapidly as the
letween voltage and current. This wdll be the case resistance drops, and eventually increases almost
long as the resistance of a conductor or a circuit
'.s hnearly, as the resistance stabilizes. A typical volt-
emains constant, regardless of the value of the cur- age-current characteristic for a vacuum tube is
ent. Pure metals and metallic alloys have an essen- shown in Fig. 57a. You can use Ohm's Law in the
ially constant resistance, neglecting the small linear (upper) portion of the curve.
;hange in resistance due to the heating of the con- Certain semiconductors and carbon actually have
luctor when a current flows through it. Metals and a negative temperature-resistance characteristic;
Hoys, therefore, are known as linear conductors. that is, their resistance drops as the temperatvure
carbon-arc lamp, such as Is used in some motion

pictiue projectors. When the lamp is ignited, a con-
ducting arc of vaporized incandescent carbon par-
ticles is formed between two carbon tips. As the
current increases, the arc becomes hotter and the
resistance of the carbon particles and tips drops.
With increasing current, therefore, the voltage drop
across the arc actually goes down, rather than
obeying Ohm's Law. Conversely, increasing the
applied voltage across the arc, actually decreases
the current. This, too, is a negative-resistance
characteristic, as illustrated in Fig. 57fo.
Open- and Closed-Circuit Voltage of Cells and
Generators. Let us now consider a problem which
TUBE VOLTAGE (V)
happily does obey Ohm's Law. In Fig. 58 we have
shovra a battery which has an electrical load (RJ
(a) NON-LINEAR VACUUM-TUBE CHARACTERISTIC connected to its terminals. This load may be any
current-consuming device whatsoever. Moreover,
letthe battery symbol represent any d-c source,
such as a generator, for example. All such sources
have a certain amount of internal resistance, Ri>
through which the current in a circuit must flow.
This internal resistance may be due to chemical ac-
tions, such as polarization, or it may be the actual re-
sistance of a generator winding. Whatever its origin,
a certain amount of work must be performed
against this internal resistance and, hence, a por-
tion of the emf of the source is wasted in over-
coming it. Let us place a resistor, equal in value to
the internal resistance (Ri) of the source, in series
with the source of emf and put the whole thing in
a box. The potential difference (voltage) that ap-
VOLTAGE
pears across the terminals of the box is the voltage
(b) NEGATIVE-RESISTANCE CHARACTERISTIC

actually applied to the external circuit, or load. We
would hke to know the value of this terminal volt-
Fig. 57. Voltage-Current Characteristics that do not obey when open
age (symbol V), both the circuit is
Ohm's Law (a) non-linear Vacuum Tube Characteristic; (b)
Negative-Resistance Characteristic (switch open) and also when the circuit is closed
(switch closed).
goes up. For instance, we have mentioned the
fiiermistor, whose resistance may drop to as low OPEN.
as a milHonth of its original value, when the tem-

perature increases by some 50°C. Consider what
POS.TERMmAL\
happens when a current flows through a thermistor. + c
The current wiU start to heat up the thermistor

slightly and its resistance starts to drop rapidly.
Since the resistance decreases much faster dian the
current can increase, the voltage drop across the
tliermistor (which is the product of current times
resistance) actually decreases for an increasing cur-
rent. Such a negative-resistance characteristic is
illustrated in Fig. 57b.

The same sort of thing goes on in an electric
Let us apply Ohm's Law to solve this problem. 3. Define the international ampere and the absolute
By Ohm's Law the appHed (terminal) voltage must ampere.

through the 4. Explain the energy concept of voltage and give the
equal the product of the current (I)
definition of volt.
circuit and the load resistance, R^. Hence we write
V = lXRi, 5. State the definitions of the absolute ohm and the
(1)
international ohm. Does Ohm's Law define the ohm?
But we have also estabhshed that the emf of the
6. If the cross-sectional area and length of a con-
source (E) must equal the sum of all the voltage ductor are doubled, what happens to resistance?
its
drops in the circuit. By Ohm's Law the voltage 7. What should be the diameter of an 800-ft long
drop across the internal resistance (Ri) equals I X copper wire to make its resistance 0.2 ohm?
Ri and the voltage drop across the load is I Rl- X 8. What is the resistance of 1000 ft of 0.15 in. thick
Setting these voltage drops equal to the emf (E), copper wire?
we obtain 9. A 500-ft length of stranded copper wire is made
E = I Ri + I Ri, (2) up of 17 strands, each 0.032 in. in diameter. What is

Substituting V = I R^ in equation (2); we WT:ite its resistance?
E = I Ri + V (3)
10. If the resistance of 1000 ft of No. 10 copper wire
is 1 ohm, what is the resistance of 1000 ft of No. 6
and transposing, we obtain the result
copper wire?
terminal voltage V=E — I Ri (4)
11. The "cold" resistance of a 30-watt bidb is 32.4
which means that the terminal voltage in a closed
ohms 20°C and its "hot"
at resistance is 470 ohms. If
circuit for a certain current flow (I) is simply the the temperature coefficient of filament is 0.005, at what
emf minus the voltage drop across the internal re- temperature does it burn?
sistance. A httle plain reasoning would have given 12. A carbon filament lamp draws a current of 0.45
us the same result vwthout resort to mathematics. amp when a voltage of 122 volts is applied. What is its
Moving in the direction of the electron current from resistance?

the negative to the positive terminal, you encounter 13. A 20-ohm resistor is connected to a 6-volt bat-
first a rise in potential (from — E to -\-E) and then tery. What current does it draw?
a fall in potential equal to I X R]- Subtracting the 14. A toaster constructed of a 55-ohm resistance wire
faU in potential from the rise to obtain the difference

requires 4 amperes for its operation. What voltage
should be applied?
in potential between the terminals, V, you get the
An electrical device draws currents of 0, 0.5, 1.1,
15.
result above (i.e., V=E— IR,). If the circuit is
1.8, and 2.6 amperes as the applied voltage is in-
open (svdtch open), the ciurent in equation (4) creased from to 50 volts in 10-volt steps. Does the
above is zero, and V =
E; that is, the open-circuit device obey Ohm's Law?
terminal voltage equals the emf of the source. 16. A battery with an internal resistance 0.25 ohm
EXAMPLE 1: What is the emf of a battery if its and an emf of 6.4 volts delivers a current of 2 amps to
terminal voltage is 5.5 volts for a load current of 25 a load. What is (a) the terminal voltage of the battery
amperes, and the internal resistance of the battery and (b) the load resistance?
is 0.02 ohm? 17. A dry cell has an open circuit terminal voltage
Solution: E =V+ I Ri = 5.5 + 25 X 0.02 = 6 of 1.476 volts and a closed-circuit terminal voltage of
volts.
1.435 volts when ampere
delivering a cimrent of 0.558
to a load. Find the internal resistance of the dry ceU.
EXAMPLE 2: Compute the internal resistance of a
dry which has an open-circuit voltage of 1.5
cell,
volts and a closed-circuit terminal voltage of 1.41 SUMMARY

volts, when a current of 30 amperes is drawn.
Solution: Solving equation (4) for Ri, we obtain Electric ciurent is the rate of flow of electric
E—V — 1.41 0.09

charge. Hence, current equals charge per unit
Ri = = 1.5 = = 0.003 ohm. time. (I = Q/t)
I 30 30 The potential difference between two points is
1 volt ifenergy is either expended or re-

1 joule of
Practice Exercise No. 6 quired in moving a charge of 1 coulomb from one
1. A wire carries a current of 15 amperes. How many point to the other. The sum of all potential (volt-
coulombs pass a given point of the wire in 2 minutes? age) drops around a circuit equals the emf of the
2. Change 5 microvolts into volts; 15 ma into amps; source.
and 2.5 megohms into ohms. The opposition to electron flow in a substance is
)
called resistance and the ease with which electrons depends on the temperature coe£5dent of the re-
pass through the material is called conductance. sistance. Semiconductors exhibit a negative tem-
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. perature-resistance characteristic; that is, their re-
A
conductor across which a potential drop of 1 sistance decreases with temperature. This property
volt exists, when a current of 1 ampere flows is used in thermistors.
through it, has a resistance of 1 ohm. Ohm's Law states that the current flow in a d-c
Resistivity is the resistance of a wire specimen of circuit is directly proportional to the applied volt-
unit length and unit cross section. If the length is age (emf) and inversely proportional to the resist-
expressed in centimeters (cms) and the cross-sec-
tional area in square centimeter (cm^), the resistivity
ance of tlie circuit. (I E/R) =
in ohm-centimeters. If the length
Three forms of Ohm's Law: I = E/R; E=IX
is is expressed in
R; R = E/L
feet and the cross section in circular mils (1 mil = Ohm's Law applies to conductors made of pure
0.001 inch; circular mils = (mils)^), the resistivity
metals or metallic alloys; it does not apply to semi-
is in ohm-circular mil per foot, or briefly, ohms per
conductors, electrolytes and ionized gases, and
mil-foot.
The resistance of a conductor is directly propor-
whenever the resistance is not a constant. A linear
voltage-current graph demonstrates Ohm's Law; a
tional to its length and inversely proportional to its
non-linear voltage-current characteristic shows that
cross-sectional area. Resistivity is the proportion-
Ohm's Law does not hold.
L
ality constant. (R =p — The closed-circuit terminal voltage of a d-c
A source (battery, generator, etc.) equals its open-
The resistance of pure metallic conductors in- circuit emf (voltage) minus the voltage drop across
creases with temperature. The amount of increase its internal resistance (V = E — I Ri).
CHAPTER SEVEN
DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS
Whenever there is a current flow, there must be them the current flows in an undivided, consecu-
an an unbroken electrical
electrical circuit; that is, tive and continuous path from the source of emf
pathway from source to load and back to source. through the various loads and back to the source.
If all circuits were as simple as those described in You can easily check whether a given arrangement
the last chapter, a single application of Ohm's Law of connections is a series circuit by imagining your-
would suffice to determine the current, and there self to be an electric charge that travels from the
would be no need for the present chapter. Unfor- negative terminal of the voltage source, through the
tunately, most practical circuits— even the ones used circuit, to the positive terminal of the source. If
in your home— are not that simple. Sometimes a cur- you can move through the entire circuit in a single,
rent flows consecutively through many different ap- continuous path, you have a series circuit; you
if
pliances (or loads) before returning to its source, can find a way to return to the source after you
in what is known as a series circuit. More often, break a connection anywhere in the circuit, you do
the current flowing from a source will divide up not have a series circuit. By the way, the fact that a
into many different branches to feed houses, apart- single interruption can stop all current flow in a
ments, and the electrical devices in them, before it series circuit is its biggest disadvantage. A series
becomes re-united and returns to the source. This circuit either operates all the way or not at all. You
type of divided current flow is called a parallel cir- can easily imagine what would happen if all the
cuit. Many actual circuits are a combination of electric outlets in a city were connected in series
both types, termed series-parallel circuits, with the with the power plant. If a single electric bulb
current dividing into various parallel branches, burned out in some back street the whole city would
each of which may have a number of loads con- be darkened.
nected in series. Resistors in Series. Fig. 59 illustrates a simple
Now we shall look into some of the methods series-connected circuit, similar to that shown in
used for "solving" these more complicated circuits. Fig. 56 (Experiment 14). Four resistors are con-
When we speak of "solving" a circuit, we generally nected in series with a 50-volt battery and a switch,
mean three things. First, we would like to reduce which permits opening and closing the circuit. The
the resistances offered by all the loads in the cir- resistors may represent any load, such as lamps or
which
cuit to a single equivalent or total resistance, the filaments of radio tubes. We have also inserted
will give us the total current withdrawn from the an ammeter, symbolized by the circled (A), in series
source of emf by an application of Ohm's Law (i.e., with the switch. It does not matter where the am-
E meter is inserted into the circuit, as long as the cur-
Ij^j := ). Secondly, we would like to know all
rent flows through it, since the current is every-
I^tot
the individual currents flowing through the various
where the same. In addition, we have shown a volt-
meter, symbolized by the circled (V), connected
devices (loads) and branches of the circuit, giving
across the battery, to indicate its emf. This voltmeter
us the current distribution. Fmally, we want to de-
termine the fall of potential or voltage drop across may be moved anywhere in the circuit to determine
each of the loads to ascertain the voltage distribu- the voltage drops developed in the resistors. Note
tion in the circuit. You Ohm's Law is
will find that that an ammeter is always inserted in series with the
constantly used in all these calculations, whenever part of the circuit through which the current is to
it applies. But in addition, we shall learn more be determined. A voltmeter, in contrast, is always
powerful methods of solving circuits, which will connected aaoss or in parallel with the part of the
give us the answers quicker and with less trouble. circuit across which the potential difference (volt-
age) is to be determined.
SERIES CIRCUITS When we close the switch in the circuit of Fig.
The connections illustrated in Figs. 54, 55, and 59, a current flows in turn through each of the
56 are all series circuits because in each one of four resistors, the ammeter, the switch, and the bat-
VDITMCIIR the resistance values difEer, it is evident that the

voltage drops in a series circuit can all be different.
•-£ = 50 Volts-* This is another important fact to remember. Apply-
ing it to tlie voltage drops across the resistors in the
BATrar circuit of Fig. 59, we obtain
V, = I Ri; Va =. I R^; V3 = I R3; and V, = I R^ (3)
We also know that the applied voltage (£) must
equal the product of the current and the total re-
an
= I R^.
•
sistance (Rj); that is, E

Substituting these relations in equation (2):
= Vi + V^ + V3 + V,
E
I Rt = Rj + R2 + R3 + I R4
I I I
factoring: R^ = (Rj -f R^ + R3 + RJ
I I
Fig. 59. Series-Connected Circuit Dividing by 'T': R^ = R^ -f R^ + R3 + R4 (4)

In general, therefore, for any number of series-
tery.Let us find the value of this current, not only connected resistors, Rj, Rj, R3, R4, . . . etc., the
for the circuit of Fig. 59, but in general for any total resistance
series-connected circuit. Since, by definition, the R, = Ri + R2 + R3 + R, + (5)
current flows in a single, continuous path, we know where the dots represent any number of additional
resistors used.
at the outset that the current in a series circuit
must everywhere be the same. We also know the Let us summarize the relations we have just
emf (E) of the battery or other source. The only derived for a series circuit:
missing hnk is the total resistance, R^, of the circuit. 1. The current in a series circuit is everywhere
we the same.
If we knew its value, could determine the total
2. The voltage drops may all be different, de-
series current (I) by Ohm's Law, thus:
pending on the value of each resistance, but the
E
Total Series Current I =— (1) sum of the voltage drops must add up to the emf
Rt (voltage) of the source.
Now we know "intuitively" and have assumed in
3. The total resistance of a series circuit equals
the past that the total opposition (resistance R^) to
the sum of the individual resistances (or resistors).
the current is the sum of the individual oppositions
EXAMPLE: Let us compute the total resistance and
offered by the resistors. Thus we could simply state
current in the circuit of Fig. 59. The total resistance
tliat tlie total resistance (R^) of the series circuit is
Rt= 50 -f 100 + 330 + 20 = 500 ohms. Hence, by
equal to the sum of the individual resistance values
E 50
(Ri, Rj, R3 and R4). But it would be nice if we Ohm's Law, the current I = — = = 0.1 ampere.
could prove this statement. To do this let us use Rt 500
tlie basic concept that energy must be conserved. Lamps or Tubes in Series. The relations we have
Hence, the energy expended by the ciurent in mov- worked out for resistors in series hold for any type
ing from the point of high potential (negative termi- of load, whether it be lamps, radio tubes, or any-
nal) to the point of law potential (positive terminal) thing else. Lamps are rarely connected in series, ex-
must equal the energy (or voltage) supplied by the cept in special cases, such as miniatiure Christmas
source of emf (E). Equivalently, as we have stated tree lights, where each bulb has too low a voltage
before, the sum of the individual voltage drops in rating to be connected directly across the line volt-
the circuit must equal the emf (E) of the source. age. If you have ever been annoyed by tlie biu-ning
Using the letter V to represent voltage drops, we out of one of these miniatmre bulbs and saw the
can express tliis statement mathematically, as fol- whole string go out, you'll know why the series-con-
lows nection of lamps is not generally in favor. Moreover,
E = Vi + V, + V3-fV, (2) it is not at all easy to locate the defective lamp, since
where Vj stands for the voltage drop across R^, Vj they all go out at the same time.
for that across Rj, and so on. By Ohm's Law, the The series connection is frequently used for radio
voltage drop across each of the resistors is the prod- tubes. The filaments of vacuum tubes operate at a
uct of the current (I) and the individual resistance low voltage (1 to 50 volts) and, hence, cannot be
(R). Since the current is everywhere the same, but connected directly across the 120-volt line. In inex-
pensive radio receivers, where a step-down fila- at some intermediate point (C)? Well, the current
ment transformer is not feasible, the filaments of all (7) in this simple series circuits is E/R. Hence, the
the tubes are connected in series and the entire voltage drop V across the portion of resistance, R',
string connected to
is the power This can
outlet. included between points C and B, is I X R'- Sub-
always be done, provided all the tubes are rated E
to operate at the same current and the voltage rat- stituting for I, we obtain V = IR' = — XR' = EX
R
ings of the individual tubes add up to the line volt-
R'
age (usually 115 to 120 volts). If the voltages do or the output voltage is the input voltage times
not add up to the line voltage, an additional bal- r'
last resistor must be connected in series with the the ratio of the two resistances.
tubes to take up the excess line voltage.
EXAMPi£: As an example, let us compute the
ballast resistance required for the filament circuit
illustrated in Fig. 60. Here four tubes, each rated at INPUT p
12.5 volts filament voltage, are connected in series VOLTAGE
OUTPUT
with a 25-volt tube and the ballast resistor. All the V VOLTAGE
tubes are rated to operate with a current of 0.15
ampere. The line voltage is 120 volts.
Solution: The voltage drops across the five tubes

add up to 4 X 12.5 + 25 =
75 volts. The ballast re-
sistor must develop a voltage drop equal to the ex- Fig. 61. Action of a Potentiometer- Voltage Divider
cess, or the difference between the line voltage and

the tube voltage drops. Hence, the voltage drop PARALLEL CIRCUITS
across ballast resistor= 120 — 75 = 45 volts. By Most electrical circuits you will encounter in
E 45 House and apartment
Ohm's Law, the resistance of the ballast = — =
practice are parallel circuits.
I 0.15 wiring consists of a multiplicity of parallel connec-
= SOO ohms. tions and current paths, all fed by the same source
Simple Voltage Divider (Potentiometer). You of voltage. The parallel circuit is basically different
have already met a type of variable resistor, called from the inasmuch as the current di-
series type,
a potentiometer. Let us see how a potentiometer vides into a number of separate, independent
divides the voltage applied to it in proportion to branches. Each of these branches may have a dif-
the resistance included between movable con- its ferent resistance (load) and, hence, the value of the
tact and one of the fixed contacts. As shown in Fig. current in each branch may be different. If one of
61, the input voltage (E) from some soiu-ce is ap- the loads bums out or is disconnected, the remainder
pUed between the two fixed ends (A and B) of the of the circuit continues to function, which is a great
resistance winding (R) and the output voltage (V) is advantage over the series circuit. Moreover, since
taken between the movable contact and the lower all branches operate on the same voltage source, a
end. single power source of the proper voltage and

Obviously, if we move the slider of the potenti- power rating can supply the currents to aU the
ometer all the way up to the top (point A), we shall parallel branches. The check for a parallel circuit
tap off the full input voltage, E, and if we move issimple: If you can trace more than one path for
it all the way to the bottom (point B), we shall get the current to flow through the circuit, you have a
no output voltage at all. What is the output voltage parallel circuit.
Vi V* Vr
120-VOLT
SWITCH
©—©-©-©-6
Vi
12.5V 12.5V
Vs
12.5V 12.5V 25V R = 120-WX1Z.5+25)

OUTLET 0.15
BALLAST
^ I = 0.15 AMPERE 45
AAA\AV
R = ? ai5
Fig. 60. Series-Connected Filament Circuit of a Radio Receiver

Resistors in Parallel. Let us now solve an actual Total current I = I^ -f I^ -f I, = sum of branch
parallel circuit, consisting of three resistors (Ri, R^ currents n)
and Rg) connected in parallel across a voltage source The parallel circuit thus acts as a current divider,
(E). As before, the resistors may represent any elec- in contrast to the series circuit, which is a voltage
trical appliance or load of a certain resistance value. divider, as we have seen.
The arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 62. We have By Ohm's Law, the voltage drop across each
inserted ammeters (Aj, Aj, and A3) into each of the branch resistor is the product of the branch current
three branches to indicate the individual currents, and the branch resistance, and this product must
and also one (A) into the main line to indicate the equal the emf of the source (E). The total current
total current (I). A voltmeter (V), connected in paral- (/) is, of course, the emf (E) divided by the total
lel with the voltage sources and the branches, in- E
dicates the emf apphed
(£) as well as the voltage resistance (RJ, or _ . Moreover, since the total cur-
Only one voltmeter is required,
across the branches.
since the same voltage is apphed to each of the rent is greater than the current through any branch,
branches and this voltage, clearly, equals that of

the source (£). The switch is connected into the
the total resistance fRj = _) must be less than the
main line, and thus controls the current to all the lowest value of any branch resistance. Putting these
branches. In practice, you will find additional
considerations into equation form, we may write
switches connected in each of the branches to turn
the individual appliances on or off. , E E E E
(2)
Rt Ri R, R,
Substituting for the currents in eq. (1):
I = Ii + l2 + Is
E E E E
(3)
r;~r;"^r;"^r;
and dividing both sides by E, we obtain
1 1
J__J_ (4)
Re~R^'^R^"^R^
Equation (4) states that the reciprocal of the total
resistance in a parallel circuit equals the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual branch resistances. Re-
membering that conductance is the reciprocal of
Fig. 62. Parallel-Connected Circuit

resistance (G = 1/R), equation
means that (4) also
the total conductance of a parallel circuit is the
sum of the individual conductances. Expressed
When the main switch is closed, a current (I)
mathematically,
flows from the source of emf (E) in the direction
G = Gi + Gj + G3 (mhos) (5)
indicated by the arrows to a common upper junc-
tion point of the three resistors (Rj, R^ and R3). At
where G= 1/R,; G^ = l/R^; G^ = l/R^; and G3 =
I/R3.
this point the current divides into tliree branch
Equation (4) may be solved for the total resist-
currents, Ij, Ij, and I3, respectively. After flowing
ance, R,, giving:
through the individual resistors, the branch cur-
rents again combine at the lower junction point. ^-^
Since the total charge must be conserved, the cur- 1 / <«)
+—
1
rent flowing out of the lower junction must equal
Rj R2
+ —
R,
+
that flowing into the upper junction, or equiva- where the dots represent any number of additional
lently, the sum of the branch currents equals the resistors connected in parallel. Thus, we have our
total cxirrent. The main ammeter (A) reading, there- final result in equation (6), which states that the
fore, equals the sum of the readings of the branch total resistance of a parallel circuit is equal to the
ammeters (A,, A^, A3). Putting this statement into reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the in-
mathematical form, we obtain dividual branch resistances.
I
You do not always have to use this cumbersome currents for the circuit of Fig. 62. By equation (6),
formula (eq. 6), since the parallel circuit is often the total resistance of the circuit,
very simple. For example, if all the branch re-
sistors are identical, the total resistance is simply
the resistance of one branch divided by the num-
'
1/1000 + 1/2000 + 1/5000 10 + 5 + 2_
ber of branches, as we have already seen. 10,000
EXAMPLE 1: What is the total resistance of five 10,000
:
588 ohms
100-ohm resistors connected in parallel? 17
100
Solution: The total resistance R, = = 20 ohms. Since we now have the total resistance, which is
5 the equivalent of the three branch resistances, we

As another special which occurs frequently
case, can replace the circuit of Fig. 62 by a simpler,
in practice, consider the total resistance of two re- equivalent circuit, having only a single 588-ohm re-
sistors connected in parallel. Equation (4) then be- sistor. The total current for the equivalent circuit
comes
MAIN SWITCH
1 1 1 R1 + R2
Rt Ri R2 R1R2
Rj Rj
and hence, R^
R1 + R2
(7)
i'T 1 .= 0.17 amp
In words, the total resistance of two parallel

VOLTAGE _=:_
— Eîoov Rl= 588 a
SOURCE
branches is the product of the two resistances di- I
i
vided by their sum.
EXAMPLE 2: What is the total equivalent resist- +
ance of a 20-ohm and a 80-ohm resistor coimected
in parallel?
V
Solution:
Ri Rj 20 X 80 = 1600
R, = = = 16 ohms. Fig. 63. Equivalent Circuit for that Shown in Fig. 62
R1 + R2 20-f80 100
Let us summarize the relations
veloped for a parallel circuit:
we have just de-
shown in Fig. 63, is simply I =—=
R(
—=
588
0.17
1. The voltage drop across each branch of a ampere.To obtain the individual branch currents,
parallel circuit is the same and is equal to the volt- we must go back to the original circuit of Fig. 62.
age of the source.
F
=—=
100
2. The total current flowing into and out of the Here, the current through R,
^
: I, = 0.1
junction points of the branches equals the sum of
^ *
Ri 1000
the branch currents. ampere

The conductance of a parallel circuit E 100
L=—=
3. total
equals the siun of the individual branch conduc-
the current through
^ R,: = 0.05
R3 2000
tances.
ampere
4. The total (equivalent) resistance of a parallel
circuit is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the
the ciurent through R.:
^
I, =— 100
= 0.02
reciprocals of the individual branch resistances. ' ^ R3 5000
5. The total resistance of identical parallel re- ampere
sistors is the value of one resistor divided by the As a check let us add up the branch currents, which
number of branch resistors. must result in the total current. Thus, the total cur-
6. The total resistance of two resistors in paral- rent
lel is the product of the two resistance values di- I = Ij 4. I„ 4. I3 = 0.1 + 0.05 + 0.02 = 0.17 am-
vided by their sum. pere, or the same value we obtained before.
EXAMPLE 3: As another example let us work out Lamps in Parallel. Fig. 64 illustrates an actual
the total resistance, the total current and the branch wiring diagram of a number of lamps connected in
parallel. The diagram may at first appear compli- atically. The general method is to simplify the cir-
cated because of the different switch connections, cuit step by step by replacing groups of series or
but when you trace it out, it is just a combination of parallel resistances by equivalent single resistances,
two simple parallel circuits. reducing it finally to a simple series circuit. It is
best to find first the equivalent resistance of the

parallel groups and then add to this the sum of the
series-connected parts of the circuit. You will even-
tually end up with a single equivalent resistance
SwitclT" Switch (R^) and a single source of emf (£); and hence you
® © can determine the total current in the series-paral-
lel by Ohm's Law (I = E/Rj). By further,
ciicuit
repeated applications of Ohm's Law you can then
(^^M^ find the current in each branch resistance and the
Switch
voltage drop across each. The following example
I
(D will illustrate the method used. (See Fig. 65.)

example: Fig. 65 illustrates a series-parallel cir-
cuit consisting of a 100-volt soiurce of emf (E) and
five resistors, connected in series-parallel, vdth
Fig. 64. Wiring Diagram of Parallel Lamp Circuit desired to
values as indicated in the figure. It is
find the total equivalent resistance (RJ, the total

As shown in the illustration, the 115-volt main
hne current (I), the value of the current through
line feedspower to the various lamps through two
each resistor,and the voltage drop across each.
branch circuits (I and 2). Both branches are con-
Solution: The circuit of part I, Fig. 65, must first
nected across the main Hne voltage, and as you can
be simplified to a simple series circuit, as is indi-
check by tracing the arrows, each lamp is actually
cated by the successive equivalent circuits, illus-
connected across the main line wires. Various
made trated in parts II through IV. First combine resistors
switching arrangements have been for con-
venient control of the lamps, either singly or in
Rg and R4 into a single equivalent resistance, Rg^.
groups. Switch A is connected between one of the
By the formula for two parallel resistors (eq. 7), we
obtain
branch wires of and a single lamp. It
circuit 1
therefore turns this lamp on or off. (The switch
could have equally well been connected on the
1^3-4
_ 5X20 =
=
5 + 20
— =4
100
25
ohms.
,„ „^
(Partll)
other side of the lamp.) Switch B is connected in

This equivalent 4-ohm resistor may be combined
series vdth a wire feeding five parallel lamps in
with the series-connected 16-ohm resistor (Rj) to
circuit This switch, therefore, turns
1. all five bulbs
yield an equivalent resistance of 4 + 16 = 20 ohms.
either on or off, as a group. Switch C controls a
Now combine 20-ohm resistor with the paral-
this
single lamp in circuit 2 and switch D controls a
lel-connected 80-ohm resistor, Rj, to obtain the
group of five parallel lamps in circuit 2. Their func-
equivalent resistance
tions are the same as those of circuit 1.
20 X 80 1600
(Part III)
R,2,3,4.5 16 ohms.
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS 20 + 80 100
Finally, there remains only the 4-ohm resistor Ri,
As the name implies, series-parallel circuits are which is connected in series with the eqmvalent
combinations of both series- and parallel-connected 16-ohm resistance (R2,3,4,5)- Combining these two
circuitsand hence have the properties of both. No resistors, we obtain
generalizations can be made about these circuits Rj = 16 4- 4 = 20 ohms (Part IV)
beyond that the series- and parallel portions must
E 100
be solved separately by the methods we have de- The total current is
,
therefore
, ,
I =— = -—-=
veloped. Ohm's Law is very inefficient to solve the
more complicated series-parallel circuits and we 5 amperes. Now let us
determine the individual cur-
shall learn better ways of dealing with them in rents and voltage drops. The current through Rj is
the next section. The simpler types of series-parallel the total hne current, or 5 amperes. Hence, the
circuits yield to Ohm's Law, if you use it system- voltage drop across R^ equals 5 X 4 = 20 volts. The
r
4A
-AAAAr-
100 voLn
60St
-AAAAA-
4iX IfoJV
R.S
31
4iX
-o— e—K5- f—
lOOVOUT
|6jx
Rz-s4-s
33L
IE
Fig. 65. Series-Parallel Circuit and its Equivalents
voltage drop across the entire combination of Rj'

16
voltage (16 volts) divided by R3, or -— = S.2 am-
Rg, R4 and R5, or its equivalent resistance R2,3,4,5 o
isthe line current times the equivalent resistance, peres. The current tlirough R4 is correspondingly
which is 5 16X =
80 volts. (It is also equal to the 1 fi
diference betv^êen the emf and the voltage drop —= 0.8 ampere. This completes the solution of the
across Rj, or again 100 20 —
80 volts.) = entire circuit.
The voltage drop across the 80-ohm resistor (Rg)
is the same as that across the entire combination, or
KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS
80 The example we have just considered indicates
80 volts. Hence the current through Rg is —
oO
=
^
I
how involved the solution of a relatively simple
series-parallel circuit may become, if carried out by
ampere. The current through R5 is the voltage drop cannot readily
Ohm's Law. More intricate circuits
across R2,3,4,5 divided by the resistance of the
be solved by the method just illustrated. Fortu-
branch where Rj is located. This resistance is 4 + nately, two generalizations first suggested by the
16 = 20 ohms, as indicated in Part II. Hence the
German physicist gustav bobeet kirchhgff (1824-
80
current through Rg is — =4 amperes (it is also the 1887) have been found extremely useful for solving
more complicated circuits. Kirchhoff's obser-
these
difference of the total current minus that through vations are vahd for any electrical circuit and they
R2, or 5 — =
4 amps). The voltage drop across
1 areknown as Kirchhoff's Laws. In brief, Kirchhoff's
parallel resistors R3 and R4 is the branch current Laws state:

times the equivalent resistance R3.4, or 4 X 4 16 = First Law: The sum of the currents flowing into
volts. The voltage drop across Rg is this same branch a junction of an electric circuit is equal to the sum
current times Rj, or 4 X 16 = 64 volts. The two of the ciirrents flowing out of the junction. In other
voltage drops add up to 80 volts, as expected. words, as much ciurent flows away from a point as
Finally, the current through R3 equals the branch flows towards it.
)
Second Law: The sum of the electromotive forces equal the energy consumed, or the work performed
(battery or generator voltages) around any closed in creating a voltage rise at the source of emf must
loop of a circuit is equal to the sum of the voltage equal the work done by the current in generating
drops across the resistances in that loop. the voltage drops in a circuit. Expressed as an equa-
KirchhofF's first "law" were not
is obvious; if it tion, the law states
true more electric charges might be flowing toward Sum of Emf s = Sum of Voltage drops
a point than away from it, and, consequently, or Sum E = Sum IR drops (around closed loop)
charges would accumulate at that point. But there and by transposing the IR drops to the left side,
is no reason that this should happen at some arbi- we may write
trary point in a circuit. The law is thus equivalent to Kirchhoff's Second Law: Sum E Sum IR — =
the statement that (for steady cmrents) electricity This may be stated in words as follows: The
also
does not accumulate at a junction. An example will algebraic siun of the potential differences around a
illustiate the simplicity of applying Kirchhoff's first closed loop of a circuit is zero. In order to obtain
law. the algebraic sum you must assign plus (+) signs
EXAMPLE: In Fig. 66 two branch currents (I, and to all emfs in a loop and minus (— ) signs to all
Ig) are flowing towards a junction (L) of an electric voltage (IR) drops.
circuitand three branch currents (I3, I4 and I,) are Procedure for Using KirchhofFs Laws. In using
flowing away from it. What is the current distribu- Kirchhoff's Laws for the solution of actual prob-
tion at the junction? lems, a systematic procedure must be followed in
Solution: By Kirchhoff's first law, the sum of the order not to get enmeshed in a number of confus-
currents flowing into the junction equals the siun of ing and interrelated equations, and to solve the cir-
the currents flowing away from it. cuit in the quickest possible way. In brief, these are
Hence: Ij + I2 = I3 + + Ij I4 the essentials:
Or equivalently, by transposing all currents to the 1. Divide the circuit into a number of closed
left side loops, including all resistors and sources of emf.
Ii + I2 - I3 - I4 - Is = 2. Assign a direction of current (electron) jlow
around each of the loops. If an emf (battery or gen-
erator) is present in the loop, choose the direction
of electron flow, from minus ( — ) to plus (-|-). If no
l, + I, = I.-t-I.-H, emf or several emfs are present, assume a current
or: I,-hI,-l,-I._I, = direction arbitrarily, either clockwise or counter-
clockwise, (note: If you assume the wrong current
direction, the value of the current will come out
negative (— ), but its magnitude will not be af-
fected.) Then assign a plus (+) sign to those emfs
that tend to produce currents in the chosen direc-
tion and assign a minus (— ) sign to all emfs and
Fig. 66. Kirchhoff's First Law: The Algebraic Sum of the currents flowing opposite to the chosen direction.
Currents at a Junction Equals Zero
3. Using Kirchhoff's first law (Sum 1 = 0) write as
This example suggests that Kirchhoff's first law many independent current equations as possible at
may be further simplified. By assigning a plus (-f various junction points. Currents flowing into a
sign to all currents flowing towards a junction and junction are plus (+), those flowing out of the
a minus (— ) sign to the currents flowing away from junction are minus (— ).
the junction, you can rephrase the first law as fol- 4. Using Kirchhoff's second law (Sum E sum =
lows: The algebraic sum of the ciurents at a junc- IR drops) write as many independent voltage equa-
•îon is zero. Putting this statement into mathemati- tions around closed loops, as there are loops. The
cal form, we write concisely total number of independent current and voltage
Kirchhoff's First Law: Sum 1=0. equations must equal the number of unknown cur-
Kirchhoff's second law is not new to us; we have rents. (Independent equations will not reduce to
used it several times before. You will recall that identical forms by algebraic substitution.)
it isbased on the concept of conservation of energy; 5. Solve the resulting simultaneous algebraic
specifically, tlie energy delivered to a circuit must equation for any or all desired currents.
R
Electricity Made Simple TI
The following examples will clarify the procedure The voltage drop across the 6-ohm resistor (Rj)
used. 12 Rj = 0.397 X 6 = 2.38 volts
EXAMPLE 1 Fig. 67 shows a circuit containing two
: And the voltage drop across the 12-ohm resistor (Rg)
emf's and three resistors. It is desired to find the 13 Rg = 0.365 X 12 = 4.38 volts
current through and the voltage drop across each EXAMPLE 2: network of re-
Fig. 68 illustrates a
resistor, using Kirchhofl's laws. sistorsconnected to a 100-volt source of emf. Find
the current through and the voltage across each re-
sistor, the total ciurent and the total resistance of
-W\AV 1 ÂAA^V
. 1,1 Iz-hT^^ 1
the network, using KirchhoflF's Laws.
Ei^"" t B2
E, :=: 12V f
Ii
[ _V
Fig. 67. Use of KirchhoflF's Laws (Example 1)
Solution: Let us choose loops ABEF and BCDE

*
to solve the circuit. The current flow in each loop is
chosen in the direction from the negative to the

positive terminal of the emf. Let I, be the current
through the 10-ohm resistor (R,), Ij the current
through the 6-ohm resistor (Rj) and Ig the current Fig. 66. Use ol Jviichhoff's Laws (Example 2)
through the 12-ohm resistor (Rg).

Solution: Let us choose loops ABFDE, ABFCDE,
By KirchhoflF's first law, at junction B;
and ABCDE to solve the circuit. The current direc-
l, = h+ I3 or I, - I^ - I3 = (1)
tion is from minus to plus, as indicated by the ar-
If you try to write another current equation, at through Rg flows from
rows. Assume that current I,
junction E:
F to C. Then, by Kirchhofl's first law, at junction F;
i
I2 + I3 = I, or again I, — Ij — I3 = I, = Ig + 1, or 1, = Ii - I3 (1)
you will find that the latter equation is the same as
also, at junction C:
eq. (1) and hence not independent from it.
I5 = I2 + Is (2)
By Kirchhoffs second law, the voltage drops write voltage drops around
j
Using eq. (1) and (2) to
around loop ABEF: the loops, we obtain in loop ABFDE:
101, 12 13 12 V + = (2) 40 I, + 60 (I, -
= 100 VI3)
and the voltage drops around loop BCDE: or 100 I, - 60 I3 = 100 (3)
10 I, 4- 6 I2 10 V = (3) in loop ABFCDE:
= — l^ in eq. (2)
Substituting for I3 I,
40 I, + 20 I3 + 30 (I2 + I3) = 100 V
'
10 + 12 (1, - I2) = 12 V and hence
1, or 40 I, + 30I2 + 50 I3 = 100 (4)
22 - 12 I2 = 12 V I, (4)
and in loop ABCDE:
Dividing eq. (4) by 2: llli - 6 I^ = 6 V = V
(5) 50 I2 + 30 (I2 + I3) 100
Adding (3) to (5): or 80 I2 + 30 I3 = 100 (5)
21Ii = 16V Multiplying eq. (5) by 2
and hence Ij — = 0.762 ampere

1 160 I2 + 60 Ig = 200 (6)
21 Adding eq. (3) to eq. (6)

from eq. (3):
100 + 160 I2 = 300
I,
10 - 10 I, 10 - 7.62 300 - 160 I,

h = 0.397 ampere or Ii 1.6 L (7)
6 6 100
and from eq. (1): Solving eq. (5) for I3
L= I, I2 = 0.762 0.397 = 0.365 ampere 30 Ig = 100 - 80 I2
Knowing the currents, we can now compute the and hence I3 = 3.33 - 2.667 I^ (8)
voltage drops: Substituting eqs. (7) and (8) in eq. (4)

The voltage drop across the 10-ohm resistor (R,) 40 (3-1.6 I2) + 30 I2 + 50 (3.33 - 2.667 I^) = 100
Ij R 1 = 0.762 X 10 = 7.62 volts Multiplying out
120 -
64 I2 + 30 Ij + 166.5 — 133.3 I2 = 100
Transposing
120 + 166.5 - 100 = 133.3 I^ -
30 I, + 64 L
Simplifying
186.5 = 167.3 I,
186.5
and hence h= = 1.115 ampere
167.3
Substituting for Ig in eq. (7)
I, = 3 — 1.6 (1.115) = 3 - 1.78 = 1.22 ampere
Substituting for 1^ in eq. (8)
I3 = 3.33 - 2.667 (1.115) = 3.33 - 2.97 =
0.36 ampere
Substituting for Ij and I3 in eq. (1)
I4 = Ii — I3 = 1.22 — 0.36 = 0.86 ampere

Substituting for Ig and I3 in eq. (2)
15 = 12 + 13 = 1.115 + 0.36 = 1.475 ampere

At point B, the total current = -f Ig I Ij
or I = 1.22 + 1.115 = 2.335 ampere
As a check, at point D, the total current = I^ + I5 I
or I = 0.86 + 1.475 = 2.335 ampere,

or the same as above.
100 Fig. 69. Schematic Circuit Diagram of Wheatstone Bridge

The total resistance, Rj = 42.8 ohms
2.335 able fixed values and the standard resistance R, is
The voltage (IR) drops across resistors Rj through adjusted in value, until the galvanometer indicates
Rj are zero current flow. The bridge is then said to be
across Rj iiRi 1.22 X 40 = 48.8 volts balanced. For a balanced bridge, the unknown re-
across Rj I2R2 1.115 X 50 = 55.75 volts sistance, Rj, is determined from a knowledge
easily
across R3 I3R3 0.36 X 20 = 7.2 volts of the values of R„, R^ and R^.
across R^ I4R4 = 0.86 X 60 = 51 volts.6 Let us derive the equation for a balanced Wheat-
and across Rr I5R5 = 1.475 X 30 = 44.25 volts stone Bridge; that is, when no current flows through
This completes the solution of the network shown the galvanometer (G). If no current is diverted
in Fig. 68. through the galvanometer, the current through R,
The Wheatstone Bridge. The network illustrated must be the same as that through R^^, or Ig I^. Let =
in Fig. 68 is you can
actually a bridge circuit, as us label this upper branch current I„. Similarly, the
see by comparing it with Fig. 69, where we have current I,, through R^ must equal the current I,
redrawn the original circuit. The form of the cir- through R„ since no current flows out of the lower
cuit shown in Fig. 69 is known as the Wheatstone junction D. Call this lower branch current I,. More-
Bridge in honor of the British physicist sm charles over, in the absence of a current through G, the po-
vraEATSTONE (1802-1875). The Wheatstone Bridge is tential at point B must equal that at point D. It
used for highly precise resistance measurements, by follows that the voltage drop across R^ must be the
comparing an unknown resistance, R^, with a known same as the voltage drop across R^, and the voltage
standard resistance, R^. drop across R^ must equal that across R,. Let us put
these conclusions into mathematical form:
As illustrated in Fig. 69, four resistors R„, R^, R^
and Rj are arranged in the form of a parallelogram la= Ix = I„ (1)
and are connected to a battery E at two junction I. = = I. I, (2)

the voltage drops I^R^ = IjR^
points A and C. A galvanometer with an internal re- (3)
sistance Rg bridges the other two jimction points

and IA = I,R, (4)
Dividing eq. (3) by eq. (4), term by term
B and D. One of the resistors, R^, is unknown in
value, while the other three are known and adjust-
able. In practice, resistors R, and R,, are given suit-
~=—Rj.
R,
Rh
R.
(5)
Solving for R,, we obtain parallel resistors. Both groups are connected in series
vdth each other and with a 220-volt power hne. What
(6) is the voltage drop across each group?
13. Two 3-ohm coils are connected in series and one

Since the value of R^, R^ and R, are known, we of them is shunted by a 6-ohm coil. What is the total
can determine the value of the unknown resistor R^ resistance?

14. Solve the circuit shown in Fig. 65 (I) by means of
from equation (6).
KirchhofiPs Laws.
15. Show that when the battery and galvanometer in
Practice Exercise No. 7 a balanced Wheatstone Bridge (Fig. 69) are inter-
changed, the bridge wiU remain balanced.
1. State the distinguishing characteristics of a series
circuit and give its advantages and disadvantages.
2. Find the voltage (emf) required to send a total SUMMARY
current of 6 amps through three series-connected re-
In a series circuit the current flows in an undi-
sistors of 4, 8, and 10 ohms, respectively. Also compute
vided, consecutive and continuous path from the
the voltage drop across each resistor.
source of emf through the loads and back to the
3. A lamp has a resistance of 150 ohms and the con-
source.
necting wires have a resistance of 10 ohms total. An
emf of 120 volts is apphed. Find the current in the line, The current in a series circuit is everywhere the
the voltage across the lamp, and the voltage drop in the same.
line. The voltage drops in a series circuit depend on
4. Eight Christmas tree lamps, each having 30 ohms the values of the series resistances; the sum of the
resistance, are connected in series to the 120-volt line. voltage drops must equal the emf of the source.
What is the current through the first lamp? The last The total resistance of a series circuit equals the
lamp? sum of the individual resistances (or resistors).
5. A 4-ohm resistor, a 6-ohm resistor, and one of un- In a parallel circuit the current divides into a
known value are connected in series to a 120-volt
number of separate, independent branches. The
soince. If the voltage drop in the 6-ohm resistor is 60
following relations hold:
volts, what is the value of the unknown resistor?
1. The voltage drop across each branch of a
6. Distinguish between series and parallel circuits
parallel circuit is the same and equal to the voltage
and state the advantages of the parallel connection.
7. Show that for two resistors, Rj and Rg, connected of the source.
in parallel the branch currents, Ij and 1^, divide in ac- 2. The total current flowing into and out of the
junction points of the branches equals the sum of
cordance with the relation —=— the branch currents.
3. The total conductance equals the sum of the
8. A circuit has three parallel branches vnth resist-
branch conductances.
ances of 20, 30, and 40 ohms, respectively. If a cur-
4. The total equivalent resistance equals the re-
rent of 3 amps is flowing through the 30-ohm branch,
ciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the indi-
how much current flows in each of the other branches?
What is the applied emf, the total circuit resistance,
vidual branch resistances.
and the total ciurent? 5. The total resistance of identical parallel re-
9. What resistance must be placed in parallel with sistors is the value of one resistor divided by the
a 16-ohm resistor to make the total resistance of the number of branch resistors.
combination 12 ohms? 6. The total resistance of two resistors in parallel
10. A 120-volt electric heating apphance has a 12- is the product of the two resistance values divided
ohm and a 24-ohm coO. If the coils are cormected in by their sum.
parallel, compute the current drawn by each coil and KirchhoflF's First Law: The sum of the currents
the total current in the apphance.
flowing into a junction of a circuit equals the sum
11. A 2-ohm and a 4-ohm cormected in
resistor are
of the currents flowing out. (The algebraic siun of
parallel and the combination is connected in series with
a 5-ohm resistor and a 3-volt battery with an internal
the junction currents is zero; Sum 1 = 0)
resistance of 0.8 ohm. What is the current in the 4-
Kirchhoffs Second Law: The sum of the emfs
ohm resistor? around any closed loop of a circuit equals the sum
12. Seven 200-ohm resistors are arranged in two of the voltage drops across the loop resistances.
groups, one of four parallel resistors and one of three (Sum E — Sum IR = 0)
CHAPTER EIGHT
ELECTRIC POWER AND HEAT

Your experience with household electric appli- slideron the rheostat progressively more to the
ances indicates that heat
is produced whenever an right to reduce the series resistance and increase
electric current flows through a resistance. You'll the current through the circuit. Observe that the
recall that this heatcaused by colhsions between
is heat produced by the nichrome wire becomes more
free electrons moving through the conductor and and more intense and that the vsdre first becomes
the relatively "fixed" atoms making up the crystal dull red in color, then orange and finally yellow in
These collisions increase
structure of the conductor. color, indicating rapidly increasing temperatures.
the kinetic or thermal energy of the atoms within Do not continue the experiment beyond yellow heat
the conductor and its temperature rises. The more of the nichrome wire; greater currents may over-
current flows, the greater is the increase in the load the rheostat and will blow a fuse before burn-
thermal energy of the conductor and, hence, the ing out the resistance wire.
greater is the heat liberated. An experiment will Heat and Work: Joule's Law. The heat produced
confirm this. by the resistance wire in the experiment just con-
EXPEREMENT 15: Obtain a few feet of No. 30 cluded is a measure of the work done by the electric
nichrome resistance wire, a pyrex, porcelain or other current in overcoming the resistance of the con-
heat-resistant tube about Ja-inch in diameter; and ductor. The energy required for this work is sup-
a large rheostat that will permit a current flow of plied by a battery, generator, or other current
from 1 to 10 amps. Wind about 2 feet of nichrome source.The more heat is produced, the more work
wire around the heat-resistant tube and connect isperformed by the current and, hence, the more
the ends in series with the rheostat and the 120- energy is expended by the battery or generator. If
volt power line, as illustrated in Fig. 70. we could find out, then, how much heat is gener-
ated by an electric current, we would also know
120-VOLT how much energy had been expended and vice
SOCKET
versa. is true provided the electric current
(This
produces only heat and performs no other chemical
or mechanical work.)
The English physicist james prescott joule
(1818-1889) concerned himself with this problem
PLUG
and in 1840 published a famous paper "On the
Production of Heat by Voltaic Electricity," which
contained the results of his experiments. Based on
MOVABLE tliese experiments, he announced a law (Joule's
Wwww J
RHEOSTAT
CONTACT Law), which stated that the total amount of heat
developed in a conductor is directly proportional
to the resistance, to the square of the electric cur-
rent, and to the length of time during which the
2 ft NICHROME/ HEAT-RESISTANT current flows (i.e., the wire is heated). Expressed as
WIRE TUBE (PYREX) an equation. Joule's law of electric heating gives
Fig. 70. Setup for Experiment 15: Heat from Electricity the amount of heat (H) produced in a time, t, by a
current, /, in a conductor of resistance, R, as
Now turn the sliding contact of the rheostat to H=PRt (joules) (1)
the extreme left (for maximum resistance) and plug where H is the heat energy in joules, if the current
power outlet. As you can confirm
the cord into the is in amperes, the resistance in ohms, and the time
with an ammeter inserted into the hne, only a small in seconds.
current flows and, hence, little heat is produced and While Joule's law was arrived at experimentally
radiated from the Nichrome heater wire. Move the and has been confirmed by innumerable subse-
80
quent experiments, it is easy to show its theoretical H = 0.239 P R t = 0.239 (2 X 2) X 60 X (10 X 60)
validity by fundamental energy considerations.
= 34,400 cals.
Earlier defined the potential difference (V) be-

we Alternatively, H ==: 0.239 V 1 1 = 0.239 X 120 X 2
tween two points as the work (W) done in carrying X 600 = 34,400 calories.
a unit charge through a conductor from the point When the coils are connected in parallel, their
of high potential to the point oflower potential. We equivalent resistance R = 30/2 =15 ohms. The
also found that the total work (W) done in moving current I = E/R = 120/15 = 8 amps. Hence, the
charge between the points is simply the heat produced (in calories)
any {Q)
product of the charge and the potential difference, H= 0.239 PR t = 0.239 (8)^ X 15 X 600 =
or 137,900 calories,
W=QXV (2) or H = 0.239 V I t = 0.239 X 120 X 8 X 600 =
Moreover, since the charge (Q) is the product of 137,900 calories.
the current (I) and the time (t), we may write Thus, the parallel connection produces four times
W = QXV = IXtXV (3) as much heat as the series connection.
potential difference Joule's Law for A.C. The heating effect of an

Finally, by Ohm's law, the
= electric current does not depend on the type of cur-
,
V I R, and hence
W= I X t X I R = I' R t (4) rent. Joule's law is equally valid for direct and
Equation (4) expresses the total amount of work alternating current. As we shall see later, an alter-
continuously reverses polar-

done or the energy expended by an electric cur- nating current (a.c.) its
rent. the principle of conservation of energy, the

By ity from plus {+) to minus (— ) and back to plus.
electrical energy (W) expended must equal the heat But the square of the current, which enters into
energy (H) produced, or Joule's law, remains the same regardless of the
W=H=PR t (5) polarity; thus {+lf = {-If = P. The fact that
which is identical with Joule's law (eq. 1). the heating effect is the same for all types of current
Joule's law (eq. 5) gives the energy in joules. is use of in some electrical measuring instru-
made
Since heat is usually measured in calories, we ments that measure both a.c. and d.c. It is also the
would like to know how many calories of heat are basis for comparing the effective values of alternat-
produced for each joule of energy. Joule deter- ing and direct currents.
mined this electrical equivalent of heat in 1841,
stating that the heat in calories = 0.239 X energy
and equivalently, energy in joules =
in joules;
ELECTRIC POWER: THE RATE OF
heat in calories. (You obtain the second
X
4.18
DOING WORK
equation by dividing through by 0.239; the recipro-
cal of 0.239 is 4.18). Applying this result to equation Power, whether electrical or mechanical, is al-
(1) or (5), we obtain finally for the heat (H) pro- ways the rate of doing work. Alternatively, power
duced by a current: is the work accomplished per unit time. We have
H (calories) = 0.239 P R t = 0.239 V 1 1 (6)

already computed the work (W) performed by an
where I is the current in amps, R is the resistance electric current in flowing from a point of high
in ohms, V is the potential difference (voltage), and potential to a point of lower potential through a
t is the time in seconds. conductor of resistance R. By equation (4)
I
example: An electric heater, operating from the
two coils of resist-
W= P R t
120-volt power line, consists of
The power (P) is the time-rate of doing work, or
ance wire, each with a resistance of 30 ohms. The
coils may be connected either in series or in paral-
P
W=PR
= -- (7)
lel. Compute the heat generated in 10 minutes for t
either case. Where P is expressed in joules/second, a unit which
Solution: When the coils are connected in series,
is familiarly known as the watt. Large amounts of
their total resistance is 60 ohms. The current, there-
power are usually expressed in kilowatts (abbrevi-
E 120 ated kw). One kilowatt equals 1000 watts.
,] fore, is — = =2 amps. Substituting in eq. (6)
I 60 By Ohm's law, we may substitute for the current
j
'
above, the heat in calories I = E/R in (7).
Made Simple
82 Electricity
Solution: The total = 5 X 100 -f 300 4-

power P
1
Hence, P ="«=(!) X X R = E X I I (8)
1200 = 2000 watts = 2 kw. Hence, the
E2 energy = P = 2 X 10 hrs = 20 kw-
t
or P = P R = (E/R)2 X R = (9) hours.

The term "horse-power" is frequently used to
All three fonns of the power formula (P = I^R = state the power of large motors, air conditioners,
etc. To convert horse-power (abbreviated H.P.) to
EI r= —
E2\
1 are constantly used and apply to all cir-
watts or kilowatts, memorize the relation
cuits governed by Ohm's law. 1 horse-power = 746 watts = 0.746 kilowatt
EXAMPLE 1: What is the power required to drive EXAMPLE: A ^-H.P. air conditioner operates from
a motor that has a current consumption of 15 am-

the 115-volt power hne for 24 hours. How much
energy does it consume? What current does it draw?
peres at an applied voltage of 120 volts?
Solution: Power = E X I = 120 X 15 = 1,800 Solution: % H.P. =^ (746) = 560 watts = 0.56
watts ^1.8 kilowatts
kw. Hence, the energy =r P t = 0.56
EXAMPLE 2: A generator with a terminal voltage
=
X 24 13.44 kilowatt-hours.
ampere through a ^
of 220 volts sends a current of 0.5
lamp having a resistance of 440 ohms. Compute the
The current I = —P = 560
= 4.87 amperes.
^
E 115
power required by the lamp. Most have the wattage rating
electric appliances
Solution: The power may be computed in three
either directly stamped upon them, or they indicate
different ways:
the cmrent drawn by the device. If the current is
(1) Power in lamp = E X I = 220 X 0.5 = indicated, you must multiply by the line voltage
110 watts
to obtain the wattage or power rating. Electric
(2) Power in lamp =P R = (0.5)^ X 440 = bulbs and household appliances are always marked
0.25 X 440 = 110 watts
with the wattage rating. Electric motors, in con-
£2 (220)2
and (3) Power in lamp = —
R
=
440
trast, usually have the number of amps drawn and
sometimes the horse-power rating marked on the

48,400 nameplate. Table VI lists the range of wattage and
110 watts. ampere ratings for some typical household appli-
440 ances. The wattage rating will help you to figure
How to Figure Electric Power Costs. When you your (added up
electric biU, while the current rating
pay your electiic bill, you are being charged for the for all the appliances connected to a common hne)
work performed, not for the rate of doing it. In will aid you in selecting the right gauge wire.
other words, you are paying for energy consumed,
not for power. By eq. (7), the work or energy equals Table VI
the product of power and time, or POWER CONSUMPTION AND AMPERE
RATINGS FOR HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES
Energy = Pt = EIt = PRt —
E2
t (10)
Range
R
where the power is in watts, the voltage in volts, the of Power
current in amps, and tlie time is in seconds. The

Consumption
energy thus comes out in joules, or tcatt-seconds. Electric Appliance {in watts)
Electric power companies charge for energy in

units of kilowatt-hours, rather than watt-seconds.
To obtain the energy in kilowatt-hours, you must
divide the power in watts by 1000 (move the
decimal point three places to the left) and then
multiply the result by the number of hours energy
isbeing consumed.
example: Five 100-watt bulbs, a 300-watt radio,
and a 1200-watt air conditioner are operating from
8 A.M. to 6 P.M. How much energy in Idlowatt-
hours is consumed?
Slide)
rressure Cookers
sible valueand before other equipment can be over- starting period. Special dual-element time delay
loaded or damaged. Electric heaters rely exclusively fuses have been designed for this purpose.
on the PR effect and have no other purpose but to Fig. 71 illustrates various types of fuses in com'^
convert electricity into the maximum amount of mon use. Most of these contain zinc-strip elements'
heat. The heating of the wire filament in radio of relatively high resistivity and low melting point.
tubes makes possible the emission of electrons, on The screw-plug fuse is familiar in every household.
which the operation of the tubes is based. In in- The cartridge types, designed from low to very
candescent and arc lamps heating always accom- high current capacities, must be inserted into an
panies the production of light, though engineers appropriate fuse holder. The renewable link fuses
strive to make the ratio of light to heat as large as may be inserted directly between two terminals and
is feasible. (In some types and fluorescent
of "cold" are easily replaced. As shown in the illustration,
lamps, light is produced with practically no ac- the renewable link fuse melts at two narrow con-
companying heat.) strictions when the permissible current is exceeded.
Fuses. The purpose of a fuse is to protect electri- Incandescent Lamps. Incandescent lamps consist
cal equipment, motors, instruments, radio receivers, of a thin, resistive filament wire in series with two
etc., from excessive currents resulting from sudden lead-in wires that are soldered to a screw-type or ,|
"overloads" or accidental "shorts." A fuse is always bayonet (plug-in) base. The incandescent filamenw
connected in series with the apparatus it is to pro- is mounted in a highly evacuated glass bulb to
tect, so that it will open before the rest of the cir- which some argon and nitrogen gas is added. The
cuit is injured. Remember that a fuse cannot correct presence of the gases permits higher operating tem-
a faulty circuit condition, but merely opens the cir- peratures without danger of the filament being
cuit, thus preventing further damage. It does this melted. The early lamps (the type invented by Edi-
by melting or "blowing out." You can tell when a son) used relatively inefficient carbon filaments, but
fuse is blown by the broken wire strip (filament) all present-day lamps use drawn tungsten wire fila-
and the darkened glass. A fuse must blow very ments. In some bulbs of low wattage the filament
quickly in the event of a large overload or a short may be a fraction of a human hair in width. The
circviit. (A numba- 18 household wire, for example, operating temperatures of incandescent lamp fila-
will vaporize 1/100 second by a short-circuit
in ments extend over a range from about 3600°F to
current of 2000 amperes.) Yet fuses must operate 5900 °F, the upper limit being reached by the very
fairly slowly in the event of moderate or momen- bright, short-lived photoflood lamps.
tary overloads. Any fair-sized electric motor, for ex- (By the way, the wattage rating of an incandes-
ample, draws a starting current considerably higher cent lamp applies only to parallel coimection of
than its normal operating ciurent. The fuse must lamps across the power line. If you connect lamps
operate slowly enough not to interrupt the motor in series, the wattage rating may completely fool
circuit for the momentary overload during the you. For example, a 10-watt bulb has a thin hair-
hke filament, while a 1000-watt bulb, in contrastjjl
has a relatively heavy filament of much lower re-'
sistance. If you connect a 10-watt and a 1000-watt
FUSE SYMBOL
bulb in series across the 115-volt line, the current
will heat up the high-resistance filament of the 10-
watt bulb (heat = I-R), while hardly affecting that
of the 1000-watt bulb. Thus, the "power" of the 10-
watt bulb is much greater than that of the 1000-watt
SCREW-PLUG FUSE GLASS CARTRIDGE FUSES bulb in this case.)

Electric Arc Lamps. If the tips of two carbon
DROP OUT
LINK rods, through which a current of about 15 to 20
amperes is passing, are first brought together and
then slightly separated, the current will continue
to flow as a high-intensity arc discharge. More-
MELT POINTS
over, the tips of the rods will become extremely
HM^ mcr^ SOLID CARTRIDGE FUSES
LINK rUSt hot, reaching temperatures of 4000 to 6000°C, and
Fig. 71. Various Types of Fuses an intense light will be projected, as well as ultra-
1 -
and infrared radiation. What happens is that of tubing and has a total length of 135 feet. How much
violet
con- does it cost to operate the sign per week, if it is on
the high-resistance carbon tips vaporize at the
10 hours a day, and electricity costs 5<t per kw-hr?
tact point and the vaporized particles form a
con-
5. What is the power consumption of the circuit de-
ducting path for the arc after the rods are sepa-
scribed in Problem #8 of Practice Exercise No. 6?
rated. The length of the arc must be
adjusted
6. A factory charged for electrical energy and for
is
continuously, since the arc extinguishes if the sepa- maximum power demand according to the following
rationbetween the tips becomes too great. Adjust-
monthly schedule:
ment is usually done automatically. Energy Power
First 1000 kw-hr: 5«f /kw-hr First50 kw $2.40 per
.
kw
Next 4000 kw-hr: 3(^ /kw-hr Next 750 kw. $2.00 per kw
Next 50,000 kw-hr: 1.3(ii/kw-hr AH above this. $1.50 per kw
All above this total: l^/kw-hr
What will be the electric bill of the factory for

CONE 75,000 kw-hrs of energy during a month, when the
maximum power demand was 300 kw?
7. Compute the resistance value and wattage of the
ballast in the circuit of Fig. 72, if the current is 15 amps
-MAÂAA and the arc voUage is 40 volts, for a hne voltage of

BALUST
115 volts.
RESISTOR
Fig. 72. Circuit of Electric Arc Light

SUMMARY
Fig. 72 illustrates the schematic circuit diagram
Heat is produced whenever an electric current
of an arc light operating on 120 volts D.C. A series
flows through a resistance. Joule's Law: The total
ballast resistor is required to reduce the line voltage
amount of heat developed in a conductor is di-
to about 50 volts across the arc and to limit the
rectly proportional to the resistance, the square of
maximum current. With D.C, the positive rod be-
the current, and to the duration of the current
comes very hot by electron bombardment from the
negative rod (cathode) and forms a small crater.
(H = PRt joules).
The negative rod, in contrast becomes cone-shaped.
The heat in calories= 0.239 X energy in joules
or H (calories) = 0.239 P R = 0.239 V t 1
Electric arcs do not obey Ohm's law. The potential
Joule's law holds for direct as well as alternating
difference across the arc drops as the current in-
current.
creases.
Power is the rate of doing work, or the work ac-
example: The arc of Fig. 72 requires a voltage of
50 volts and a current of 10 amps. What is the value time. P = PR = EI = -—
complished per unit
of the ballast resistor? The wattage?
E 120-50 70 (watts).
Soliaion:
„
R=- = — =— = _7 ohms. ,
Energy is the product of power and time (P X t)

I 10 10
and is usually expressed in kilowatt-hours (1 kilo-
The power rating
= 1000 watts).
watt
P = PR = (10)2 X 7 = 100 X 7 = 700 watts. One horse-power equals 746 watts (or 0.746 kilo-
watt).
Practice Exercise No. 8
To figure electric energy costs, multiply the total
1. Pieces of copper and iron wire of equal length number of kilowatt-hours by the rate (in cents) per
and equal thickness are connected first in series and kilowatt-hour.
then in parallel with a low voltage source. Which wire Fuses are connected in series with electrical
develops the greater heat in each case? equipment to protect it from excessive currents
2. Find the total heat produced by an electric iron
caused by overloads and shorts.
drawing 5 amperes at 120 volts for a period of 20 Electric arcs are formed by tiie vaporization of
minutes. Arcs do
carbon particles at the heated carbon tips.
3. An electric toaster takes a current of 7 amps at 120
What not obey Ohm's Law. A must be con-
ballast resistor
volts. How much heat is given off per hour? is
current
nected in series with the arc to Umit the
the cost per hour at the rate of 54 per kilowatt-hour?
and obtain the required voltage drop across the arc.
4. A neon electric sign consumes 4.8 watts per foot
CHAPTER NINE
ELECTROMAGNETISM— CHARGES IN MOTION

OERSTED'S DISCOVERY: MAGNETIC
EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
The Danish physicist Hans chbistian oersted
discovered during a lecture demonstration in 1820 ^^^^
that a compass placed near a current-carrying wire
,W1RE
was deflected from its normal North-South direc-
tion to a position nearly perpendicular to the wire
f DIRECTION OF CURRENT
(see Fig. 73). When the direction of the current
was reversed, the needle would deflect in the op- COMPASS
posite direction, again assuming a position almost NEEDLE
at right angles to the vme. Oersted noted that the
deflection of the needle lasted only as long as cur-
rent was flowing through the wire and hence could
not be caused by the (copper) wire, but must be due
to the current itself. The fundamental and far-
reaching fact that an electric current (i.e., charges Fig. 74. Magnetic Field Around a Current-
in motion) always surrounded by a magnetic
is field Carrying Wire
was thus discovered quite accidentally. will trace out anotlier circle of smaller radius; if
the compass is moved around the wire at a larger

distance, the needle will trace out a circle of greater
radius than before. The magnetic field lines around
a wire thus consist of a series of concentric circles
(Fig. 74), indicating the way a north magnetic pole
would move about the wire, if free to do so. Fig.
75 illustrates the lines-of-force representations ^

CURRBT DOWN
the magnetic field around a current- carrying wire.
(a) NO CUIiKENT (b) CURRENT UP (c)
In (a) of the figiu"e, the electron current flows from

Fig. 73. Ocisted's Discovery: Deflection of Magnetic
Compass Needle by an Electric Current
left to right into the page (away from you), as indi-
cated by the cross in the plane representation. The
In investigating further, Oersted found that the field hues in this case are counterclockwise, as
direction of the magnetic field is perpendicular to shown by the arrows. In (b) the electron ciurent is
the wire and that its intensity diminishes as the dis- flowing out of the page (towards you), as indicated
tance from the wire is increased. Thus, if a wire is by the dot in the plane representation. The direc-
connected to a battery and placed in a vertical po- tion of the field lines in this case is clockwise, indi-
sition, a nearby compass needle will always tend
to set itself at right angles both to the wire and to

the perpendicular from the wire to the center of
the needle. (See Fig. 74.) If the needle is caiTied in
a circle around the wire, as indicated in Fig. 74,
the axis of the needle will always be tangent to the
circle. Moreover, if the (electron) current is up
through the wire, as shown, the N-pole of the

needle will always point in a clockwise direction,
as the needle is carried around the wire. ta] CURRENT INTO PAGE (b) CURRENT OUT OF PAGE
If the compass is moved around the wire at a

Fig. 75. Field Representations Showing Relative Directioilf
closer distance, the needle (specifically, its axis) of Election Current and Lines of Force
86
eating that a free north pole would move in that

direction.
Left-Hand Rule for Conductors. Fig. 76 illus-
trates the simple rule for determining the relative
directions of the (electron) cmrent and the lines of
force: Grasp the current-carrying wire with the left
hand, with the thumb pointing in the direction of BAnERY
the electron flow along the wire; when the fingers

are wrapped around the conductor, they will point
along the lines of force. Remember that this rule

appUes to electron flow; for conventional current,
which flows in the opposite direction, the right
hand is used to determine the direction of the field
lines.
fRRE
Fig. 77. Test Setup for Experiment 16.
FIELD DIRECTION (CW)
tapping the cardboard. The iron filings will im-

mediately arrange themselves in the field pattern
of Fig. 74.
Magnetic Field of a Straight Conductor. A short
time after Oersted's discovery, two French physi-
CURRENT DIRECTION
cists, JEAN B. BiOT (1774-1862) and felix savabt
Fig. 76.Left-Hand Rule for Determining the Direction of made some measurements on the in-
(1791-1841),
the Field Lines Around an Electron Current Carrying
Conductor tensity of the magnetic field at various distances
from a long current-carrying wire. They found that
EXPERIMENT 16: You Can demonstrate to your the field intensity varied directly with the strength
own satisfaction that a magnetic field exists around of the current thiough the conductor and inversely
a current-carrying by the following

conductor with the distance from the point of measurement to
simple experiment. Make a test stand with heavy the nearest point on the wire. Expressed quanti-
copper wire or tubing, as shovim in Fig. 77. Connect tatively, the Law of Biot and Savart states that the
the ends of the stand with wires to a battery made field intensity H (in oersteds) at a point r cms from
up of three dry cells in series. If a switch is avail- a long straight wire carrying a current of I amps, is
able, connect it in series with one of the connecting 21

wires, or leave the wire disconnected from one of
H= oersteds
10 r
the battery terminals until actually starting the ex-
example: What is the field intensity at a point 5
periment. Place a cardboard (or Lucite sheet, if
cms from a long wire carrying a current of 20 am-
available) through a central hole over the test
peres?
stand and hold it in a horizontal position. Sprinkle
some iron filings evenly over the surface of the
Solution: H=
21
= 2X20 = 0.8 oersted.
cardboard or Lucite sheet. 10 r 10 X5
Now close the switch or coimect the end of the
wire to the free battery terminal. Tap the cardboard
MAGNETIC FIELD ABOUT CIRCULAR
lightly vdth yotu" finger and observe how the iron
LOOPS: SOLENOIDSAND
filingsarrange themselves in concentric circles along
ELECTROMAGNETS
the lines of force. (Caution: Do not leave the cur-
rent on for any length of time to avoid exhausting The field about a straight wire is weak. Much
the battery, which is shorted.) If you now open the stronger fields are obtained by coiling wire into a
switch and again tap the cardboard, the iron filings spiraling loop, known as a solenoid. Before going
will resume their random distribution on the board. into solenoids and the electromagnets evolved from
To show that the circular pattern is actually the them, let us see what happens to the field about
result of themagnetic field about the conductor, straight wire, when the wire is bent into the form of
repeat the experiment by closing the switch and a circular loop.
r
Magnetic Field of Single Circular Loop. aIf total field intensity at the center. If the thickness
straight current-carrying wire is bent into the form (length) of the coil is small compared to its radius,
of a circle, as shown in Fig. 78, the Unes of force a flat coil of N turns will have a field intensity at its
are no longer circles concentric with the wire, center N times as great as that of a single loop, or
though they are still perpendicular to the plane of for a flat coil
the loop. As indicated in the illustration, the mag-
2wNl
netic field cuts the plane of the wire loop at right H oersteds (at center)
10 r
angles, and at the center of the loop the direction
of the field is along the axis of the loop. The direc- EXAMPLE: What is the magnetic field intensity at
tion of the lines of force anywhere about the loop is
the center of a flat coil of 40 turns, if the radius of
determined by the left-hand rule, as for the straight the coil is 6.28 cms and it carries a current of 10
wire. amperes?
, ,
Solution:
.,,
H=
2:rNI
= 2X3.14X40X10
10 r 10 X 6.28
j
= 40 oersteds.
Magnetic Field of Solenoid. If you wind a coil of
wire into the form of a long spiral, so that its length
is considerably greater than the diameter of its
turns, you have a solenoid. Solenoids form the basis

of electromagnets, which are of great practical im-
portance, as you know from your experience with
relays, bells, buzzers, and sundry. The field of a
cylindrical solenoid is illustrated in Fig. 79.
CURRENT IN
CURRENT CURRENT
IN OUT
Fig. 78. Magnetic Field About a Circular Loop
It is sometimes of interest to know the magnetic

field intensity at the center of such a current-carry-
ing loop. By use of the calculus it may be shown
that the field intensity H at the center of such a
loop of radius r (cms) and carrying a ciurrent of /
amperes, is
H= oersteds
10 r
where tt = 3.14159 Fig. 79. Magnetic Field of Long Coil (Solenoid)

By comparing this equation with the one given be- I
fore for a straight conductor, you can see that the With current flowing through the coil, the lines
simple expedient of coiling the wire into a loop has of force leave the solenoid at one end, the north
increased the magnetic field intensity (at the cen- pole, and enter it at the opposite end, the south
ter) by a factor of tt or 3.14. pole. You can determine the direction of the mag-
The field intensity equation for a circular loop is netic field in a solenoid with the modified left-
sometimes used to define the ampere as that cur- hand rule, illustrated in Fig. 80: Wrap the fingers
rent which in a circular loop of 1 cm radius will of the left hand around the coil in the direction of
produce a field intensity of 2^/10 or 0.62831 oer- the electron current flow; the thumb will then point
sted at the center. in the direction of the north pole of the coil, from
Magnetic Field of Flat Coil. If you wind several which the lines of force leave.
loops of wire close together into a flat coil and pass Note in Fig. 79 that while all the lines of force
a current through all the loops, the magnetic field pass through the center of the coil, some of the
about each turn will have the same direction and hues do not retiun through the outside path to the
each loop will contribute an equal amount to the ends of the coil, but cut through the coil at inter-
SOLENOID N
(30 TO 50 TURNS OF WIRE) /
CARDBOARD
IRON FILINGS
CURRENT IN
CURRENT OUT
Fig. 80. Left-Hand Rule for Long Coils (Solenoids)
mediate points. Because of this magnetic leakage

Fig. 81. Experiment 17: Magnetic Field About a Solenoid
the magnetic field intensity near the ends of the
coil is not as great as near the central portion. The You can extend the experiment if you have a tiny
formula for the field intensity of a solenoid near its compass needle available. Remove the iron filings
center, which is of greatest interest, is as follows: and place the compass needle inside the solenoid
4,rNI near its center. The needle will align itself with the
H: oersteds axis of the coil and its N-pole will point toward the
101
north pole of the coil, as given by the left-hand rule.
where the length of the coil in cms, IV is the
I is
Magnetic Field of Ring Solenoid. A ring solenoid
number of turns, and / is the current in amperes.
is a long coil bent into the form of a ring or toroid,
The formula is vahd only for a coil whose length
and looks as if wire were wound around an auto-
is great in comparison to its cross section.
EXAMPLE: What is the magnetic field intensity mobile tire. The magnetic field inside a ring sole-
aear the center of a solenoid of 100 cms (39.37 in.) noid is confined entirely inside the loops of wire and
length and having 2000 turns, when a current of does not project outside the ring. The formula for
5 amperes flows through the coil? the long, cylindrical coil or solenoid also gives the
NI 3.1416 X 2000 X 5 magnetic field intensity inside the loops of a ring

= X
4 TT 4
Solution: H= solenoid.
101 - 10X100 Electromagnets and Their Applications. The field
= 125.9 oersteds. of an air-core solenoid, the type we have studied,
Let us perform a simple experiment to illustrate
is still relatively weak. By inserting a core of soft
further the field about a solenoid. iron into a solenoid the number of lines of force
EXPERIMENT Cut out a cardboard so that you
17: per unit area and, hence, the flux density, can be
can fit a solenoid in it, with half projecting above greatly increased for the same magnetizing force
and half projecting below the cardboard (see Fig. applied to the solenoid (see Fig. 82). This increase
51). Wind the coil with 30 to 50 turns of bell wire. in flux density is accompHshed by the large number
Connect the ends of the coil through a series-con- of additional lines of force produced by the tem-
nected switch (if available) to a battery, similar to porary magnetization of the iron. You wall recall
the setup for Experiment 16. that the relative ease of magnetization of a ma-
If you now close the svâtch (or connect the free terialcompared to air (specifically, to a vacuum) is
end of the wire to the battery) and sprinkle some given by the permeability of the material. The
iron filings on top of the cardboard, you will see permeability of soft wrought iron is several thou-
the filings arrange themselves in the pattern illus- sand times that of air, which explains the large in-
trated in Fig. 79. (You will have to tap the card- crease in magnetic flux, when an iron core is in-
board lightly to aid the formation of the pattern.) serted into a solenoid.
Note that this field pattern is essentially the same as A coil of wire wound around a soft-iron core is
that of an ordinary bar magnet, illustrated in Fig. called an electromagnet. Electromagnets in various
23. forms surround us in thousands of diverse apphca-
liVOlTMESOORCt
Fig. 84. Electromagnets are Far Stronger than Fermanen

Magnets of Similar Size
Fig. 82. EJFect of Inserting an Iron Core into a Solenoid has a far greater lifting abihty than a permanen
magnet of equal size, as illustrated by the differen
tions.Electromagnets energize the fields of motors iron loads applied to each magnet in Fig. 84.
and generators. Powerful "lifting magnets" hold The Relay. An electromagnetic relay permits
tons of scrap iron and machine parts by simply weak current in one circuit to control a heavy cur
closing a switch and drop the load, when the switch rent flowing in another circuit. A relay is thus eS'
is opened. Electromagnets are part of telephones, sentially a switch that permits closing a circuit a
loudspeakers, buzzers, electric bells, telegraphs, re- some remote location. Relays ai'e used in thousands
lays, electric meters, and many other devices. of control applications, where switches are no
If you bend an iron core into the form of a horse-
practical.
shoe and wind a coil of wire on each leg, you can
obtain a powerful electromagnet. Coimect the two gCOWDJBV I
coils of wire in series, the end of one to the begin-

ning of the other, as illustrated in Fig. 83, and apply
HORSESHOE CORE . Tosouiiaor

VOLTACEAWUM
FIELD
euinir
COK.
Fig. 85. Schematic Presentation of Relay and

Associated Circuits
As illustrated in schematic form in Fig. 85, a re

lay contains an iron-core electromagnet, which
mounted close to a flat blade of magnetic material
called armature. The armature is pivoted at one
CURRENT IN CURRENT OUT end and is held a small distance away from th<
core of the electromagnet by means of a spring,

Fig. 83. Field of Horseshoe Core Electromagnet
contact made of a good conductor, such as silve
a d-c voltage to the free ends. As you can check or tungsten, is attached to the free, movable en(
with the left-hand rule for coils, the fields of the of the armature. A second, stationary contact
two coils are in the same direction and thus aid mounted opposite the movable contact, separatee
each other. (This is known as series-aiding.) As a by a small distance, known as contact gap.
consequence, a concentrated magnetic flux travels When the switch S is closed in the primarj- oir
around the horseshoe and across the airgap between cuit, current flows from the battery through th(
the two poles (or legs). The shorter you make this coil of theelectromagnet and magnetizes the core
airgap, the more concentrated is the flux density As a consequence the armature is attracted to tii^
between the poles. Such a horseshoe electromagnet core of the magnet and thus closes the contacts o
the secondarycircuit. Current then flows through leg of the magnet. In contrast to the relay, the
this secondary circuit, consisting of a voltage source armature is connected directly to one end of the
and load attached between terminals A and B. If coil and its normal resting position is against an
bhe switch (S) in the primary circuit is opened, the adjustable, external contact point.
spring returns the armature to its original position,
thus breaking the contacts of the secondary circuit.
The contacts in the relay shown are normally open,
when the relay is not energized. Contacts may also
be arranged to be normally closed, when the relay HAMMER.
is de-energized.
AWlWrAplE CONTACT
The Telegraph. Relays are used as part of the POINT r^
conventional telegraph system. A typical telegraph ELECTRO-
station is illustrated in Fig. 86. When a telegraph SOIT-ll
MAGNET
MMATURE
SOUNDER
SENDING
KEY
r-W-
LOCAL
BATTERV
KEY SHORTED WHEN Fig. 87. The Electric Doorbell
THIS STATION IS RECEIVINS
Fig. 86. Essentials of a Telegraph Station
When the pushbutton is pressed, the circuit is
closed and current flows from the battery through

the electromagnet, the armatvire and the contact
sending key at some remote station is closed, a
point, back to the battery. As a consequence, the
pulse of current flows through the long-distance
core of the magnet is magnetized and attracts the
telegraph line and through the shorted key of the
soft-iron armature, thus striking the bell with the
local station to energize a local relay. The contacts
attached hanmier. As soon as the armatiu-e moves,
of the relay then close a secondary circuit at the
the contact opens and the circuit is interrupted. The
local station and current flows from the local bat-
magnet then becomes de-energized and the spring
tery through the relay contacts to actuate a sounder.
pulls the armature back against the contact, thus
The sounder is another electromagnetic device that
closing the circuit once more. This action then re-
produces a distinctive click each time the heavy
bar armature is attracted by an electromagnet. A peats at a rapid rate, making the hammer strike the
bell many times each second. In a buzzer the
succession of such signals spells out the telegraphic
message. If the local station wants to send a mes-
hammer and bell are left off, so that the vibration
of the armature alone produces the characteristic
sage, the short across its sending key is removed
buzzing sound. A set screw permits adjusting the
and the same process takes place at the remote sta-
contact gap between the contact point and the
tion, as was just described for the local station.
armature, which in turn adjusts the buzzer pitch or
j
In the teletype system, used by police, news
bell tone.
bureaus and business firms, the key and sounder
are replaced by machines similar to an electric
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS AND HYSTERESIS
typewriter. As the message is typed out at one sta-
tion, it is reproduced on paper tape by the other Let us now consider some of the factors that con-
teletype machine at the remote end of the line. trol themagnetic flux (strength) of electromagnets
i The Electric Bell. The electric door bell or buzzer and other magnetic circuits. First let us recall some
is the most famihar device using an electromagnet. definitions. The total number of lines of force in a
The buzzer or bell resembles a relay, but it uses magnetic field is called the magnetic flux (symbol
interrupted magnetization to produce an audible <^) and it measured either in maxwells or webers
is
signal tone. As is illustrated in Fig. 87, the heart (1 weber = 10*maxwells or 10* lines of force).
with many turns of fine wire wound around each More significant than the total flux of an electro-
of a door bell is a horseshoe-type electromagnet. magnet is its flux density (B), or the flux per unit
cross-sectional area. You will recall that flux density This equation shows that the strength of an elec-
is expressed either in gauss (maxwells/cm^) or in tromagnet depends only on the number of turns,
webers/m^ (one weber per square meter 10,000 = the magnitude of the current and the permeabihty
gauss). Thus if the total flux flowing through a cross- of its iron core. The product of the current (in
sectional area of 4 cm^ is 100,000 lines (maxwells), amperes) and the number of turns (per unit length),
4, 100,000 which determines the magnetizing force (H), is
the flux density B =-= = 25,000 gauss. known as ampere-turns. We may thus further sim-
A 4
plify our formula, obtaining finally:
(If the area is given in square inches, you must mul-
Flux Density of Electromagnet = 0.495 X per-
tiply the number of square inches by 6.452 to ob- meability X ampere-turns (per luiit length)
tain the number of square centimeters.) Finally, let As we shall see presently, the only hitch in this
us recall that the flux density (B) induced in a cer- convenient formula is that the permeabihty does
tain material of permeability (ji) is related to the
not remain constant for all values of the magnetiz-
field intensity (H) by the relation ing current because of the phenomenon of hystere-
B = /xXH sis.
This relation is also used to define the permeability EXAMPLE: What is the strength (flux density) of
of a medium as the ratio of flux density to field in- a 12-inch long electromagnet wound with 600 turns
tensity, or of wire, if the permeability of its core has a value of
_B^ 2000 and a current of 8 amperes flows through the
electromagnet?
'"""if
Solution: The coil of the magnet has 600/12 or
The permeability in air or in a vacuum is unity, and
50 turns per inch, and since the ciurent is 8 amps,
hence the flux density (in gauss) numerically equals
the field intensity (in oersteds) in these media. The
there are 8 X 50 =
400 ampere-tums per inch.
Hence, the flux density
permeability of ferromagnetic substances is far
greater than imity, reaching values as high as 100,-
B = 0.495 X permeability X ampere-tums per
inch
000 for special magnetic materials, such as permal-
loy, hipcrnik, and perminvar.
B = 0.495 X 2000 X 400 = 396,000 gauss (or
39.6 webers/m*).
Strength of Electromagnet. Now let us turn back
Hysteresis. We have seen that magnetization of
to electromagnets and their characteristics. You will
a material does not occur suddenly, but is a gradual
recall that the field intensity (H) of a long coil
process with the induced flux density slowly in-
^solenoid) is 47rN I/IO 1, where N is the number of
creasing as the "domains" jump into alignment with
turns, 7 the current (in amps), and I the length of
the external magnetizing field. The amount of mag-
N netization flux density (B) depends on the strength
the coil (in cms). Let us substitute n = — for the
of the magnetizing field (H), the process being
com-
1
number of turns per unit length and we obtain for pleted when domains have aligned them-
all tlie
the field intensity selves with the external field. Magnetic saturation
H = 0.4 ,r n I
is said to occur at this point and no amount of in-
where n is the number of turns per centimeter of crease in the magnetizing field (or current) can
length. If an iron core is inserted into the solenoid, produce a further increase in magnetization. The
making it an electromagnet, the flux density (B) lagging of the magnetization produced in a ma-
induced in the core of the electromagnet is simply terial behind the magnetizing force is called hys-
the product of the field intensity and the perme- teresis and the amount of energy wasted (in heat)
ability of the iron, or in aligning the domains is known as hysteresis loss.
B =
;uXH fiX0.4 7rnI = Hysteresis losses are an important factor in deter-
from the relations stated before. Finally, let us mul- mining the quahty of a magnetic material.
tiply out the factor 0.47r and convert n from turns Let us look at the phenomenon of hysteresis in
per centimeter to turns per inch by dividing by greater detail. Fig. 88 illustrates the magnetization
2.54 (1 inch = 2.54 cms). Thus we obtain curve of an initially unmagnetized ferromagnetic
material. The abscissa of the graph shows the in-
0.4 X 3.14159 X X /^ nl 1.2566
tensity of the magnetizing force H oersteds),
B jnE I (in
2.54 2.54 which depends on the strength of the current and
I
or B = 0.495 n a I
I
the number of turns (i.e., ampere-turns) of the eleo-
magnetized it to saturation along curve o-a of Fig.

89. Note that this portion of the hysteresis curve is
essentially identical with the magnetization curve
/SATURATION POINT
of Fig. 88.
CO
I
Q MAGNETIZING FORCE - H (OERSTEDS)

Fig. 88. Magnerization Curve of Typical
Ferromagnetic Material
Fig. 89. Hysteresis Loop of Typical Ferromagnetic
Material
romagnet. ordinate of the graph shows the
The
mount of flux density B (in gauss) induced in the We now reduce the magnetizing force (H) gradu-
laterial by the magnetizing field. The magnetiza- ally to zero and observe— with some astonishment
ion curve thus shows the variation of the flux den- —that the flux density (B) does not go back to zero
ity (B)induced in a material with corresponding along the original curve o-a, but rather follows
hanges in the magnetic intensity (H). Since it curve a-b. It appears that the material has sud-
hows the dependence of B on H, the curve is some- denly developed a sort of magnetic "memory" and
imes simply called a B-H curve. "recalls" its previous state of magnetization. As a
As illustrated in the magnetization curve (Fig. the values of the flux density obtained dur-
result,
8), the flux density increases rapidly at first with ing demagnetization are all larger than those re-
ttcreasing magnetizing force, and then much more corded diuing magnetization. This lag of B behind
lowly as magnetic saturation is approached. Be- H is called magnetic hysteresis. It is caused by the
ond the saturation point the flux density increases gradual reversal and reahgnment of the domains
ery httle, if with large increases of the mag-
at all,
during demagnetization. The amount of magnetism
letizing force. Since the graph is non-linear (i.e., remaining, when the magnetizing force has been
\ot a straight line), the ratio of B/H or the per- reduced to zero (segment b-o), is knovim as residual
aeability (ji = B/H) does not remain constant. Ex- magnetism or remanence.
ept for the lower straight-line portion of the If we now reverse the direction of the magnetiz-
;raph, the permeability of a ferromagnetic material ing current and, hence, the sign of the magnetizing
hus varies continuously with the magnetizing force force H, the flux density will continue to fall along
H) and the must be specified for a perme-
latter curve b-c, until for a certain negative value of the
bihty figiare to be significant. To determine the magnetizing force H
the flux density reaches zero.
lermeabihty of a material for a particular magne- The value of the negative magnetizing force re-
izing force (or current), compute the ratio of B/H quired to demagnetize the sample completely (seg-
t the particular point of the magnetization curve, ment o-c) is called the coercive force.
T simply measure the slope of the curve at that Further magnetization in the negative direction
loint estabhshes magnetization in the opposite direction
The full story of magnetization is revealed by (i.e.,with north- and south-poles interchanged),
be hysteresis loop illustrated in Fig. 89. Here we along curve c-d. Magnetic saturation in the opposite
lave taken a sample of ferromagnetic material that direction is reached at point d. If H
is now once
v&s originally completely unmagnetized and have again reduced to zero, B falls off along curve d-e,
the residual magnetism in the opposite direction permanent horseshoe magnet is illustrated. An iron
(segment e-o) being the same as in the original di- "keeper" has been placed between the north and
rection (segment o-b). With the magnetic force H south poles of the magnet, so that the flux takes
again increasing, the flux density reaches zero place entirely within the confines of the iron. Since
along curve e-f, the coercive force in the opposite the iron has a high permeabiKty relative to air, the
direction (segment f-o) being the same as in the flux density in the magnetic circuit for a magnet of
original direction of magnetization (segment o-c). a given strength is relatively high. In (b) of Fig. 91,
With further increases in magnetization, the flux the iron keeper has been removed and the magnetic
density increases again along curve f-a and reaches flux must now pass across the airgap between the
saturation at point a. This completes one entire poles. Since the permeability in the airgap is only
cycle of the hysteresis loop. If the magnetizing force imity, the flux density (B) within the gap is obvi-
is carried through another cycle, the hysteresis loop ously much lower than in (a) for the same strength
will continue to follow along curve a-b-c-d-e-f-a, (H) of the magnet (since B = /x H). In (c) of Fig. 91
and the original magnetization curve o-a is never a horseshoe type electiomagnet is illustrated. The
repeated. magnetic flux in this circuit is exactly the same as
Fig. 90 illusfrates two hysteresis loops for a hard that in (b), except that the stiength of magnetiza-
ferromagnetic material (curve a) and for a soft fer- tion (H) and hence the flux density (B) can be con-
romagnetic material (curve b). The magnetically tiolled by the number of ampere-tmns on the coil
hard material is characterized by a hysteresis loop of the electiomagnet.
of large area, signifying a large amount of stored Ohm's Law for Magnetic Circuits. As the name
residual magnetism and the need for a large co- implies, there is a certain similarity between elec-
ercive force to demagnetize the material. Such hard tric and magnetic circuits. The primary difference
ferromagnetic materials (steel and various alloys) is that in electric circuits the current carriers are
are suitable for permanent magnets, which must electrons, while in magnetic circuits the flux is
store largeamounts of magnetism and resist siu:- carried by the lines of force, which are, of course,
rounding demagnetizing forces. Curve b for soft imaginary quantities. Nevertheless, an analogy be-
iron, in contrast, has a small area within its hystere- tween the two types of circuits may be made. The
sis loop, signifying a small residual magnetism and force that produces a flow of elections (current) in
a small coercive force. Such materials waste little the electrical circuit is the electromotive force
energy in hysteresis losses and are therefore suitable (emf). The force that produces the flux in a mag-
for the cores of electiomagnets. Since electiomag- netic circuit is called the magnetomotive force (ab-
nets are subject to continually reversing magnetiz- breviated mmf). The electiic current (Z) corresponds
ing fields, the hysteresis losses of their cores are of to the magnetic flux Finally, just as the resist-
{<f>).
some importance. In general, the smaller the aiea ance (R) opposes the flow of electric current, the
of the hysteresis loop for a certain material, the reluctance (symbol R) opposes the magnetic flux in
lower are tlie hysteresis (heat) losses of the material.
a magnetic circuit. The conductance (G) of an elec-
tric circuit, which indicates the ease of current
flow, corresponds to the permeability (ju) of a mag-
netic circuit, the latter indicating the ease with
which magnetic lines of force pass through a ma-
terial.
The magnetic reluctance is defined mathemati-

cally by the relation
UHMIOnON Oj SOFTIIIM ^ A
Fig. 90. Hysteresis Loops for Hard (a) and Soft (b) where I is the length of the magnetic path in centi-
Ferromagnetic Materials
meters, ju, isthe permeability of the medium, and
Magnetic Circuits. The lines of force of magnetic A is the cross-sectional area of the magnetic path
flax form closed loops, as we have seen. The path in square centimeters. Recalling the equation foi
that the flux lines follow is called the magnetic electric resistance (R = p 1/A), we recognize that
circuit. Fig. 91 iUustiates some common types of the permeabihty of a magnetic medium corresponds
magnetic circuits. In (o) of the figure the flux in a exactiy to the reciprocal of the resistivity of a con-
aUX LINES
MAGNET
CORE
i-o:-:->V5^Vj KEEPER
6d
Fig. 91. Magnetic Circuits (a) Permanent Horseshoe Magnet with Keeper; (b) Permanent Magnet with
Airgap; (c) Electromagnet
ductor. Reluctance does not have a specific name. units. So we see that the addition of the small air-
The unit of reluctance is that of a magnetic circuit gap has increased the total reluctance of the circuit
1 cm in length, 1 cm^ in cross section, and with by a factor of more than 120.
unity permeability. Reluctances in series or in paral- Ha\dng drawn the analogy between electric and
lel are combined just like resistances. magnetic circuits, we can simply state Ohm's Law
EXAMPLE 1: The core length of the permanent for magnetic circuits: The total magnetic flux in a
magnet illustrated in Fig. 91 (a) is 45 cms, the magnetic circuit is directly proportional to the mag-
length of the keeper 5 cms. The permeability of netomotive force and inversely proportional to the
the iron used in the magnet and keeper is found reluctance of the circuit. As a word equation,
from the B-H curve to be 1200 for the magnetization Magnetomotive Force
achieved. The cross-sectional area of magnet and Magnetic Flux =— —
Reluctance
keeper is 5 sq. centimeters. What is the reluctance
of the entiremagnetic circuit? F (mmf in gilberts)
or in symbols <l>
(maxwells) =:
Solution: The total path length in iron is 45 -f R
Similarly, the mmf: F = XR (^
5 = 50 cms. Hence, the reluctance
F
/i A and the reluctance: R =—
50 <^
= 0.00833 unit. The mmf (F) may be either expressed in gilberts
{
1200 X 5
or in ampere-turns, since it is directly proportional
'
EXAMPLE 2: The magnet illustrated in Fig. 91
to the current amperes) and the number of
(in
(b) has the same permeabiHty and the same dimen-
turns of the coil of an electromagnet. Thus, an elec-
sions as that shown in (a), but the 5-cm long keeper
tromagnet having a winding of 2000 turns and
has been left off. Compute the total reluctance of
carrying a current of 5 amperes has an mmf of 5 X
this circuit.
2000 =
10,000 ampere-turns. To use Ohm's Law for
Solution: The reluctance of the 45-cm long iron
magnetic circuits, the mmf must be expressed in
path is R= —A =
IX
1 45
1200 X 5
= 0.0075 xmit gilberts, rather than ampere-turns.
pere-turns to gilberts, use the following relation:
To convert am-
The reluctance of the airgap = 1)

(/* is
mmf (in gilberts) = 1.2566 X ampere-tums
or mmf — 1.2566 N I
R = — = 1X5 =
IJ.A
1.0000 unit where
in amps.
N is the number of tvu'ns and / is the current
Hence, the total reluctance is the svan = 1.0075 EXAMPLE: The electromagnet shown in Fig. 91 (c)
has a core length of 36 cms and an gap 4 cms air
long. The core and airgap cross section 8 cm- and is
the permeabihty of the core is 1500 for the magnetic

field intensity achieved. The coil of the magnet has
500 turns of wire and carries a current of 2 amperes.
Compute the total magnetic flux and also the flux

density in the airgap.
Solution: The mmf = 1.2566 N I = 1.2566 X
500 X 2 = 1,256.6 maxwells.
Fig. 92. Finding the Force Exerted by a Magnetic
The reluctance of the core = 1
= ——36 = Pole on a Conductor
/x A 1500 X8
0.003 unit
2^1
The reluctance of the airgap = 1
= 4
=
F=mH=m Io7 (1
/x A 1X8
Since the current-carrying loop exerts this forci
0.500 unit
on the magnetic pole, the pole reacts on the looj
Hence, the total reluctance, R, equals 0.503 imit.
with an equal and opposite force, according to th(
The total flux </> =—= '— = 2,500 maxwells. principle of action and reaction (Newton's Thir<
R 0.503 Law). The force exerted by the pole on the coi]
=—=—
2500 therefore, is also given by
—=
if,
The flux density in the airgap B

2,rl
F=m
312.5 gauss. 10 r
Let us multiply both numerator and denominator o
FORCE ON A CONDUCTOR this expression by r (which does not change it
(AMPERE'S LAW) value) and rewrite, as follows:
We have seen that a ciurrent-carrying conductor F=— X — X2irr (2

is surrounded by a magnetic field. We have also r" 10
seen that a magnetic field exerts a force on mag- Equation (2) is mathematically the same as equa
netic substances within that field. The question tion (1), but is more useful to us in this form.
naturally arises whether a magnetic field exerts We already know that the field intensity H nea
some force on a current-carrying conductor. As a a pole of strength m is given by
matter of fact, this is the case, and it is found that
m
the interaction between the field of a current- H= (J
carrying conductor and an external field actually

exerts a force (of attraction or repulsion) on the con- Multiplying through by /i:
ductor. The effect was discovered by the French

scientist Andre M. Ampere, who formulated it into
/I H=—
a quantitative relation known as Ampere's Law.
But from the definition of permeability, /* H= ]
"To understand the derivation of Ampere's law,

(flux density)
consider a current-carrying loop, at the center of
which an isolated north pole of strength m is placed m
(see Fig. 92). According to the relation previously
Hence, /i H=B=— , and the first term of th
given, the field intensity (H) at the center of such equal to the
product in equation (2), m/r', is flu
2irl density B from a pol

of the field at r centimeters
^ of radius r
a circular loop is H= , where I
Moreover, the term of th
10 r of strength m. third
is the current flowing in the loop. The magnetic pole product in eq. (2), 2 tt r, is simply the length of th
is acted upon by a force (to the right of the page) loop by the well-known geometrical formula. L(
of magnitude F = m H, as we have already de- us call this length L. Substituting these equivalei
scribed. Consequently, the force on the pole is terms back in equation (2), we obtain
m T T
F =—X — X27rr=:B X— X L
r^ 10 10
BIL
or more simply, F= (dynes) (4)
.^hich is easy to remember. If B in eq. (4) is given

1 gauss, / in amperes, and L in centimeters, the
Dree F is in dynes.
Now here is a remarkable thing. Although equa-
on (4) has been derived specifically for the force
xerted by a magnetic field on a circular, current-
be true for
arrying loop, the equation turns out to
on a conductor of any shape whatever.
le force
his equation, which is thus generally true, is the
lathematical form of Ampere's Law, which may
e stated in words as follows: Any current-carry-
ig conductor located in a magnetic field at right
kigles to the lines of force will be pushed by a
Dree that is directly proportional to the flux den-
Ity, the current and the length of the conductor.
I
Right-Hand Rule for Force on a Conductor
Victor Action). If you insert a straight, current-
irrying conductor at right angles to the flux of a
lagnetic field, the directions of the current I, the
ux density B and the force on the wire F will be
kutuaUy perpendicular, as illustrated in Fig. 93a.
Isimple rule, known as the right-hand motor rule,
^
used to determine the direction of the force on
lie conductor: Extend the thumb, index finger and
liddle finger of the right hand at right angles to
*ch otlier, so that the index finger points in the
lirection of the magnetic flux (north to south), and
le center finger points in the direction of the elec-
H
field sunounding the wire, while the flux below the The Galvanometer. An important application of
wire is opposed by the field of the wire. As a result, the force experienced by a conductor in a magnetic
the moving-coil or d'Arsonval galvanometer
the hues of flux are concentrated above the wire and field is
they are weakened below the wire. Thus, there is a (named after the French physicist arsene d'aeson-
relatively strong force above the wire and a relatively val). Based on the reaction of a current-carrying
weak forcebelow the wire. The stronger force pre- coil suspended in the field of a permanent magnet,
vails, of course, and the wire will be pushed down- the d'Arsonval galvanometer is specifically designed
ward into the weaker jield. You might also look at for the detection of extremely small currents; its
the action by thinking of the lines of force as elastic movement is also the heart of most present-day cur-
rubber bands, which tend to straighten themselves rent and voltage measiu-ing instruments. The basic
as possible. Again, the d'Arsonval movement is illustrated in Fig. 96. The
out and become as short
many stretched lines above the conductor will re-
sult in pushing the conductor downward toward the
fewer and less bent lines. This result can be ob-
tained more simply by the right-hand motor rule.
example: If the vdre in Fig. 94 is 10 cms long
and carries a current of 6 amps, and if the flux
SCALE
density between the poles is 10,000 gauss, what is
the magnitude and direction of the force on the
PERMANENT
wire? (See Fig. 94.)
MA&NET
Solution: By equation (4), the force on the wire is
COIL
X6X
=BIL = —
10>000 10
F = 60,000 dynes.
10 10
By the right-hand rule, the direction of the force is
downward.
Force Between Parallel Conductors. Since every
surrounded by a mag- Fig. 96. Basic Galvanometer Movement for
current-carrying conductor is
Current Measuring
netic field, the fields of two current-carrying wires
will also interact with each other. Fig. 95 illustrates
moving coil, consisting of some 20 turns of insu
the magnetic fields about two parallel conductors. wire, is wound around a hght alumi
lated copper
In (a) of the figure, the electron cvurent in each wire is free to tmn about a soft-iron
core
num frame and
flows in the same direction (out of the page) and magnetic provided by a strong
The external field is
hence the magnetic fields around the wiies aid each
horseshoe-type permanent magnet and is concen
other, as shown by the arrows, and draw them to-
trated about the moving-coil frame by speciall;
gether. In (b) of Fig. 95 the currents flow through
shaped pole pieces. The coil is mounted with mini
the wires in opposite directions, thus producing an on fine jewel bearings.
mvun friction
opposing field between the wires, which results in
pair of hair springs conduct the current to thi
A
mutual repulsion. The effect of attraction between
coil and also oppose the turning of the coil by
i
wires carrying current in the same direction is ac-

restoring torque. The pointer attached to the coi
tually observed on large coils in power plants; un-
frame normally rests on the zero (left-hand) positioi
der short-circuit conditions the individual turns of
of the graduated scale. When the current to
b
these coils are sometimes drawn together with such
measured flows through the coil, its field interact
force that the coils are damaged.
with that of the magnet, and the cofl is deflected ii
accordance with the right-hand motor rule. Th

coil and pointer come to rest when the force exertei
on the coil balances the restoring torque exerted b
the hair springs. Since the magnetic forces are pre
portional to the current (ampere-turns), the amout
of deflection of the coil is a measure of the cui
m CONDUCTION IN SAME DIRECTION by connecting variou
(b) CONDUCTION IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS
rent. As we shall see later,
Fig. Fields about Two Parallel Conductors Gaming
9.5. with the galvanon
resistors in series or in parallel
Electron Current in the Same Direction (a) and Carrying
eter movement, the scale of the meter can be cal
Currents in Opposite Directions (b)
brated directly in microamps, milliamps, volts, or two fields every haK turn. Such a polarity-reversing
even in ohms. device is called a commutator, and we shall become
EXPERIMENT Let us construct a simple cur-
18: acquainted with its action presently.
rent-indicating instrument having a fixed coil and a
DIRECTION
moving compass needle (Fig. 97). Wind about 25 OF ROTATION ARMATURe
turns of bell wire around a bottle, leaving a foot
of straight wire on each end. Slip the coil off the
botde, tape the turns together and moimt the coil
in an upright position on a wooden base, as il-
lustrated in Fig. 97. Now place a pocket compass
0-C
SOURCE
"îlihl
Fig. 98. Simplified Construction of Electric (D-C) Motor
A simplified model of a direct-current motor is
shown in Fig. 98. Its essential elements are the

armature, the magnetic field, the commutator, and
the brushes. The armature is usually a cylinder of
TO DRV CELL soft steel about which a number of turns of copper
wire are wound, constituting the armature wind-
Fig. 97. Construction of Simple Current Indicator
(Experiment 18)
ing. For simplicity. Fig. 98 shows only a single
loop of wire serving as armature. The external field
next to and near the center of the coil (on a wood in which the armatiu-e rotates is usually provided
block) and rotate the entire arrangement to a north- by a multi-pole electromagnet, but the basic ac-
south direction, so that the coil hues up parallel tion is the same for the field of a two-pole per-
with the compass needle. manent magnet, shown in Fig. 98. The commutator
To show that the meter works, connect the coil is attached to the shaft of the armature and is es-
to a dry cell and check the direction of compass sentially a reversing switch. It consists of as many
aeedle deflection with the left-hand rule for coils. ring-shaped segments as there are poles in the mag-
You can make a rough calibration of the scale of net (in this case two). Ciurent is passed to and from
jhe compass by connecting the meter to known cur- the armature through graphite (carbon) brushes,
rents, calculated in accordance with Ohm's Law. which shde on the cylindrical commutator seg-
(Don't forget to include the resistance of the coil ments. A battery or generator serves as direct-cur-
in these calculations.) rent source.
The Direct-Current Motor. If the current-carry- Assume that an electron current initially flows
mg coil of the galvanometer we have just described through the armature in the direction indicated by
20uld be made to turn continuously, it would pro- the arrows. By applying the right-hand motor rule
'dde a source of mechanical energy from a supply you can verify that the left conductor of the arma-
of electric energy. Any rotating device that converts ture (nearest the N-pole) imdergoes an upward
slectrical into mechanical energy is called an elec- force, while the right conductor is subjected to a
iric motor. The galvanometer cannot be made to doumward force. As a result the armature turns
turn more than half a revolution at most (no matter clockwise until the plane of the loop is vertical.
'bow great the cxirrent), since the moving coil comes Without the commutator it could not turn further,
to rest as soon as its hues of force line up with the since beyond this point the left and right conduc-
'sxtemal magnetic field of the permanent magnet. tors (and hence the cvirrent directions) are inter-
To achieve continuous rotation we need some sort changed and the forces woidd be reversed. At that
if device that reverses the relative polarity of the very moment, the cmrent through the armature is
coil of 50 turns and 12 cms in diameter. What is the

field intensity at the center of the coil?
7. What is the field intensity inside a ring solenoid
of 300 turns per cm length and carrying a current of
2.5 amps?
8. Draw a diagram of an air-core solenoid powered
by a dry cell. Show the direction of the current, the

resulting polarity of the solenoid and sketch the mag-
netic field inside and outside of the solenoid. State
the rule used to determine the direction of the field
for this type of coil.
BAHERY 9. A long cofl (solenoid) 3 meters in length and 4

cms in diameter is wound with 10 turns to the centi-
Fig. 99. Demonstration-Type Direct-Current Motor
meter and carries a current of 0.5 ampere in the wind-
of the con-
ing. What is the magnetic field intensity at the center
automatically reversed by the switching
of the solenoid?
nections as the commutator gaps pass the brushes.
10. Sketch the field of an iron-core solenoid (electro-
Because of this double reversal (i.e., that of the why its flux is greater than that
magnet) and explain
armature conductors and that of the commutator), of a corresponding air-core solenoid.
the current flows again in the same directions rela- 11. Explain the operation of a relay, a telegraph
tive to the field and the armature coil makes another and a doorbell.
half turn. At that point the commutator switches 12. State the factors on which the flux density of an
tliearmature connections once more, with another electromagnet depends. What is meant by ampere-
half turn of the loop resulting. The upshot of the turns?
action is that the armature coil turns continuously 13. The core of an electromagnet is subjected to in-
in one direction. The direction can be reversed by creasing field intensities (H) of 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40,
either switching around the battery connections or and 50 oersteds. The corresponding values of the flux
densities (B) achieved within the core are 10, 12, 13.4,
by reversing the polarity of the magnetic field. Use-
14.4, 14.9, 15.3 and 15.6 kilogauss. Is the permeability
ful work can be obtained from the electric motor by
output shaft. In practice, of the iron core constant, increasing or decreasing? To
attaching some load to its
what do you attribute its behavior?
there are many other refinements necessary to ob-
14. Draw hysteresis loops for soft and hard ferro-
tain an efficiently operating motor. A demonstra-
magnetic materials and contrast their residual mag-
tion-type motor, using an electromagnet for the and the total hysteresis
netism, their coercive forces,
field and a single-turn armature, is illustrated in
losses. Which type of material is best suited for an
Fig. 99. electromagnet, which for a permanent magnet? Why?
15. State "Ohm's Law" for magnetic circuits and
Practice Exercise No. 9 define each of the quantities.
on which the reluctance of a
16. State the factors
1. A horizontal, current-carrying wire is surrounded
material depends upon and write the formula. If re-
by circular lines of force in a clockwise direction (like
luctances in series and in parallel are added like re-
a corkscrew). What is the direction of electron flow?
sistances, can you derive a formula for reluctances in
2. Two long, parallel wires 10 inches apart carry
What parallel?
currents of 20 amps each, in opposite directions.
is the magnetic field intensity at a point midway be- 17. If the magnetomotive force is expressed in gil-
tween the wires? berts, what factorwould you apply to convert the
3. A pair of straight, parallel wires carry equal cur- mmf to ampere-turns?
rents. At what point is the resulting magnetic field 18. If the mmf applied to an electromagnet is
doubled, while the reluctance of its magnetic circuit
about the wires zero, when the currents flow in the
same direction? Can you find a point where the re- is reduced to one-half, how does this affect the total
sultant field is zero, when the currents flow in oppo- flux? (Assume /i is constant.)
site directions? 19. Two parallel, straight wires, separated by a dis-
4. What is the ciurent flowing through a circular tance of 8 cms, carry currents of 40 and 50 amps, re-
wire loop of 20 cms diameter if the field intensity at spectively. What force does either wire exert upon the
the center of the loop is 5 oersteds? other per cm of length?
5. State the electromagnetic definition of the am- 20. Explain the action of a moving-coil galvanometer
pere. and that of a direct-current motor. Draw a sketch ol
6. A current of 2 amps flows through a circular, flat each, showing the essential elements. State the rule
)
used to determine the direction of motion in each of cannot be attained with increasing magnetizing
these devices. force and the permeability of the material drops
off.
SUMMARY The lagging of the flux density (B) produced in a

material behind the magnetizing force (H) is called
An electric current is always surrounded by a
magnetic hysteresis. The amovmt of magnetism re-
magnetic field. The field intensity in a straight con-
maining in a material after the (de)magnetizing
ductor varies directly with the strength of the cur-
force has been reduced to zero is called residual
rent through the conductor and inversely with the
magnetism; the value of the negative magnetizing
distance between the wire and the point of meas-
force required to demagnetize a sample completely
urement.
is knowm as coercive force.
Left-Hand Rule for Conductors: With the thumb
The area enclosed by the hysteresis loop is a
pointing in the direction of electron flow, the fingers
measure of the energy wasted in heat to magnetize
(of the left hand) wrapped around the vdre will
and demagnetize a material; the heat energy
point along the lines of force.
wasted is known as hysteresis loss. Hard iron, suit-
Field intensity of straight wire:
able for permanent magnets, has a large-area hys-
21
H= oersteds.
teresis loop; soft iron, suitable for electromagnets,
10 r has a small-area hysteresis loop.

Field intensity at center of circular loop: Ohm's Law for Magnetic Circuits: The total mag-
netic flux in a magnetic circuit is directly propor-
__ 2,rl
H= oersteds tional to the magnetomotive force (mmf) and in-
10 r
F
Field intensity at center of flat coil of N turns: versely proportional to the reluctance. (<^ =—
27rNI R
H Ampere's Law for the Force on a Conductor:
10 r
Any current-carrying conductor located at right
Field intensity near center of solenoid (length 1):
angles to the lines of force of a magnetic field will
4^N1 be pushed by a force that directly proportional
H= to the flux density, the current,
is
and the length of

101
Left-Hand Rule for Long Coils (Solenoids): Wrap
the conductor. (F =B I L/10.)
fingers of left hand around coil in direction of elec-

tron flow; the thumb will point in the direction of Right-Hand Motor Rule:
the north pole of the field.
An electromagnet is a coil of wire wound around Fore (Index) Finger = Flux

a soft-iron core. The iron core multiplies the flux
Center (Middle) Finger = Current
density for the same magnetizing force compared Thumb = Motion or Force
with an air core coil. Moving-coil (d'Arsonval) galvanometers depend
A relay is a remote-control switch that permits for their operation on the interaction of the field
control of a heavy current by a weak cmrent. Its about a ciurent-carrying coil and that of a perma-
heart an electromagnet. Telegraphs, teletype ma-
is nent magnet.
chines, buzzers and electric doorbells are also based Electric motors convert electrical energy into
on the operation of electromagnets. mechanical energy. A direct-current motor consists
The strength of an electromagnet depends on the essentially of a current-carrying armature, a mag-
number of turns of its winding (per unit length), netic fieldproduced by a permanent or electromag-
the magnitude of the current, and the permeability net, a commutator for reversing the current direc-
of its iron core. The product of the cinrent (am- tion in the armature every half-turn, and graphite
peres) and the number of tinms, called ampere- brushes to feed current to the armature winding
turns, determines the magnitude of the magnetizing through the commutator segments. A motor oper-
force (H). atesbecause of the interaction of the magnetic field
Magnetic satin-ation occurs when most of the of the armature coil and that of the field magnet,
domains in a magnetic material are aligned with but in contrast to the galvanometer, continuous ro-
the external magnetizing field. Beyond saturation tation is made possible by the automatic cmrent-
further increases in magnetization (flux density B) reversing action of the commutator.
CHAPTER TEN
INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

The astounding development of present-day com- verse meter deflection. No current was observed as
mercial electric power and technology started about long as the magnet and the coil were held still in
125 years ago with the discovery of the principle any position.
of induction. After Oersted and others had shovm Faraday made some further observations by
that magnetism was associated with and could be changing various factors involved in the simple ex-
produced by electricity, many scientists started to periment. He found that the magnitude of the
look for the reverse effect— the production of elec- momentary current registered by the meter de-
tricity from magnetism, michael faraday in par- pended on the speed of moving the magnet toward
ticular initiated a series of experiments which after or away from the coil, the strength of the bar mag-
seven years of painstaking work culminated in the net and the number of turns of wire on the coil.
discovery of electromagnetic induction, the prin- Whenever there was relative motion between the
ciple of the generator. In the United States the sci- magnet and the coil, a momentary current was reg-
entist JOSEPH HENBY (1797-1878) independently dis- istered by the meter. The direction of the current
covered the induction or generator principle, which depended on whether the motion of the magnet was
led to the commercial development of alternating toward or away from the coil and also on which
currents, transformers, and a host of other devices When
pole of the magnet was pushed into the coil.
associated with modem electricity. Although Fara-
the north and south pole of the magnet were inter-
day reported discoveries first (in 1831), both Fara- changed the meter would register a current pulse
day and Henry should be credited with this key Moreover, Faraday found
in the opposite direction.
discovery.
that the bar magnet could be replaced by an elec-
Faraday's Experiments. In one of the simplest
tromagnet with the same results. Increasing the cur-
and most basic of Faraday's experiments, he con-
rent in the electromagnet had the same effect as
nected a coil directly to a current meter (galvanom-
moving it toward the coil, and decreasing the cur-
eter) and pushed a bar magnet into and out of the
rent had the same effect as moving the magnet
coil, as illustrated in Fig. 100. He found that a
away from the coil. Thus, no motion at all was re-
momentary current was registered on the meter,
quired with an electromagnet to produce the phe-
whenever he moved one pole of the magnet quickly
nomenon of induction.
toward the coil (or the coil toward the magnet).
In another of Faraday's experiments, he wound
When he jerked the magnet away from the coil,
brief current "kick," but this time
two coils, carefully insulated them from each odier,
there was again a
hy the re- and arranged them on the same axis in close prox-
in the opposite direction, as registered
imity to each other (see Fig. 101). (He actually
CURRENT METeR wound both coils on a wooden cylinder.) He then
OftLVANONVGTER
COIU
Batter/
M
imu
PRIMARY COIU JBCONPARYCOIL
Fig. 101. Faraday's Experiment Showing Induction
Fig. 100. Faraday's Discovery of Electromagnetic Induction
Between Two Coils
102
connected one coil (the primary) through a switch a current is flowing in some circuit due to the
to a battery and the other coil (the secondary) to phenomenon of induction, an electromotive force
a galvanometer. Whenever he closed the switch in must have given rise to it. The basic question is
the primary ciicuit, Faraday noted a momentary how an emf can be induced in a conductor which
current "kick" on the meter of the entirely separate then gives rise to a current in a closed circuit. Fara-
secondary Nothing further happened, once
circuit. day was able to generalize from aU his experiments
a steady current was established in the primary that an emf was induced in a loop of wire located
circuit. If he now opened the switch in the primaiy in a magnetic field, whenever the number of lines
circuit, he observed another kick of current on tlie of force (or flux) passing tlirough the loop was
meter of the secondary circuit, but in the opposite changing. If the loop was closed, the induced emf
direction. Again, nothing further happened after would give rise to a current through the circuit.
the brief current pulse during the opening of tlie The flux linking the loop could be expanding or
circuit.Faraday then varied the amount of current collapsing, such as would happen, for example, if
in die primary coil and found again that the meter the primary circuit of Fig. 101 is closed or opened.
was deflected with every change in the primary cur- The flux linking the loop might merely vary in
rent, the needle being deflected in one direction for strength, such as when a magnet is brought near
an increase in the cunent and in the opposite direc- to or moved away from it (see Fig. 103). All that is
tion for a decrease. He finally concluded that the necessary to produce an emf is a change in the total
effectcould be observed whenever the primary cur- flux linking the loop. Nothing happens as long as
rent was c/ianging (such as in opening or closing the flux through the loop remains the same.
the circuit) but that nothing happened when the
cin^rent remained unchanged.
After various experiments, Faraday produced his
"new electrical machine," now known as Faraday's
disk dynamo, which is the forerunner of the modem
generator. As illustrated in Fig. 102, this machine
consists of a 1-ft copper disk, mounted so that it
could turn freely between the poles of a strong

horseshoe magnet. Two copper brushes bore against
the shaft and the circumference of the disk, respec-
tively.When the disk was rotated in the magnetic
fieldby means of the handle, a feeble but continu-
ous emf was generated between the brushes, as in-
dicated by the current through the meter. The
Fig. 103. Magnetic Flux Linking a Loop of Wire
direction of rotation determined the direction of
the emf and hence of the cinrent through the meter. In some experiments Faraday thought it more
Faraday's Laws. Faraday thought of some simple, convenient to visualize the process of induction as
graphic explanations for the phenomenon of in- the "cutting" of the lines of force of a magnet or
duction which are still in use today. Obviously, if electromagnet by a wire or a coil. An emf would be
induced in the wire or coil whenever it was moving
BRUSH
across lines of force established by a magnet or
MAGNET
electromagnet. For example, when the wire in Fig.
104 is moved across one pole of a stationary magnet,
it will cut across the lines of force, thus inducing an
emf between its ends; this emf can be measured
with a voltmeter. If the wire is connected into a
closed circuit, a current will flow.
These two different viewpoints of visualizing the
fundamental fact of electromagnetic induction can
be summarized by two laws of induction, as fol-
Fig. 102. Faraday's Disk Dynamo for Producing a lows:
Continuous Emf by Electromagnetic Induction 1. An electromotive force is induced in a coil of
,.-.a.e_. MOTION or MAGNET
n n \
Fig. 105. Setup for Experiment 19; Electromagnetic
Induction
needle deflections are again reversed with respect

Fig. 104. Whena Wire is Moved Across the Lines of to the deflections obtained for the initial polarity.
Force of a Magnet, an Emf is Induced Between We conclude that the direction of the induced emf
the Ends of the Wire
depends on the direction of the magnetic field lines
wire whenever the number of lines of force (mag- and on the direction of motion.
netic flux) linking the coil is changing; the magni- Repeat the experiment by moving the bar magnet
tude of the induced emf is proportional to the rate at first slowly and then rapidly into and out of the
at which the nimiber of lines of force through the coil. Note that the magnitude of the needle deflec-
coil are changing. tion and hence that of the induced emf is in direct
2. An is induced in any con-
electromotive force proportion to the speed of motion across the field.
ductor that moving across ("cutting") lines of
is EXPERIMENT 20 (Scc Fig. 105): Using the same
force; the magnitude of the emf is proportional to setup as for experiment 19 (Fig. 105), make the fol-
the rate at which the lines of force are being cut. lowing experiment. First reduce the number of
We shall presently find ways of converting these turns of the induction coil to a single loop. Repeat
laws into equations, permitting us to make quan- the previous experiment, moving the bar magnet
titative calculations of the magnitude of the in- alternately into and out of the loop. Note that the
duced emf. deflection of the galvanometer is barely detectable,
Further Experiments with Induction. You can even at high speeds of motion. Now increase the
easily try the following simple induction experiments number of turns of the induction coil first to three,
for yourself. With the magnets and galvanometers then six and finally to 10 or more turns. Attempt to
available now, you should have much less trouble move the bar magnet into and out of the coil with
indemonstrating induction than Faraday had. approximately the same speed in each case. Note
EXPERIMENT 19: Construct a simple galvanometer that the magnitude of the needle deflection, and
by winding several loops of wire around a sus- hence that of tlie induced emf, is roughly propor-
pended compass needle (Fig. 105) or use the cur- tional to the number of tiuns of the coil. (Save the
rent indicator constructed for experiment 18 (Fig. setup for the experiment with Lenz's Law.)
97). (If you have a sensitive zero-center galvanome- EXPERIMENT 21: Obtain two horseshoe magnets,
ter available, use it instead.) Rotate the home-made one relatively weak, such as the variety carried by
galvanometer in the north-south direction so that drug and toy stores, the other quite strong and
is parallel with the compass needle.
the coil of wire preferably made of alnico. Connect the ends of a
Connect the free ends of the galvanometer coil to long, straight conductor or thin copper tube by
another coil of wire, constructed initially of three or means of flexible wires to the pocket compass gal-
four turns of heavy copper wire. Obtain a fairly vanometer or to a better one, if avaflable. The setup
strong (alnico) bar magnet. is illustrated in Fig. 106.
Now thrust one pole of the bar magnet into the Now move the long conductor or tube fairly
coiland note the direction in which the compass rapidly across the airgap between the poles of the
needle deflects. Next jerk tlie bar magnet rapidly weak horseshoe magnet. Note that the deflection of
away from the coil and observe that the compass the galvanometer is barely detectable. Repeat the
needle deflects in the opposite direction. Now inter- experiment, moving the copper conductor across
change the north and south pole of the bar magnet tlie airgap of the strong horseshoe magnet at ap-
and repeat the experiment. Note that the compass proximately the same speed as before. Note that
CONDUCTOR laws of induction the magnitude of the induced emf

is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
flux, or equivalently, to the rate at which lines of
force are being cut. Now it has been found experi-
WEAK MAGNET mentally (and can be shown theoretically) that an
emf of 1 volt is induced in a conductor or single
loop, when cuts magnetic lines of force at the
it
rate of 100,000,000 or 10^ per second. Equivalently,

I volt is induced in a single loop when the flux
linking the loop changes at the rate of 10* lines (or
1 weber) per second. We may therefore state for
the emf induced in a conductor or loop:
Induced Emf E (volts) =
Rate of Change of Flux (maxwells)
108
or E (volts) = Rate of Change of Flux (webers)

METER SymboUcally, this may be written
CONDUCTOR X 10-* volts

At
where A the change of flux (in maxwells or
<^ is
hnes of force) occurring in a time interval A t. For

a coil of N induced emf is simply multi-
turns, the
plied by the number of turns hnking the flux, and
STRONG
we obtain:
MAGNET
Induced Emf in Coil of N turns:
E =NA (f)
(maxwells)
X 10-* volts
At
or E =NA <!> (webers)
At
EXAMPLE: A coil composed of 50 turns of wire
hnks 50,000 lines of force (maxwells). If this flux
collapses in 1/100 second, what is the emf induced
in the coil?
METER
Solution: E =N xio-» =
At
1 Fig. 106. The Magnitude of the Induced Emf Varies 50 X 50,000
Directly with the Strength of the Magnetic Field X 10-* = 2.5 volts.
(Experiment 21) ooi
For a conductor that moves across and cuts lines
the deflection of the galvanometer needle is now of force, a more convenient expression can be ob-
far greater than for the weak magnet. We conclude tained from the second law of induction, which is
that the magnitude of the emf induced depends on equivalent to the one above. Fig. 107 illustrates a
the number of lines of force cut per second. In the wire of length L, which moves with velocity u on a
strong magnet with a greater flux, more lines of pair of metallic rails at right angles to a uniform
force are being cut for the same speed of move- magnetic field, directed into the page. The emf in-
ment. More Hnes may also be cut, with a conse- duced into the wire is picked off the rails, which act
quent increase in the induced emf, by moving the as brushes.
conductor more rapidly across the magnetic field. According to the second law of induction, the
Magnitude of Induced Emf. According to the magnitude of the emf induced in the wire in this
:
MIS
voiT«£m VOLTMETER ^f
/
UNIFORM FIOOIB)
UNIFORM FIELD (B)

Fig. 107. Finding Emf Induced in a Wire that Moves at
Right Angles to a Uniform Magnetic Field Fig. 108. Emf Induced in a Wire that Moves at an Angle 9
(with Respect to the Horizontal) through a
Uniform Field
arrangement is proportional to the rate at which
flux is being cut. This rate of flux cutting evidently
depends on three factors: 1.) the amount of flux or {fi
= 0°), it does not cut any flux lines and the in-
the flux density B (in gauss); 2.) the rate at which

duced emf is zero, (i.e., E B L v sin 0°= X
the wire cuts across the field or the velocity v (in
10-8 = 0.)
example: What will be the emf if the wire in the

cm/sec); and 3.) the length (L) of the vwre (in cm)
previous example makes an angle of 60° with the
in which the emf being induced. We also know
is
horizontal?
that 10* lines of force must be cut each second for
each volt being induced in the wire. Putting all
Solution: We have already computed the maxi-
these factors together, we obtain for the emf in-

mmn emf (11.55 V) for a right angle; hence, we
simply multiply by the sine of 60°
duced in the wire of Fig. 107
11.55 sin 60° = 11.55 X 0.866 = 10 volts.
E=
BXLXv volts Direction of Induced Emf (Lenz's Law). An in-
10*
duced emf has potential energy. When it sets up a
or more simply E =BLv X 10~* volts current in a closed circuit, this current can do me-
example: a wire 33 cms (13 in.) long is moved at chanical work, produce heat or chemical energy. If
right angles across a magnetic field of 50,000 gauss the law of conservation of energy is true, the energy
at aspeed of 7 meters per second (23 feet/second). of an induced emf must come from work done in
Compute the emf induced bet^veen the ends of the inducing it. When the emf is induced by the mo-
wire. tion of a magnet or a coil, some force must be ap-
Solution: E = B L v X 10-« = 50,000 X 33 X plied to produce the motion and work performed.
700 X 10-« = 11-55 volts. By the law of action and reaction, this force must
As mentioned before, this formula apphes only be resisted by an equal and opposite force (New-
to a wire that is moving at right angles or perpen- ton's Third Law). The opposing force can come
dicularly to the magnetic field. If the wire is mov- only from the magnetic field established by the in-
ing at some angle {6) with respect to the horizontal duced current. It was just such considerations that
(the rails), as illustrated in Fig. 108, the emf in- led the Russian physicist h. f. emil lenz (1804-
duced proportional to the vertical projection of
is 1865) to experiments on the basis of which he
the wire; that is, the equivalent portion of the wire postulated in 1834 the following law (Lenz's Law):
that moves at right angles to the Unes of force. You A current set up by an emf induced due to the mo-
may remember from trigonometry that such a verti- tion of a (closed-circuit) conductor will be in such a
cal projection is expressed by the sine of the angle direction that its magnetic field will oppose the
between the line (wire) and the horizontal. Thus,
(6) motion causing tlie emf. The induced emf will hava
we have to modify our previous expression by the the proper polarity to cause electron flow from —
sine of 6 (sin 6) to take into accoimt the situation to -j- (or conventional current from to ) i° + —
depicted in Fig. 108. Hence, for any angle 0, the direction postulated by Lenz's Law.
E = BLvsin6iX 10"* volts experiment 22: To illustrate Lenz's Law, let us
When the wire is vertical or perpendicular to the repeat experiment 19 (see Fig. 105), but this time
field {9 = 90°), it will cut the maximum number of we shall try to predict the direction of the induced
lines of force, and since sin 90° is 1, the expression (electron) current. Assume that the S-pole of the
reduces to the one obtained previously. In contrast, bar magnet is moved towards the coil, as illustrated
when the wire is horizontal or parallel to the rails in Fig. 105. If this action is to be opposed by the
I
magnetic field of the induced current, in accordance the left hand at right angles to each other, so that
with Lenz's Law, the side of the coil facing the the forefinger points in the direction of the flux and
magnet must also have south polarity; only then the thumb points in the direction of the motion; the
will the lines of force emanating from the coil op- center finger will then point in the direction of the
pose those of the bar magnet. Let us use the left- induced (electron) current. (For conventional cur-
hand rule for coils to determine the current direc- rent, you must use the right hand to determine the
tion for this polarity.Wrapping the fingers of the direction of the current and the emf.)
left hand around the coil such that the thumb You can easily verify that this rule gives the cor-
points toward the end of the coil away from the rect ciurent direction in Fig. 105. However, some
magnet (the north pole), we see that the fingers caution is The "mo-
necessary in applying the rule.
must grasp the coil counterclockwise and, hence, tion" referred to in the rule apphes to the motion
the direction of the electron current is counter- of the conductor in which the emf is induced. You
clockwise (viewed from the magnet), as indicated must therefore think of the cofl (in Fig. 105) being
in Fig. 105. moved toward the magnet (to the right of the
We can also determine the direction of the com- page), rather than the magnet being moved into
pass needle deflection by the left-hand rule for the coil (toward the left of the page). Moreover,
coils. By the rule, the galvanometer coil will have you will obtain a current direction toward you for
a north pole at its left and a south pole at its right the upper portion of the ooil (above the magnet)
end (facing the induction coil). Since the flux out- and a direction away from you for the lower coil
side the coil is from north to south, the flux inside doivn (from north to south)
portion, since the flux is
the coil wdll be from south to north. The compass above the magnet and up below the magnet. This
needle will deflect so that it lines up with the direc- is, of course, correct and shows that the current is
tion of the field inside the coil. The north pole of counterclockwise, as indicated.
the needle, consequently, is deflected counter-
clockwise (to the left), as indicated in Fig. 105. Re-
peat the experiment several times, moving the mag-
INDUCING AN EMF IN A ROTATING
net away from the coil, reversing south and north COIL: THE GENERATOR
pole, etc. and try to predict in each case the direc- We have seen that a continuous emf is induced
tion of the induced cmrent and that of the com- in a conductor that is moved at a certain speed
pass needle deflection. across a magnetic field. Since you might get tired
Left-Hand Rule for Generator Action. As you running with a wire across a magnetic field, an
found out in the last experiment, Lenz's Law, easier way of arranging the generation of such a
though fundamental, is somewhat difficult to use, continuous emf is to rotate a coil between the
as it involves a number of detailed considerations. poles of a magnet (or electromagnet) so that the
A more convenient rule, knowoi as the left-hand conductors cut across the lines of force. Such an
rule for generator action (Fig. 109), states: Extend arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 110 and it is the
the thumb, fore (index) finger and center finger of basic principle of operation of all types of electric
generators. The type shown in the figure is an al-
MOTION OF CONDUCTOR
ternating-ciurent generator, and as you can see, it
is almost indistinguishable from tlie electric motor

illustrated in Fig. 98. As in tlie motor, the essential
parts of an electric generator are an armatiu'e coil,
a magnetic field in which the coil can be rotated,
and some means of connecting the rotating coil to
an external circuit. (In the a-c generator, the
brushes rotate on continuous slip rings, rather than
a commutator, as we shall see.) The essential dif-
ference between motors and generators hes in their
use. In the motor, current from an external source
of power is passed through the armature coil, which
"^"'^ then rotates in the magnetic field, doing mechanical
Fig. 109. Left-Hand Rule for Generator Action work in the process. In the generator, a shaft at-
tached to the armature is rotated by some mechani- (— ) and returns through the brush marked (+), as
cal means, such as a gasoline engine or an electric indicated.
motor. The rotation of the armatiu-e coil in the The magnitude of the emf induced ineach of the
magnetic field then converts this mechanical work two long conductors is equal to BLv X 10~* volts
into electric energy, which may be tapped off the for the position shown, you wiU recall. Since the
brushes and conducted to an outside circuit. In emf's induced in the two conductors aid each other,
principle, the same machine can be used both as the total emf induced in the armature coil will be
motor and as generator. (In practice some adjust- 2 B LV X 10-« volts.
ments are needed.) A quarter revolution or 90 degrees later from the
position shoviTi in Fig. 110, the plane of the coil is
perpendicular to the field and the two long con-

ductors move parallel to the lines of force. Since the
coil sides are not cutting any lines of force in this
position, the induced voltage is zero. As the arma-
ture completes one-half of a revolution, the sides of
the coil move once again perpendicular to the field
and the induced voltage and current are again at a
maximum. Since the left and right conductors of
SUP RIN65 / the coil are now interchanged, however, the direc-
tion of ciurent flow is reversed, as you can verify
with the generator rule. The cinrrent thus leaves at
U>KP the brush marked (+) and returns through the

brush marked (— ) after flowing through the ex-
Fig. 110. Elements of Simple A-C Generator ternal circuit. Equivalently, since current flow is
now from + to — ,
you might say that a negative
Assimie that the armatvue coil rotates counter- current is flowing through the external circuit.
clockwise in the magnetic field (usually provided At the end of the third quarter of rotation, the
by an electromagnet rather than a permanent one) long sides of the cofl move again parallel to the
and is initially in the horizontal position illustrated Hnes of force and the induced voltage drops to
in Fig. 110. In this position the plane of the coil is zero. Finally, after completing a full revolution, the
parallel to the magnetic field and each of the two coil returns to its original position shown in Fig.
long conductors of the coil cuts the hnes of force 110, and the induced voltage and current are again
at right angles (perpendicular to the field). As we at maximvmi values. Note that we have neglected
have seen before (Fig. 107) the maximum number the two short sides of the armature coil during the
of lines of force are being cut in this position and, entire discussion, since they are not cutting across
hence, the emf induced in the coil is a maximum. the magnetic field in any position.
The ends of the coil are connected to separate Production of a Sine Wave. Let us look at the
slip rings against which individual brushes bear. If rise and fall of the induced voltage dm-ing one
the brushes are connected to some load (resistance) revolution of the armatm-e coil a Uttle more closely,
in an external circuit, a current will flow through since it is the basis of alternating-current genera-
this circuit, leaving the generator at the brush tion. You will recall from our earher discussion that
marked —
and returning to it through the brush a wore moving at some angle
6 through a imiform
marked +. (This is the direction of electron jiow; magnetic field generates an emf equal to B L v
conventional current flows in the opposite diiec- sin ^ X 10~* volts. Referring to Fig. Ill, let us re-
tion.) We
can easily verify the direction of the in- define d as the angle the plane of the generator coil
duced cmrent with the left-hand generator rule. forms with its zero-emf (vertical) position. Let us
Apph cation of the rule shows that in the right- assign the symbol E^„ to the maximum value of
hand conductor of the loop (facing the S-pole), the the emf, when the coil is horizontal. Since this
induced current wiU flow in a direction out of the maximimi value is equal to B L v X 10~*, the in-
page (towards you), while in the left-hand conduc- duced emf, £, for any position of the coil is given
tor the current flows into the page (away from by
you). The cxirrent thus leaves at the brush marked =
E B L V X 10-* sine E sin 6 =
I
*
the coil ends, so that the voltage induced (and the

resulting current) is again in the same direction.
As the coil completes its second half -revolution, the
voltage (and current) rises and falls again exactly as
before and in the same direction as during the first
half-cycle.At the completion of the cycle (1 revolu-
tion) the commutator segments once again switch
BRUSH \1Stf^l. BRU^H around the coil connections and another unidirec-
tional sine-wave half-cycle results. We term this
tOMMUTATOR voltage waveform unidirectional rather than d.c.
since it continually rises and falls. To obtain a
LOAP
smooth direct current, filtering is necessary. (See
(a) Electronics Made Simple.)
SELF INDUCTANCE AND MUTUAL

INDUCTANCE
+E
We have seen that a voltage is induced in a con-
ductor whenever the magnetic flux Unking the con-
ductor is changing. If the magnetic field is due to a
current-carrying conductor, a change in the number
0" 90° IW 3M' of lines of force of the field will accompany any
change in the current. If the current through the
^ AUTERNMION TIME-
conductor is increasing, the magnetic field is said to
^ I CVCUE — be expanding; if it is decreasing, the field is said to
be collapsing. An expanding magnetic field may be
(b) caused by the closing of a switch that permits cur-
Fig. 112. Elementary Direct-Current Generator (a) and rent to flow through a coil, while the opening of the
Output Voltage Waveform (b) switch would interrupt the cvurent and cause the
field to collapse (See Fig. 101). Expanding or col-
to the flux, and since no lines of force are cut, the lapsing fields may also be due to continuous varia-
induced voltage is zero. Thus, we mark off the tions of the current strength, such as may be
output voltage as zero at the start of the time in- brought about by manually rotating a rheostat in a
terval on the graph of the output voltage waveform d-c con circuit or by connecting a coU to a source of
(Fig. 112b). With the turning counterclockwise,
coil alternating current. Regardless of the manner pro-
as indicated, it will be in a horizontal position one- duced, whenever the lines of force of an expanding
quarter revolution later, and with the long sides or collapsing magnetic field cut across a conductor
cutting the flux perpendicularly, the induced (out- (or the turns of a coil), an emf is induced.
put) voltage rises to a maximum, as shown in Fig. You will recall, too, that by Lenz's Law the in-
112&. After completing half a revolution, the sides duced voltage is always of such a polarity as to
of the coil are again parallel to the flux and the oppose the change of current that produces it. Thus,
generator output voltage drops to zero, as shown when an apphed voltage causes current flow in a
in the graph. The output voltage of the d-c gen- coil circuit, the voltage induced in the coil will op-
erator for the first half-revolution (one alternation) pose the (change in) current and the applied voltage
is exactly the same as that of the a-c generator, that caused it. For this reason, the induced voltage
shown in Fig. 111. is also referred to as the back emf or coimter emf.
Without the commutator, continued turning of The characteristic property of a circuit that ac-
the armature coil would interchange the positions counts for the production of an induced voltage or
of the two flux-cutting (long) sides, resulting in a counter emf is called inductance. The greater the
reversal of the output voltage and current. At this inductance in a circuit, the greater is its opposition
very instant, however, tlie split segments of the to current changes and hence the greater the in-
commutator interchange the output connections of duced or counter emf. The schematic circuit sym-
bol for inductance (L) is a coil (Tnnnnnnnnnnr), (Fig. 114a), the magnetic field will collapse and in
signifying that the property is primarily associated the process again induce a counter emf that opposes
with coils. the decline of the current. The short-circuit current
Self-Inductance. Let us consider first a single coil of the coil therefore does not immediately drop to
of wii-e that is suddenly connected across an applied zero, but decays in an exponential manner, as
d-c voltage (Fig. 113). As the ciu-rent rises in shown in Fig. 114&.
strength, an expanding magnetic field is established
and an increasing number of lines of force cut SWITCH

across the turns of the coil. This in turn induces a
counter emf in the coil that opposes the increase in
the current and causes it to rise more slowly than it
would without the magnetic

lizes
field.
number of hues of force becomes constant,

the
As the field stabi-
E ^
the counter emf drops to zero, and the current rises
to its maximum value, determined by the applied
voltage (£) and the resistance (iR) of the coil (Fig.
llSfo). The distorted shape of the current and the
caused
V.
time it takes to rise to its full value (E/R) is
by the self-inductance of the coil. If the switch is
now opened, disconnecting tlie battery and provid- (a) CIRCUIT
ing a short-circuit path for the current to flow
SWITCH
r COIL WITH
— E
'
INDUCTANCE
AND
(L)
I
RESISTANCE (R)
^l TIME
(a) CIRCUIT (b) DECAYING CURRENT

Fig. 114. The Cunent in a Short-Circuited Coil (a)
Decreases Exponentially to Zero (b)
If you connect the coil to an a-c voltage source,

the alternating current will rise to a maximum, drop
to zero, then rise again in the opposite direction and
once more decUne to zero, in accordance with the
sine wave portrayed in Fig. 111. As a consequence
of the continuous current variations, the magnetic
field about the coil first builds up in one direction,
then collapses to zero, builds up again in the oppo-
site direction, and collapses once more, all in rapid
sequence. This results in the continuous induction
of counter electromotive forces that oppose the var-
and thus cause it to lag
iations in the current flow
(b) RISING CURRENT
behind the applied voltage changes, as we shall
Fig. 113. The Inductance of a Coil Suddenly Connected to
later see in greater detail.
aD C Voltage (a)Causes the Current to Increase Relatively
Slowly to its Maximum Value (b) Magnitude of Induced (Counter) Emf. We have
stated earlier that the emf induced in a conductor voltmeter. As soon as the primary current and field
is proportional to the rate of change of flux hnking stabihze at their steady values, this voltage will
the conductor. In a current-carrying coil, the rate of disappear. If we now vary the current in the pri-
change of flux is proportional to the rate of change mary by moving the rheostat slider back and
coil
of current in the coil. We may now state more forth, a variable fluxwiU thread the turns of the
simply that the counter emf induced in a coil is secondary coil and induce a voltage in it propor-
proportional to the rate change of current
of tional to the rate of change of the primary coil
through the coil. Expressed as an equation, the current. The voltmeter will show the magnitude
(counter) emf of the induced voltage. Coils A and B are said to
be coupled by mutual inductance, or simply induc-
E = -L —
Ai
tively coupled. If the primary coil is connected to
At
an a-c voltage, the continuously varying primary
where —
Ai
- represents the ratio of a small change coH current will, of coiu-se, induce a varying or a-c
voltage in the secondary coil. More about that later.
in current to a small change of time (i.e., the rate of
ciurent change) and the proportionality constant, L, COMMON am
is called the coefiBcient of self -inductance, or simply
inductance. (The minus sign signifies that the in-

duced voltage opposes the apphed voltage.) The
formula also serves to define the unit of inductance,
called the henry (after joseph henry). The self-
UTTERT
inductance of a coil (or circuit) is 1 henry if a cur-
rent change of 1 ampere per second induces a raiMAsr sicoNB/unr
coimter emf of 1 volt in the Smaller units, such

coil. Fig. 115. Two Coils Coupled by Mutual Inductance
as the nullthenry (mh), representing one-thousandth
of a henry, and the microhenry (jih), representing
Similarly as for a single coil, the magnitude of
one-millionth henry, are frequently used.
the voltage iaduced in a secondary coil (B) by a
example: a current change of 200 ma during a primary coil (A) is given by the relation
0.1 second time interval induces a counter emf of
20 volts in a coil. What is its self -inductance? Induced Emf E = —M —
Ai
At
Solution: E = —L — Disregarding minus
. the
where —
Ai
At
is the rate of change of the primary cofl
sign.
current, M isthe coefficient of mutual inductance
20 =L —=
0.2
0.1
2 L; hence
(in henrys), and the minus sign signifies that the
voltage induced in the secondary coil is in a direc-
tion that opposes the primary coil cinrrent. Two
L = 20 10 henrys. coils are said to have a mutual inductance of 1
henry, if a current change of 1 ampere per second
Mutual Inductance. We have already seen (Fig. in one coil induces an emf of 1 volt in the other
101) that the application of a voltage to a primary coil. You can demonstrate for yourself that inter-
ooU induces a momentary voltage in a secondary changing the battery and rheostat with the volt-
coil placed near it. Consider now two coils (A and meter will induce exactly the same voltage in coil
B) placed close to each other, as shown in Fig. 115. A, when varying the current in coil B, as the orig-
The primary connected to battery
coil (A) is inal arrangement.
through a rheostat to permit varying the coil cur- Coefficient of Coupling. Obviously, not all the
rent, while the secondary coil is connected to a lines of flux of a primary coil link the turns of a
voltmeter to indicate the induced voltage. When the nearby secondary coil. The mutual inductance (M)
ciurent in the primary circuit is first established, the between the coils depends on the self-inductance
Unes of force of the expanding field about coil A of each coil and how closely coupled the two coils
will link the turns of coil B and induce a momentary are. The mutual inductance may be made high by
voltage in that coil, as shown by a "kick" of the winding each coil with many turns, coupling the
coils closely by bringing them physically close to- core. While the current is rising, an expanding
gether, and by arranging their axes parallel to each magnetic field is estabhshed and a voltage is in-
other. The relation between the mutual inductance duced in the secondary coil. An instant later, after
(M) between two coils of self -inductance L, and Lj, the core has been sufficiently magnetized, the iron
respectively, and the coefficient of coupling, k, is armature is attracted to the core and the primary
given by circuit is interrupted at the contact points. To
M = kVL^^ prevent the formation of an arc between the con-
The coefficient of coupling, k, represents the rela- tact points due to the sudden interruption of the
tive amount of flux interlinkage between the coils, current (and high self-inductance of the primary),
equivalently, or the absence of flux leakage. If all a small capacitor is placed in parallel with the con-
the flux produced by one coil links all the tinrns of tact points. The capacitor diverts a part of the arc
the other coil, the flux leakage is zero and k = 1. current and thus assists in rapidly interrupting the
This is the tightest possible coupling.
none of the If circuit. The resulting sudden collapse of the mag-
flux of one coil links the other, k 0, and there is = netic field about the primary induces a veiy high
no mutual inductance. (This may be achieved by voltage (of opposite polarity) in the secondary,
placing the coils far away from each other and by which is aided by the many turns of fine wire link-
placing their axes mutually perpendicular.) ing the primary flux. we shall learn in connec-
(As
EXAMPLE: Two coils of 4 and 16 henrys induct- tion with the transformer, the secondary voltage is
ance, respectively, are tightly coupled with the co- proportional to the secondary-to-primary turns
efficient of coupling k = 0.8. What is their mutual ratio.) As the primary core becomes demagnetized,
inductance? the armature returns to its original position and
M = kVLi
Solution: Lj = 0.8\/4 X 16 = 0.8
closes the primary circuit again, thus repeating the
X =86.4 henrys. entire cycle. The rapid buzzer-type action results

The Induction Coil. Fig. 116 illustrates an in-
in many interruptions of the primary current each
duction coil, also often referred to as spark coil second, causing the induction of a very high sec-
because of its use in producing sparks in automobile ondary voltage, constantly changing in polarity.
ignition systems. As illustrated, the device consists

This is a type of A.C.
of a primary coil of relatively few turns of heavy An automobile induction coil typically consists
wire wound around an iron core, and a secondary of several hundred primary turns and up to 20,000
coil of many turns of fine insulated wire, wound in secondary turns. It is capable of boosting the 6 or
layers on top of the primary. The primary is con- 12-volt battery potential to about 20,000 volts,
nected in series with a battery, a switch (or key) which are apphed to the spark-gap terminals of the
and an interrupting device, similar to that described spark plug, where they ignite the gasohne mixtvu-e
for the beU. in the familiar process. The spark coil must furnish
SPARK GAP
about 200 sparks per second in a car traveling at 60
miles per hour.
Transformers. Invented in 1886 by v^tlliam
STANLEY, the transformer is the most important
induction device. Transformers are capable of
stepping up an a-c voltage to very high values, per-
mitting the transmission of large amounts of power
over long cables without undue voltage (IR) losses.
By stepping up the voltage at the generator to
values close to a half milHon volts, the current sent
over the power line can be relatively small for a
given amount of required power (P E I), per- = X
mitting a reduction in the size of the cables. At the
receiving end of the power line, the voltage is then
Fig. 116. The Induction (Spark) Coil reduced by another (step-down) transformer to a
value suitable for homes, offices, and factories.
When the switch is closed, a direct current flows A transformer consists essentially of two coils
through the primary winding and magnetizes the coupled by mutual inductance (see Fig. 117). The
CORE
connected to an a-c supply, the alternations of the
-Ip-> primary current set up an alternating magn.etic
" rr
field in the core that is continually expanding, col-
INPUT E, LOAD
PRIMARY lapsing, and building up again in the opposite
direction. This alternating flux induces an
— If
ing (a-c) voltage in the secondary winding, and
alternat-
can supply a ciurent through a closed secondary

(a) CONNECTIONS
circuit. The variations in the flux, which produce
the secondary emf, also affect the primary winding
(due to its self-inductance), and by Lenz's Law,
induce in it a counter emf that opposes the a-c volt-
age applied to the primaiy winding. The value of
this counter emf is almost equal to the appUed
(b) CIRCUIT SYMBOL voltage, when no is drawn from the sec-
current
Fig. 117. Elements of Simple Transformer ondary winding and, hence, very little current flows
through the primary under no-load conditions. The
from each other, but
coils are electrically insulated small current that does flow is known as the no-load
are hnked by common magnetic flux. One coil, the or magnetizing current, since it magnetizes the core.
primary winding, is connected to the a-c voltage When a current is drawn by the secondary load,
supply (generator), while the other coil, called the a proportional cmrent flows through the primary, as
secondary winding, is connected to a load, which we shall see later. If the primary of a transformer
may be any electrical device whatever. The trans- is connected to a d-c voltage, a voltage is induced
former thus transfers electrical energy from the in the secondary for the instant during which the
primary circuit to the secondary circuit without a magnetic field is building up, but this voltage col-
direct connection and permits at the same time a lapses immediately, as soon as the field reaches a
step-up or step-down of the primary voltage or steady (imchanging) value. Because of the absence
current. The magnetic flux in a transformer may of a coimter emf for d.c, the primary cvurent will
link the coils either through an iron core or an air be and since the d-c resistance of the winding
large,
core, the latter being used at relatively high a-c is small, the primarywinding will bum out. The
frequencies (called radio frequencies). Iron core transformer, thus, is stricdy an a-c device; nev^
transformers are generally either of the core type, connect it to d.c!
'
with the cofls encircling the iron core; or of the In a transformer having a closed iron core prac-
shell type, with the core surrounding the coils (Fig.
produced by the primary
tically all the lines of force
118). winding link every turn of the secondary winding
and the leakage flux is almost zero. A transformer
without leakage flux transfers all the energy from
the primary to the secondary winding and, for this
reason, is called an ideal transformer. Some of the
larger conamercial transformers come close to being
ideal transformers.
CORE
A few simple relations hold for ideal transformer!
which are also approximately correct for most prac-
tical transformers. As we have seen, the voltage
induced in the primary winding for a given mag-

netic flux is proportional to the number of turns of
the primary (E =N— ). Since in an ideal trans-

(a) CORE TYPE SHEaTYPE At
former (one vdthout flux leakage) every turn of
Fig. 118. Consh-uction of Core-Type (a) and Shell-Type
(b) Iron Core Transformers the secondary is linked by this same magnetic flux,
the voltage induced in the secondary vending is
Ideal Transformer. With the primary winding proportional to the number of turns in the second-
ary. Itfollows that for an ideal transformer the

ratio of the primary to the secondary voltage equals
tlie ratio of the number of turns in the two wind-
ings. Stated conveniently in mathematical form:
^= ^
E. N,
where Ep and Eg are the primary and secondary
voltages, respectively, and N^ and N, are the num-
ber of primary and secondary turns, respectively.
This formula obviously does not apply to an air-
core transformer, where considerable flux leakage

exists.
example: An (ideal) iron-core transformer has a
primary winding of 500 turns and a secondary
winding of 3500 turns. If 115 volts a-c are applied
to the primary, what is the voltage across the sec-
ondary?
Solution: E, =^ X E„ = -^-^ X 115 = 7 X

Np 500
115 = 805 volts.
Equivalently, you might consider that the trans-

former has a step-up ratio of 500:3500 or 1:7; hence,
the secondary voltage is seven times as great as
the primary, or E3 =7X 115 = 805 volts.
If no energy is lost by leakage flux (and other
causes) the power output of an ideal transformer
must be the same as the power input to the pri-
mary winding. Hence, we can write
(since P = E X I)
which gives the clue to almost eliminat-

thickness, into a singletapped winding (see Fig. 119). The
ing them. By
dividing the core into a bundle of thin arrangement is called an autotransformer. Either
magnetic sheets, called laminations, eddy current step-up or step-down voltage ratios may be ob-
losses may be made negligible. Some transformers tained. The type illustrated in Fig. 119 is a step-
use suspensions of many small iron particles, known down transformer, since the input voltage
is ap-
as powdered iron, to achieve the same purpose. plied across the entire winding, serving as primary,
Unfortunately, eddy current losses are also propor- while the output voltage is taken from the portion
tional to the square of the frequency. It becomes of the winding included between one end and the
impossible, therefore, to use ordinary iron cores for tap. The autotransformer does not provide isolation
transformers used at radio frequencies, since the between primary and secondary circuits, but its
losses would be excessive. Radio-frequency trans- simplicity makes it economical and space-saving.
formers, for this reason, usually have air cores or In one type of autotransformer, knovim as Power-
sometimes very finely powdered iron cores. stat or Variac, tlie winding is arranged into circular
Eddy currents set up in large conductors moving form and the tap is made adjustable by rotating a
through a magnetic field are used to advantage as sliding contact along the winding. Almost continu-
"magnetic brakes" in certain instruments, such as ous control of the step-down or step-up ratio, and
the watt-hour meter. By Lenz's Law, the cturents hence of the output voltage, can be achieved in this
set up in the conductor oppose its motion through way.
the field and thus provide a braking effect.
The and iron losses in a
simi total of the copper
transformer prevent power output from equal-
its
ing the power supplied. The actual performance of

a transformer is measured by its efficiency, which
is defined as the ratio of power output (from the
secondary) to power input (to the primary). Actual

transformers realize eflBciencies of 90 to 98 per-
cent, the higher figure applying to large commercial
units. Because of the losses, the current ratio of an
actual transformer is not equal to the reciprocal of
the turns ratio, but must be multiplied by the efiB-
ciency of the transformer. The voltage ratio may

be assumed equal to the turns ratio, since the
copper losses usually may be neglected. Fig. 119. Schematic Diagram of Step-Down
Autotransformer
EXAMPLE: A 90-percent efficient transformer has
a primary wînding of 1000 turns, a secondary wind- Practice Exercise No. 10
ing of 200 turns, and an a-c voltage of 120 volts
1. State the three ways that Faraday found for in-
applied to the primary. If the primary supplies
creasing the magnitude of the induced current (and
a current of 2 amperes, what current will be avail- emf) when moving a magnet toward a coil connected to
able from the secondary vwnding? What is the a galvanometer. (See Fig. 100.)
secondary voltage? 2. What did the direction of the induced emf de-
Solution: For an ideal transformer, the secondary pend upon in Faraday's experiments?
3. State the two laws of induction based on Fara-
current would be I. = _J^ XL= X 2 = 10 day's generaUzations. Are they equivalent to each other?
N, 200 4. A wound with 20 turns of wire is placed hori-
coil
amps; For an efficiency of 90 percent, the ciurent zontally on a table and the north pole of a magnet is
actually dehvered by the secondary will be 0.9 X moved toward it. If the magnetic flux linking the coil
10 =9 amperes. The secondary voltage E, = changes from 2000 lines to 100,000 lines in 0.1 second,
what is the magnitude and direction of the average emf
200/1000 X 120 120/5 =24 volts. = induced in the coil?
The Autotransformer. In addition to the many 5. An emf of 6 volts is induced in a 200-cm long wire
applications of transformers in power distribution,
that is moved at a speed of 12 meters per second at
radio and electronics, one unconventional type of right angles across a uniform magnetic field. What is
transformer combines the primary and secondary the flux density?
6. A 30-cm long rod travels at a speed of 10 meters SUMMARY

per second across a magnetic field of 20,000 gauss. If
the rod makes an angle of 60° with the vertical per- Laws of Induction: 1. An electromotive force is
pendicular to the lines of flux (30° with the horizontal), induced in a coil of wire whenever the magnetic
what voltage wiU be induced between its ends? flux linking the coil is changing; the magnitude of
7. State Lenz's Law. On what law of nature is it the induced emf is proportional to the rate at which
based? the number of lines of force through the coil are
8. Can you predict the direction of the emf induced changing.
in the generator coil in Fig. 110 and the direction of 2. An emf is induced in any conductor that is
current flow through the load? Using both Lenz's Law cutting across lines of force; the magnitude of the
and the left-hand generator rule, do you obtain the
induced emf is proportional to the rate at which
same result?
hnes of force are being cut.
9. between a generator
State the essential difiFerence
and a motor; between a d-c and an a-c generator.
An emf of 1 volt is induced in a conductor or
10. Describe the evolution of a sine wave voltage single loop, when it cuts magnetic lines of force at
and current in an a-c generator. What happens to the the rate of 100,000,000 per second. For a coil of N
output waveform, when the slip rings are replaced by turns this emf is induced in each turn, and the
a commutator? total emf is the rate of change of flux (in webers)
11. What inductance? Distinguish between
12. Why is
is
inductance and mutual inductance.

there a spark when the circuit of a cur-
self-
times the number of turns. (E =N —
At
volts). If
rent-carrying coil suddenly opened? A<^

13. Why
is
does the current lag behind the voltage

the flux is given in gauss, the total emf E ^N
when a coil is first connected to d.c, or when it is con-
nected to a.c?
X 10-* volts.
When a conductor of length L moves across a

14. If a voltage of 30 volts is induced in one of two
mutually coupled coils, when the current in the other
magnetic field of flux density v and B at a velocity
is changing at the rate of 5 amperes per second, what making an angle B with the horizontal, the emf in-
is the mutual inductance? duced in the conductor is given by
15. Two coupled coils of 3 and 12 henrys self -induct- E = BvL sin e X lO"* volts
ance, respectively, have a mutual inductance of 4 Lenz's Law: When is set up by an
a current
henrys. What is the coefficient of coupling (k)? induced emf due to the motion of a closed-circuit
16. What is an induction coil? State the essential conductor, the direction of the current will be such
difference between an induction coil and a transformer. that its magnetic field will oppose the motion.
Which device is more efficient, in your opinion?
Left-Hand Generator Rule:
17. Describe the operation of a transformer and de-
velop the voltage and current relations for an ideal
Fore (Index) Finger Flux =
transformer.
Thumb Motion =
18. Two thin and two heavy wires protrude from the
Center (Middle) Finger =
Direction of Ciurent or
terminals of an unlabeled transformer. Which Emf.

pair of
wires is designed to carry the high voltage? An electric generator, consisting of an armature
19. A transformer steps down the 120-volt a-c supply coil rotating in a magnetic field and means for
voltage to 6 volts for the filaments of radio tubes. What connecting thecoil to an external circuit, converts
is the primary-to-secondary turns ratio? If the primary mechanical work into electric energy. An a-c gen-
has 1000 turns, how many turns are wotmd on the erator is provided with continuous slip rings, on
secondary? which the brushes ride, while a d-c generator has a
20. State the losses incurred in actual transformers.
spUt-segment commutator. An a-c generator nat-
Distinguish between copper and iron losses.
urally produces a sine-wave current or voltage,
21. What are eddy currents? How can they be re-
while a d-c generator produces a unidirectional emf
duced or eliminated?
or current (haU-sinewave).
22. Define the efficiency of a transformer. What effi-
ciency values are likely to be attained in practice? Self-inductance accounts for the production of a
23. If 120 volts are applied to the primary of an 85% counter emf in a coil that opposes the applied volt-
efficient transformer, the secondary voltage is 600 volts age. The greater the inductance, the greater the
and the secondary current is 0.17 ampere. What is the counter emf. Inductance opposes any change in the
primary current? cinrent, causing it to lag behind the voltage.
M
The counter emf induced in a coil is proportional connected to an a-c voltage, the secondary to a
to its inductance and to the rate of change of the load.
In an ideal transformer, the primary-to-secondary
current through the coil (E = —L — ). The self-
voltage ratio equals the (primary-to-secondary)
At
Inductance of a coil is 1 henry if a current change
turns ratio; and the primary-to-secondary current
ratio is equal to the reciprocal of the turns ratio.
of 1 ampere per second induces a counter emf of
J volt in the coU. Np
Mutual inductance exists between any two N.
coupled coils. The mutual inductance between two
coils is 1 henry, if a current change of 1 ampere/ A practical transformer has losses due to the
second in one coil induces an emf of 1 volt in resistance of its windings (copper loss),due to
the other coil. Magnitude of induced emf E = hysteresis and eddy currents (iron loss); as a result
Ai its efficiency (output/input) is less than 100 per-

— cent and its output current is reduced by the effi-
At
ciency.
The coefficient of coupling between two coils (k)
indicates the relative tightness of coupHng and
(I, = IpX^X efficiency).
determines the mutual inductance. (M k\/Li L2)' =
A transformer consists of a primary and a sec- An autotransformer combines the primary and
ondary coil linked by common magnetic flux secondary windings into a single, tapped winding,
through an iron-core or air core. The primary is at the expense of circuit isolation.
I
CHAPTER ELEVEN
ALTERNATING CURRENT FUNDAMENTALS

We have seen how the continuous rotation of the radius turn counterclockwise in the circle to
the armature coil in the magnetic field of the gen- simulate the actual rotation of the armatvue in an
erator natiu-ally generates an alternating voltage or a-c generator. The instantaneous emf (symbol e)
current (in closed circuit) that rises and falls in induced for any position of the armature cofl is
magnitude as a sine wave. We shall now consider then represented by the vertical projection of the
the fundamental relations and definitions that hold rotating radius, which is a line di-awn from the end
for sine- wave currents and voltages. Then, we shall of the radius perpendicular to the horizontal diam-
be ready to deal with alternating-current circuits- eter of the circle. The length of this perpendicular
containing inductance, capacitance, and resistance line (projection) at any time is, of course, equal to
—almost as readily as we solved d-c circuits by the sine of the angle the radius fomis with the
means of Ohm's Law. horizontal diameter (see Fig. 120).
To the right of the rotating radius in Fig. 120 we
have plotted the length of the vertical projection
A-C DEFINITIONS
against the counterclockwise angle of the radius
Remember that only the projection of the arma- with the horizontal diameter. Thus, when the rotat-
ture coil that cuts the flux vertically is responsible ing radius makes an angle of 30° with the hori-
for inducing an emf in the coil, and that this zontal (point 2), a horizontal line drawn from the
vertical projection varies as the sine of the angle intersection of the radius with its vertical projec-
of rotation (sin d). Let us now reconstruct the a-c tion to the 30°-ordinate of the waveform at right
sine wave once more by plotting the vertical projec- determines the height of the projection for 30°
tions of the long (flux cutting) sides of the armature rotation and, hence, the value of the voltage at that
coil against time or the number of degrees of one instant. Similarly, when the radius makes an angle
revolution. To
obtain a simplified picture, assume of 90° (point 4), tlie drawn to the
horizontal line
that the sides of the armature coil are represented 90° ordinate of the voltage waveform determines
by the length of the radius in the circle shown in the maximum value of the voltage (E„,) at that in-
Fig. 120 and that this length represents the maxi- stant, for 90° rotation. Evidently, as the radius
mum value (E„) of the alternating voltage. Let rotates, its vertical projection varies between maxi-
Fig. 120. Generation of Sine Wave Voltage by Rotating Radius
119
11
mum values of +E^ and —

E^, and generates the EXAMPLE 1: A coil rotates between the 2-pole
sine wave of voltage shown at right of Fig. 120. field ofan a-c generator at the rate of 3600 r.p.m.
After one complete rotation, or 1 cycle, the sine If the peak value of the induced emf is 220 volts
wave repeats itself during the next rotation, and and the peak value of the current through a load is
so on. The waveform of the instantaneous current 10 amperes, write the expressions for the instanta-
(i) in a closed circuit is, of course, exactly the same. neous values of the voltage and current at any time.
Cycle, Frequency and Period. We have seen that Solution: A speed of 3600 r.p.m. is equivalent to
during the time the armature coil rotates through 60 r.p.s.; the frequency, therefore, is 60 cycles per
360 degrees or one revolution, the output voltage second. Hence, the angular velocity (in radians)
goes through a complete cycle, consisting of a w= 27r f = 6.283 X 60 = 377.
positive alternation (the first 180 degrees) and a Thus, e = 220 sin 377
negative alternation (the second 180 degrees). Dur- and i= 10 sin 377
ing each alternation the voltage attains a maximum EXAMPLE 2: If the peak value of an a-c voltage is
value, also called the amplitude or peak voltage, 100 volts and its frequency is 400 cps, what are the
which is positive (-j-Em) during the positive alter- instantaneous values of the voltage 0.000625 sec,
nation and negative — E^)
during the negative
( 0.00125 sec, 0.001875 sec and 0.0025 seconds after
(second) alternation of each cycle. The time re- the generator is first turned on? (Assume that the
quired to complete one full cycle (two alternations) generator starts with zero voltage at zero time.)
is called the period, and the number of cycles com- Solution: e = E„, sin wt = 100 sin 2ir X 400 t =
pleted per second is called the frequency of the 100 sin SOOtt t
sine wave. Period (T) and frequency (/) are in- Hence, after 0.000625 sec: e = 100 sin 8007r X
versely related to each other; that is,frequency is .000625 =
100 sin 0.5u (rad) =
the reciprocal of the period (f = 1/T) and vice
versa. For example, if a coil rotates between two 100 sin— (rad) = 100 sin 90° = 100 volts.
2
poles of an electromagnet at a speed of 3600 revo-
after 0.00125 sec: e = 100 sin 8007r X .00125
lutions per minute, or 60 rev. per second, it will
generate A.C. at a frequency of 60 cycles per sec-
= 100 sin (rad) = 100 sin 180*
TT
ond (cps) and the period will be T ^ 1/f = 1/60

= 100 X = volts.
second. after 0.001875 sec: e = 100 sin 8007r X .001875
Angular Velocity. We have already developed = 100 sin 1.5^ (rad)

the mathematical expression for the instantaneous
value of the a-c sine wave voltage (e) in terms of
= 100 sin ~ (rad)
2
the peak value, E^, and the angle or rotation, 6, = 100 sin 270°
which is also known as the angular displacement: = 100 sin (-90°)
e = E^sm 6 = 100 X — 1 = —100 volts
where 6 is usually expressed in radians rather than Finally after 0.0025 sec (1/400 sec), or one full
in degrees. The angular displacement or angle of cycle:
rotation completed during a certain time (t)
(6) e = 100 sin 8007r X 0.0025 = 100 sin (rad) 2ir
depends, of coxu'se, on the angular velocity of rota- = 100 sin 360° = 100 sin 0° = 100 X
tion (symbol w). Thus, we may replace by the = volt
product of the angular velocity (w) and the time (t), The example shows that the a-c voltage oscillates
obtaining for the instantaneous a-c voltage between values of 0, 100, and 100 volts. —
e = E^ sin wt Effective (Root Mean-Square) Value of A.C.
and similarly, for the instantaneous value of the a-c Though an a-c sine wave makes a pretty picture,
current (in a closed circioit) its continuous oscillations make it somewhat diffi-
i = I^ sin wt cult to determine exactiy a particular value of the

Moreover, since each revolution comprises 2w voltage or current that can be said to be effective
radians (360 degrees =
2ir radians), the angular in an a-c circuit. Just which of the many possible
velocity in radians is simply 27r times the number instantaneous values of voltage or current would
of revolutions completed each second (i.e., the or should an electric meter read? The best way to
frequency) settle this question would be to define an effective
w= 2^ f = 6.283 f value of alternating current that would perform
1
work at exactly the same rate as an equal value of

direct current. This is what has been done
precisely FFEECTIVE
= 0.707 (m
and the only question is, just what is this effective VALUE
value of an a-c current or voltage?
The easiest way to compare the rates of work
(power) of an alternating current and a direct cur-
rent is to measure the relative heating effect, when
each flows through the same value of resistance.
MEAN OR t
Accordingly, we define the effective value of an al- I
>^ AVERAGE
ternating current as that a-c value which produces ^-f-
VALUE
heat at exactly the same rate as an equal amoimt of
direct current flowing through the same resistance.
In other words, an effective value of 1 ampere a.c. TIME-
will produce the same heat in a given resistor and
Fig. 121. Determining the Effective Value of an
! given time as 1 ampere d.c. Alternating Current
With this definition it is easy to compute the
effective value of an alternating current. We know E„ = 1.414 E
that heat production is proportional to the square and I„ =
1.414
of the ciurent for a given resistance (heating rate = where E and I are the effective values of the volt-
power := PR). So, let us square all the instantane- age and cmrent respectively. (Effective values are
ous values (ordinates) of an alternating- current sine usually stated without a subscript.)
wave, as illustrated in Fig. 121. Here the top graph example: When an effective a-c voltage of 115
shows a typical a-c sine wave of the instantaneous volts applied to a circuit, a peak value of 28.3 am-
is
current (i) against time, varying between peak peres current is observed to flow. What is the peak
values of ±In,- The bottom graph of Fig. 121, il- value of the voltage and the effective (rms) value
lustrates the squared sine wave obtained when all of the current?
the instantaneous values of the cxurent (i) in the Solution:
upper graph are squared and the corresponding i^ E„ = 1.414 E = 1.414 X 115 = 162.8 volts
values are then plotted against time. Note that the and I = 0.707 1^ = 0.707 X 28.3 = 20 amperes.
lower graph, because of the squaring process, has Average Value of A.C, When the value of an a-c
only positive values that oscillate between zero and voltage or ciurent is stated without specific desig-
I^,^ about a new axis. Since the cvirve varies uni- nation, the effective or rms value is always meant.
formly between these extreme values (0 and I„^), Occasionally the average value of an alternating
its average or mean value must be equal to ÎJ^ current or voltage is referred to; this does not mean
the effective (rms) value. Looking at the sine wave
i(i.e.,
O + I 5_ —
2
|I^2^ YVe now need only extract illustrated in Fig. 121 (top), it is evident that the
average value of an alternating cmrent over one
^the root of this mean-squared value (Î^^) to ob- complete cycle is zero, since the curve oscillates
tain the effective a-c value in accordance with our unfformly about the X-axis or zero. The average
definition. This value is frequently called the root- value, therefore, is always taken over one-haff of
mean-square or rms value. Thus, the effective, or a cycle (one alternation), can be demon-
and it
rms value (I) is strated mathematically that it equal to 0.636 of
is
the maximum value. Summarizing the relations be-
f 2 V2 1.414
: 0.707 1„
tween average (I^^ or E^,), peak (I„ or E J and ef-
fective or rms values (I or E):
Hence, for an a-c current:
I
I„ =
0.636 1^ =
0.9 1 (rms)
effective (rms) value I = 0.707 I„,;
and E,^ =
0.636 E„ =
0.9 E (rms)
and, similarly, for an a-c voltage: Phase, Phase Angle and Phase Difference. Up to
effective {rms) value E = 0.707 E^,. now we have assumed that the rotation of the arma-
If you want to determine the maximum values from ture coil through 360 geometrical degrees, or one
given effective values of the voltage or current, revolution, will always generate one cycle (360°) of
simply take the reciprocals of these relations. Thus, a-c voltage. Actually, this is only true for a two-pole
generator. In a four-pole generator, for example,

an armature rotation through only 180 geometrical
degrees will generate a complete a-c cycle, or 360
electrical degrees. Similarly, in a six-pole machine
'inf
only one-third or 120 geometrical degrees of arma-
ture rotation are required to generate a full a-c
cycle, or 360 electrical degrees. For this reason,
(«») lb)
the degree markings along the sine-wave axis of an Fig. 122. Phase Differences Between Sine Waves
a-c voltage or current always refer to electrical
rather than geometric degrees. They are the same form 2, it is said to lead wavefoi-m 2 in phase, in
only in the case of a two-pole generator. this case,by 90°. Equivalently, waveform 2 is said
The fraction of a cycle that has elapsed since an to lag waveform 1 by 90° or one-quarter cycle.
a-c voltage or current has passed a given reference Fig. 122b shows two sine waves of the same fre-
point—measured in electrical degrees— is also re- quency that are 180° or one-half cycle out of phase.
ferred to as the phase or phase angle of the voltage Here curve 1 rises in the positive direction from the
or current. The reference point, from which the 0° starting point, while curve 2 starts to go nega-
phase angle measmed, usually is the starting point

is tive at the same point. Measuring the phase differ-
of the voltage or current waveform, or zero electri- ence between the positive maximiun points, the
cal degrees. Thus, at the start of the a-c voltage in dotted curve (2) is seen to reach its maximum at the
Fig. 120 (point 1), the phase is zero. At point 2 the 270-degree marker, while the sohd ciurve (1) reaches
phase or phase angle is 30°, at point 3 it is 60°, at it at the 90-degree marker. The phase difference,
point 4 it is 90°, and so on throughout the com- therefore, is 270° —

90° or 180°. We could have
plete cycle until point 13, where the phase angle is measured the phase difference at any other two cor-
360° or 0°. When used in this way, the term phase responding points of the cycle, such as the starting
is significant only for a fraction of one cycle or one points, with the same result; it does not matter
complete cycle. The phase repeats during each where the phase is measured. Also, in this particu-
cycle. lar case, where the sine waves are 180° (one-half
The term phase angle or phase difference is more cycle) out of phase, either wave may be considered
commonly used to compare two a-c voltages, cur- leading or lagging. Cvuve 2 is always positive when
rents, or a voltage and a current of the same fre- curve J is negative, and vice versa.
quency that pass through zero values at different
instants. Since, with the frequency the same, USE OF VECTORS
each a-c cycle occupies exactly the same amount of The portion of the world aroxmd us that is con-
time, the phase difference between two such volt- trollable is quantitative. Quantities permit calcula-
ages or currents (or a voltage and a current) is con- tion and manipulations, and thus control. Not all
veniently expressed in fractions of a cycle or elec- quantities can be expressed as a single number ot
trical degrees, time being implied in either case. magnitude; some have both magnitude and direc-
Thus, waveform J (sohd line) in Fig. 122a repre- tion. Quantities that have magnitude only are called
sents some a-c voltage or current and waveform 2 scalar and those that have both magnitude and
(dotted Mae) represents another voltage or ciurent direction are called vector quantities. There is an
of the same frequency that passes tlu-ough zero at abundance of both types of quantities, though you
different instants than waveform J and, hence, is may not have been aware of it. Length, height and
said to be out of phase with At the 0° reference
it. width, for example, are scalar quantities, since one
point waveform 1 has a value of zero, while wave- number is sufficient to specffy any one of them.
form 2 is at its negative maximum at this instant Force and velocity in contrast, are vector quanti-
and does not reach zero until the 90° point on the ties, since they have both magnitude and direction.
axis. At this point, however, waveform 1 has already If two people pull a load with the same magnitude
reached its positive maximum value. Clearly, wave- of force, they may not be helping each other much,
form 1 is out of phase with waveform 2 by one- unless they pull in similar directions. If tliey pull
quarter cycle or 90°. Moreover, since waveform 1 in opposite du-ections the magnitude of their forces,
reaches corresponding points of the cycle (such as obviously, will cancel out, as you know from rope
maximum and minimum points) earlier than wave- pulling contests. The speed (a scalar) of a car may
be 60 m.p.h., but to know its velocity (a vector) tion, which he would like to reach. The length of
you must specify in which direction the car is go- the line (3 inches), on a scale of 1 inch per mile,
ing at 60 m.p.h. Given a starting point and the represents the fact that the desired place is 3 miles
velocity— say 60 m.p.h. in a north-easterly direc- away from the observer. The direction of the line
tion—you can teU just where the car will be at any (north-west on the page) indicates that the place is
time. north-west from his present position.

Calculations in electricity involve both scalar
and vector quantities. Potential or voltage, for ex-
ample, is a scalar quantity. If the emf of a source
y"
is specified as 220 volts, you do not ask in which
direction the voltage is going. In contrast, electro-
static or magnetic forces are vector quantities. If
two charges exert a force of 2000 dynes upon each
other, you will not know what is happening imless
the direction of the force is specified. You must
know whether the charges are repelling or attract-
ing each other and whether they tend to move up,
down, or sideways. You can think of many more
examples for yourself.
The reason we have not mentioned the difference
between scalars and vectors before is that we have
been dealing primarily with scalar quantities, which
can be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided just
Uke ordinary numbers. Our present interest in vec-
tors is due to the fact that most a-c quantities in-
volve both magnitude and a phase angle (direction)
and hence are best represented by vector quanti-
ties. For example, the 90-degree phase difference
between the two sine waves in Fig. 122a can be

represented by two straight lines making a right
angle (90°) with each other, and the 180° phase dif-
ference in Fig. 122b by two hnes going in opposite
directions. This is a typical application of vectors
to A.C. and it is much simpler than drawing the
cmves of Fig. 122. We shaU have more to say about
this later.
Vector Representation. A vector quantity is gen-

erally represented by a straight line that is pointed
in a specific direction. The length of the line de-
notes the magnitude of the vector quantity and its
orientation with respect to some base or reference
line denotes the direction of the vector quantity.
Fig. 123 illustrates some typical vector representa-
tions. The general appearance of a vector is shown
in (a) of the figure. Here the length of the line seg-
ment OA represents the magnitude of some vector
quantity, while its angular orientation and the ar-
row point (to the right) stands for the direction of
the vector quantity. Fig. 123ti shows the represen-
by means of a vec-
tation of geographical location
tor.Here point O marks the position of an observer
(on a map) and point X represents a certain loca-
tor. Here we have frozen the rotation of the vector 122&, sine wave 2 is at its negative maximum oi
at successive instants of time in 30° intervals. In 270° point at this instant and, hence, is represented
general, all vector diagrams of a-c sine waves as- (in Fig. 123d) by vector 2, which has rotated
sume that the rotating vectors (representing the through 270° from its horizontal reference line. In
sine waves) are frozen at some instant of time. For general, we are more interested in the phase dif-
example, the vector diagram of the two 90° out-of- ference between two a-c quantities than in the in-
phase sine waves in Fig. 122c assumes that the stant of time picked to compare their phase. But
phase of the two waves is compared at the particu- it helps to keep these facts in mind.
lar instant of time when wave 1 is passing through Vector Addition. Vectors, having magnitude and
zero, while wave 2 is at its negative maximum or direction, are not as easily dealt with as ordinary
270°. (See also Fig. 122a.) When wave 1 is passing numbers. In vector algebra a nimiber of method
through zero, its vector representation is a hori- are available for calculating with vector quantities;
zontal line to the right, which is the conventional and, particxdarly, the algebra of complex numbers
starting point or reference line of a counterclock- offers a rapid and relatively simple method for
wise rotating a-c vector. (It also corresponds to the handling a-c vectors. These methods are somewhat
horizontal orientation of the rotating radius in Fig. too advanced for our simplified treatment here and
120 at the start of the cycle, or 0°.) But since wave we shall confine ourselves to a graphic explanation
2 (in Figs. 122a and 123c) is at this instant at its of vector addition and subtraction. In the case of
negative maximum, having completed 270 degrees rectangular vectors (vectors at right angles) a simple
of the a-c cycle, it is represented by a vector that numerical treatment is available, which we shall
has rotated counterclockwise (from the horizontal also describe.
reference line) through 270° and, hence, points Vector "addition" has nothing to do with arith-
straight down in the page. Fig. 124 should help to metic, but refers to the combination of two or more
clarify the concept of the rotating vector for repre- vectors to find their resultant, which is also a vector.
senting an alternating-current waveform. Here the As an example, assume a man is rowing a boat
vector, rotating in a counterclockwise direction downstream with a velocity of 4 miles per hour and
has been frozen in four positions, at one-quarter in a direction parallel to the river banks, as illus-
cycle or 90° intervals and, hence, represents the trated in Fig. 125a. Assume further that a cross-
sine wave at right at these instants during the cycle. wind of 3 miles per horn- pushing the boat hori-
is
zontally across the river towards the opposite bank.

*<:;^^
VELOCITY or BOJff
WITH RESPCCT
TO GAOUND
ROTATING VECTOR SINE WAVE
Fig. 124. The Counterclockwise Rotating Vector (at left)

Represents the A-C Sine Wave (at Right) at 90-Degree
Intervals
Fig. 123d is another example that an a-c vector

Fig. 125. Vector Addition of Two Velocities; (a), (b), (c)
diagram can represent the actual waveforms only
at a particular instant of time, with the rotating To find the actual motion of the boat, which is
vectors frozen in position. We could have repre- the resultant of these two motions, lay off to scale
sented the 180-degree phase difference between the the velocity of the row boat in the absence of cross-
two waves by any two lines drawn in opposite di- wind as the vector OY (The velocity
in Fig. 125i>.
rections. The fact that we have drawn vector 1 of 4 m.p.h. may be represented by 4 inches, 4 cms,
(representing sine wave 1 in Fig. 122&) straight up or 4 squares of the graph paper, etc.) Then lay off
and vector 2 (representing sine wave 2) straight vector OX at right angles to OY, to represent the
down indicates thatwe are comparing the phase velocity of the boat under the influence of the cross
at the instant of time when sine wave 1 reaches its wind The two
alone. vectors are "added" by com-
positive maximum or 90° point. As shown in Fig. pleting the parallelogram OXYZ and drawing the
diagonal, OZ, which represents the resultant or vec- ages are applied to an a-c circuit, what is the re-
tor sum of both vectorsand shows the actual motion sultant voltage acting in the circuit? To answer this
of the boat. If you measure the length of the result- question we must find the vector sum.
ant OZ on the same scale as the two component Let us obtain the vector sum of the three voltages
vectors, you will find that it corresponds to a ve- first by the parallelogram method, illustrated in
locity of 5 m.p.h. Measuring the angle between the Fig. 126fc and c. To do this, you have to proceed
resultant and the horizontal vector OX with a pro- one step at a time, finding the resultant of any two
tractor, it vdll turn out to be 53.2°. The actual mo- vectors. In (b) of Fig. 126 the parallelogram for
tion of the boat, thus, is 5 m.p.h. cross stream at an vectors V^ +
V, has been completed and the re-
angle of 53.2° with the horizontal (or 90° 53.2° — sultant, Vj„ is represented by the diagonal, as
= 36.8° with respect to the dov/nstream direction). shown. does not matter in which order the vec-
(It
Although it may not appear to make much dif- tors are added; Vj and V, could have first been
ference, you can obtain the same result without combined equally well.) We do not care to ascer-
bothering to complete the parallelogram. Simply lay tain the magnitude and direction of V^,, since it
off vector OX, without changing its magnitude or represents only an intermediate result. Next we add
direction, next to vector OY so that its rear end (O) vector V, to the resultant (Vj,) of vectors Vj and V„
coincides with the arrow point (Y) of vector OY. as illustrated in (c). Completing the parallelogram
(See Fig. 125c.) A Hne drawn from O to Z, then rep- of these two vectors and drawing the diagonal, we
resents the resultant OZ. This toe-to-tip method of obtain the resultant, Vjg,, which represents the vec-
vector addition is considerably faster than the par- tor sum of Vj +
Vj -f- V'j. Measuring the length of
allelogram method when more than two vectors are this resultant on the scale of the graph paper (i.e.,
involved. the number of squares), we find the magnitude of
As another example consider the vector addition the resultant a-c voltage V^g, to be about 272 volts.
of three a-c voltages that are 45 degrees out of With a protractor we determine the angle Vjj,
phase with each other. (Fig. 126.) Voltage Vj, which forms with the horizontal reference hne (or V,) to
is 200 volts, is represented by horizontal vector OVj be about 30 degrees. The resultant voltage Vj,,,
in Fig. 126a. Voltage Vj, 50 volts in magnitude, is thus, is 272 volts in magnitude and it leads voltage
represented by vector OV„ and leads V^ by a phase Vj by a phase angle of 30°, lags voltage V, by an
angle of 45°. Voltage V„ 100 volts in magnitude, is angle of 45° - 30° =
15°, and lags V, by 90° —
represented by vector OV„ leading Vj by an angle 30° = 60°.
of 45° or Vj by an angle of 90°. If these three volt- Part (d) of Fig. 126 shows how this same result
.V*
lOOV
"^^Vz
2m Vi
» (OV, + Vi+V,
METHOD 1
(d)V. + V1 + V3 (METHOD 2)
Fig. 126. Vector Addition of Three A-C Voltages

can be obtained much quicker by the toe-to-tip

method. Here we have laid off vector Vj end on to
V„ and vector V, at the arrow point of Vj. Connect-
ing the origin (O) to the arrow point of V,, we get
the resultant immediately.
Vector Subtraction. Two vectors may be "sub-
b«4
tracted" from each other by reversing the vector to
be subtracted and then adding this reversed vector
to the first. For example, in Fig. 127a vector OA is
to be subtracted from vector OB. To do this, simply
reverse vector OA and add —
OA to OB by the V,
parallelogram method. The resultant vector, OC,
J. _ =>L33S
represents the vector difference OB minus OA. »"°
3
9 = 53'y=ai3*
Fig. 128. Finding the Resultant of Two Rectangular
Vectors
To find the length (magnitude) of the resultant

vector,we employ the Pythagorean theorem. Ac-
cording to this theorem, the square of the hypote-
nuse equals the sum of the squares of the two sides.
If the sides of the triangle are a and b, respectively,
Fig. 127. Vector Subtraction and the hypotenuse is labeled c, this may be ex-
pressed:
In contrast, if vector OB is to be subtracted from c2 = a2 -{- b2
vector OA (b. Fig. 127), OB is reversed and then Extracting the square root of both sides of the
—OB is added OA. The diagonal of the new
to equation, we obtain for the length of the hypote-
parallelogram, OC,
is the resultant and represents nuse of a right triangle:
the vector difference OA minus OB. If more than c = Va^ + b^
two vectors are to be subtracted from each other, Applying this result to om: example (Fig. 128), we
you can do this step by step, taking the vector determine the length of the resultant (hypotenuse)
difference of two vectors at a time. You might find
c = V3^+ 4^ = V9^+ 16 = \/25 = 5 units
the toe-to-tip method of adding the reversed vec-
The resultant, thus, is 5 units long, as in Fig. 125b
tors more convenient in this case.
and c. (This, by the way, is known as 3-4-5 triangle;
Finding the Resultant of Two Rectangular Vec-
whenever you find two sides of a right triangle re-
tors. In most a-c impedance calculations it is re-
lated as 3:4, the hypotenuse will be 5 in propor-
quired to find the resultant of two vectors at right
tion. Examples: 6-8-10, 12-16-20, etc.)
angles (representing inductive or capacitive react-
To between the resultant and the
find the angle
ances and resistance). You might find it incon-
horizontal vector (V,), we use an elementary rela-
venient to go around with a ruler and protractor
tion from trigonometry. You wiU recall that the
to find the resultant in these cases. Fortunately,
ratio of the side opposite from one of the acute
there is a simple numerical method available for
angles in a right triangle to the side adjoining the
adding two rectangular vectors, based on the Py-
angle defines the tangent of this angle. Using the
thagorean theorem and a bit of trigonometry.
same labeling as before, the tangent of the angle B,
Fig. 128a shows two vectors at right angles, three
hence, is
and four units in length, respectively. You will
recognize this as the same problem as that of the tane — b-
rowboat, illustrated in Fig. 125. In (b) of Fig. 128 a
we have laid the two vectors toe-to-tip and have Again, applying this result to our example, we
completed the right triangle by dravdng in the find the tangent of the angle included between the
hypotenuse (long side). This hypotenuse, obviously, resultant and the horizontal vector
Is the resultant of the two vectors, corresponding to
vector OZ in Fig. 125fo and

tan fl = 1 = 1.333
c. 3
1
You can find the angle corresponding to this tan- ous graphical solutions of the problem depending
gent in any book of tables of the trigonomeb-ic on the angle between the components.
functions. The angle turns out to be 53.13° Fortunately, most a-c problems require that a
(53°8'), or approximately the same as we found given resultant (such as impedance) be resolved into
graphically in Fig. 125b. two component vectors at right angles (such as re-
Resolving the Resultant into Two Rectangular actance and resistance). For two rectangular com-
Component Vectors. Let us now look for a moment ponent vectors, the problem is not only solved
at the reverseproblem: given the resultant or vector quickly by graphical means, as shown in Fig. 129c,
sum of two vectors, can we find the component vec- but also lends itself to a simple numerical method.
tors that add up to the given resultant? This prob- In Fig. 129a the resultant (side c of a vector tri-
lem might arise, for instance, when the motion of angle) has a length of 13 units and it is inclined at
an object is known to be caused by two forces and an angle of 22.6° (22°35') with respect to the hori-
it is desired to find the magnitude
and direction of zontal of the page. You will recall from elementary
these component forces. trigonometry that the ratio of the side adjacent (a)
Fig. 129 shows the vector representation of this to this angle to the hypotenuse (c) defines the cosine
problem. All we have is the magnitude and direc- of the included angle (6) and the ratio of the op-
tion of the resultant vector, as illustrated in (a). posite side (b) to the hypotenuse defines the sine
Since the resultant represents the vector sum of of the included angle 0. Hence, we can write
two component vectors, we know immediately that
it must be the hypotenuse (long side) of a triangle,
— = cos
a.
c
0,
„
or a = c cos 6;
,
also —b =
c
sin ^,
whose short sides are made up by the two com- or b = c sin ^

ponent vectors. This does not solve the problem,
however, since we
can draw any number of tri-
In our example, the resultant c 13 units and =
angles with the same hypotenuse (resultant), as il-
6 =
22.6°. Thus, the horizontal vector V^ (side a) =
lustrated in Fig. 129b. To resolve the resultant into
13 cos 22.6° 13 =
0.9233 X =
12 units and the ver-
tical vector Vj (side b) = 13
sin 22.6° 13 X =
component vectors, we must know the angle be-
its
tween the component vectors, so that their relative

0.384 = 5 units. (The values of sine and cosine are
from tables.)
directions are fixed. Given the resultant and the
angle at which the components are acting, only Practice Exercise No. II
one vector triangle may be drawTi with two definite 1. Define the following terms: alternation, cycle,
component vectors. The dotted triangles of Fig. frequency period, amplitude, peak voltage or current,
129b all have tlie same resultant and represent vari- angular velocity.
(a) How many radians are there in 360 "electri-
2.
cal" degrees? (b) the following readings were taken

from the time scales (X-axis) of various sine waves:
180°, V4
radians, 360°, 4^ radians, 30°, n/S rad.,
720°, 2,r/3 rad., 270°, 3^2 radians. Translate these
values into cycles or fractions of a cycle.
3. A 2-pole generator rotates at 3000 rpm and pro-
(a) GIVEN RESULTANT duces a peak sine voltage of 115 volts a.c. What is the
frequency? Also, write the expression for the instan-
taneous voltage at any time.
(b) RESOLUTION INTO TWO VECTORS
AT VARIOUS ANGLES
4. The peak value of a 25-cycle alternating current
is 30 amps, (a) What is the eflFective value of this cur-
rent; (b) what is its instantaneous value 0.002 sec.
after passing through zero
(in a positive direction)?
5. Distinguish between peak (maximum), elective
(rms) and the average value of an alternating current
= 5UNIIS and give the mathematical relationships.
» = 13C0J 22.6° = 12 UNITS V, 6. An a-c ammeter reads 22 amps (rms) current
through a load and a voltmeter reads 385 volts (rms)
(c) RESOLUTION INTO TWO drop across the load. What are (a) the peak values and
RECTANGULAR VECTORS (b) the average values of the alternating current and
Fig. 129. Resolving a Resultant into Component Vectors voltage?
7. Sine wave 1 leads sine wave 2 by a phase angle = 0.707 I„; I„ = 0.636 I„ = 0.9 I,„.
I,„,
of 60° and lags sine wave 3 by 130°; what is the angle = 0.707 E„; E,, = 0.636 E^ = 0.9 E,„.
E,„,
between wave 2 and wave 3? Which is leading?
and I„ = 1.414 I_ = 1.57 „ I I
8. Distinguish between scalar and vector quantities.

E„ = 1.414 E,„3 = 1.57 E,,
Can you add and subtract vectors like scalar quantities?
9. An airplane flying due north at 360 mph is sub-
The phase angle of an a-c voltage or current is tl
jected to a cross wind due west of 150 miles per hour. fraction of the cycle that has elapsed from the (zen
Draw a vector diagram to represent the situation and starting point, measured in electrical degrees t
determine the resultant velocity of the airplane rela- radians. Relative phase, phase angle or phase difiFe
tive to the ground. ence (in fractions of a cycle or electrical degree
10. Vector A is 200 units long and forms a right are also used to compare two a-c voltages, cturent
angle with vector B, which is 150 units long, (a) What
or a voltage and a current of the same frequenc
is the length of the resultant of the vector sum A -f- B
that pass through their respective zero values at di
and what angle does it make with vector B? (b) Draw ferent instants of time.
diagrams of the vector differences A — B and B — A.
Is the magnitude of the resultant the same for vector
A vector quantity, having both magnitude and d
subtraction as for vector addition in this case? rection, may be represented by a straight-line se;
11. The impedance of an a-c circuit is 500 ohms

total ment, whose length denotes the magnitude of ti:
and has a phase angle of 30 degrees with respect to the vector and whose orientation with respect to a ref e
horizontal (representing the apphed voltage). If the ence line denotes the direction of the vector quai
impedance represents the vector sum of a vertical re- tity.
actance vector and a horizontal resistance vector, find The current and voltage variations in an a
the values of the reactance and the resistance in the
generatormay be represented by rotating vector
circuit.
whose instantaneous positions represent the magn
tude and phase of the current or voltage at thi
SUMMARY moment. A-C vector diagrams are rotating vectoi
One a-c sine-wave cycle, consisting of a positive frozen in time.
and a negative alternation, contains 360 electrical Two more vectors may be added successive]
or
degrees or Iw radians. by completing the parallelogram of any two vecto)
The maximum value or crest of each sine-wave and drawing in the diagonal, representing the n
alternation, called its amplitude, determines the sultant or vectorsum; they may also be added b
peak value of voltage or current. placing the vectors toe to tip and drawing th
The nimiber of cycles completed per second (cps) resultant from the starting point of the first vectc
is called the frequency of the sine wave, and the to the end point of the last vector. The resultant (
time required to complete one full cycle is the two rectanguJar vectors equal to the square ro(
is
period of the wave. (T 1/f f = ; = 1/T.) of the sum of the squares of the two componei
Angular velocity (in radians) is 2nr times fre-
vectors: (c y/a.' = +
b^). The ratio of the two ve<
quency (w =
2irf). The product of angular velocity
torsdetermines the tangent of the acute angle b(
and time (vvi:) equals the angular displacement,
tween the resultant and one of the adjacent vectoi
angle of rotation, or phase angle (6) of the sine
wave. (tan 0z=±).
The
instantaneous values of a sinusoidal alter- b
nating current (i) or voltage (e) may be represented One vector may be subtracted from another b
by the relations reversing its direction and then adding it to th
i= I^ sin ^ = sin wt !„,
other vector. The vector difference between moi
and e = E„ sin ^ = E„, sin wt than two vectors is foimd in the same way, by sul
where I„ and E^ are the peak values of the current tracting one vector at the time.
and voltage, ^ =
vvi: is the angular displace- A resultant vector of given length, c, and angle
ment (phase angle), w = 27rf is the angidar with respect to the horizontal reference line may b
velocity, t = time, and f = frequency. resolved into two rectangvdar component vector
The relations between the eflEective (root-mean- a and b, by the relations:
square), peak and average values of an alternating horizontal vector, a = c cos tf
cuirent and voltage are:

J vertical vector, h := c sin 6
CHAPTER TWELVE
ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

Did you ever confront an unfamiliar power outlet connecting an ammeter in series with the resistors,
and wonder whether it supplied a.c. or d.c.? There asshown in Fig. 130a. If now, in accordance with
is nothing in the nature of the current flowing Ohm's Law, you divide the voltage reading by the
through the light bulbs in the room that would tell current reading, you will obtain the value of the
whether they were powered by a.c. or d.c. If you resistance or resistors you have selected (R = E/I).
plugged in your electric shaver, it would certainly This is true regardless of whether the supply is a.c.
work, since it is designed to operate on either a.c. or or d.c. Hence, a resistance alone cannot teU you
i.e. you should happen to touch both exposed
If whether you have alternating or direct current.
poles of the power outlet, you would get a very un-
A.C.0RD.C.7
pleasant shock, whether it was a.c. or d.c, and we
jti'ongly advise against this useless, dangerous, and
possibly lethal test. Just what can you do to solve
his riddle?
There are several tests you can perform to check
he type of current supply, provided you did some
jhopping first. Probably the simplest is a chemical
;est with litmus paper. If the positive pole of a d-c

iupply touched to wet litmus paper, the paper
is
Will if you get a red reaction from

turn red. Thus,
9ne of the poles, you have d.c; if not, the supply is
RESISTORS
li.c. Another relatively simple test would be with a
(1000-2000 ohms)
keon glow bulb (which is available everywhere in A.C.ORD.C.?
'he form of translucent plastic plugs, and which t=0FORD.a

lerves as a night light). When plugged into a d-c
iupply only one of the poles (the negative electrode)
vill glow with a characteristic orange light; when AMMETER
jlugged into a.c, in contrast, both electrodes will
^low. If you run into this problem often, it may be
liandy to have a neon test light with you at all
imes.
you are scientifically-minded, the simple tests
If
vith litmuspaper or a neon bulb will probably not
atisfy you and you will want to investigate the
)ehavior of the current supply in an actual circuit.
To do this you should get a hold of an ac-dc volt- A.C.ORD.C.?
jnmeter (or separate meters), several resistors of

'arious values, afew capacitors and an inductor in
he form of a choke coil or transformer. Now you're
eady to experiment (See Fig. 130.)
You can start by hooking several resistors to-
;ether or selecting one sufficiently large and with
ufficient power rating to be safely connected across INDUCTANCE
100-200 volt power line. With the voltmeter, you RESISTOR
CHOKE
irst measure the apphed voltage by connecting the (1000 ohms)

(5 henry's)
aeter directly across the line. Then you measure

Fig. 130. A-C and D-C Behavior of Resistance, Capacitance
be current through the simple resistive circuit, by and Inductance, (a), (b), and (c)
129
I
130 Electricity Made Simph
Next, you're ready to try a capacitor. You can bined behavior in a-c circuits. To do this we have
connect it in series with a resistor to limit the cur- to make use of an abstraction— so-called "pure
rent or directly across the line, if its voltage rating components. By assuming "pure" resistors, in-
exceeds that of the power source (See Fig. 130&.) ductors, and capacitors we shall be able to analyze
The voltmeter wdll read exactly the same apphed dieir a-c behavior separately. Let us say at the out-
voltage as before. The ammeter, connected in series set that this procedm-e is at best an approximation.
with the capacitor, may indicate a certain current There are no pure components. A vidre-wound re-
reading or it read nothing at all. If it reads
may sistor, for example, not only has a certain resistance,
nothing at all, the capacitor is connected to a d-c but also a certain inductance, which depends on the
source; if a current is indicated, the capacitor is length of the wire, the number of turns, etc.; and
connected to an a-c source. A capacitor thus pre- in addition a certain capacitance, which depends on
sents an open circuit to direct current, as we should the spacing between turns, the number of turns, the
have expected. Since the plates of a capacitor are "dielectric" (insulating material) and other factors.
not connected to each other, no direct current Similarly, any inductance coil wound of wire not
should flow after the initial brief charging pulse. only has inductance, but also the total resistance of
How and how much alternating current flows its winding and a certain capacitance between in-
"through" a capacitor we shall see later. dividual turns. Even a capacitor, which almost at-
Finally, you can try out the inductance coil (See tains the ideal of "purity" has the resistance and
Fig. 130c.) You had better connect it in series with inductance of its terminal leads and, moreover, (be-
the resistors used in Fig. 130a to prevent the coil cause of its imperfect dielectric) behaves as if a
from burning out in case the power supply is d.c. high resistance were shunted across it through
If you now measure the applied voltage and the which the charge on its plates slowly "leaks off."
current through the circuit, as before, and take the At high a-c frequencies, particularly, many re-
ratio of the voltage to the current reading, you will sistors begin to "look Uke" and behave like induct-
get either of two possible results. The ratio of E/I ance coils, coils start to behave like capacitors, and
may be equal to the total resistance of the circuit, capacitors hke coils. By special tricks, such as wind-
which includes the resistors and the winding resist- ing a resistor "non-inductively" (by doubling up the
ance of the coil. If that is the case, the supply is winding so that the current flows in opposite direc-
d.c, since for an unchanging current, the magnetic tionsthrough adjacent turns), the components may
field through the coil is constant and no counter be made fairly pure even at high frequencies. At
emf induced, except for the brief instant when
is
the low a-c power frequencies we shall be con-
the field is first established. With only the winding cerned with (50 or 60 cycles in most countries), we
may neglect tiiese "impurities" v^dth very little error.
resistance of the coil opposing the apphed voltage,
you can easily see that an inductance coil will burn
when connected directly across a d-c supply. If,
out
much greater
RESISTANCE IN AC CIRCUITS
on tlie other hand, the ratio of E/I is
average resistor cares httle

than that due to the resistance alone, the total op- Fortunately, the
ciurent circidates
position to current flow (called the impedance) is whether direct or alternating
partially due emf induced in the in-

to the counter through it. Except at high frequencies (above many
ductance coH, and the supply must be alternating thousands of cycles), the a-c resistance of a given
current. conductor or resistor is the same as its d-c resist-
ance. Thus, if a resistor of a given value R is con-
nected either to a d-c or a-c voltage E, the current
A-C CIRCUIT COMPONENTS immediately assumes the value E/R, predicted by
As suggested by the problem we have just de- Ohm's Law. For a.c. usually the effective (rms)
value of the voltage (E) is stated, in which case the
scribed, the behavior of alternating-current circuits
differs considerably from d-c circuits— coils and ca- application of Ohm's Law will give the effective
pacitors, particularly, responding in radically differ- (rms) value of the current (I = E/R). If we plot the
ent ways to varying currents. Let us now explore relationship between a sine-wave a-c voltage (E)
the a-c behavior of akeady famihar components- applied to a resistor and the resulting current (I)
resistors,inductors (coils) and capacitors— one by through it, we obtain the waveform illustrated in
one, before going into their more compHcated com- Fig. 131. The voltage 3nd ourrent are in phase, go-
ing through their respective maxima and minima to- 0.707 X 170 = 120 volts, or the same as the d-c
gether, and the ratio of their magnitudes (E/I) at
E
any point is equal to the resistance. voltage. Hence the (rms) current is again I == —
R
120
= = 2 amperes. The power consmned
P = E X I = 120 X 2 = 240 watts;
or P = P R = (2)2 X 60 = 4 X 60 = 240 watts;
or P = EVR = (120)760 = 14400/60 = 240 watts.
Skin Effect. Although the d-c and a-c resistance
of conductors is the same at low (power) fre-
quencies, this is no longer true at frequencies in the
order of thousands of millions of cycles. At these
frequencies the current has a tendency to flow near
the surface of a conductor, a phenomenon known as
the skin effect. Because of the skin effect, a high-
frequency current does not make use of the com-
plete cross section of a conductor, but only of a
small portion of it (the "skin"), and the a-c resistance
goes up proportionately. The greater the diameter
-«-i of a conductor, the more pronoxmced is the skin et-
fect; that is, the less of the conductor's cross section
is utilized. The skin effect and, hence, the a-c re-
Fig. 131. Waveforms of Current, Voltage and Power in sistance, also goesup as the square root of the fre-
A-C Circuit Containing Pure Resistance quency; as a consequence, very httle of the cross
section of a conductor is utilized at extremely high
The power consumed in a resistive a-c circuit is frequencies. This has led to the use of tubular con-
simply the product of the effective values of voltage ductors at very high frequencies to ehminate the
and ciurent (P = E X I), or the square of the cur- imnecessary central portion of the conductor. In
rent times the resistance (P = P R), or the square of addition, high-frequency conductors for important
applications (radar, for example) are frequently
the voltage divided by the resistance (P = E^
— ), just silver-plated on the outside to reduce the resistance
R
of the surface layer.
'
power graph
as for d.c. Fig. 131 also illustrates the
As an example, let us see what happens to the re-
of a resistive a-c circuit, obtainedby multiplying
sistance of 1000 feet of No. 10 copper wire, as the
together the instantaneous voltage (E) and current
frequency of an alternating current goes up. You
i(Z) (ordinates) at points along Ae time axis. The
will recall that No. 10 copper wire has a diameter
*
shape of this cvuve is a sine-square (sin^) wave, with
of about 0.1 in. (0.102 in. exactly) and 1000 feet of
',both half-cycles positive, as we have already seen
it have a d-c resistance of about 1 ohm. If an al-
(See Fig. 121.) The positive half -cycles of the power
ternating current with a frequency of 10 kilocycles
graph indicate that power is consumed at all times
(10,000 cps) is passed through the wire, it will
in a resistive a-c circuit.
penetrate the conductor only to a depth of about
example: An ammeter indicates a cirrrent of 2
amperes through a resistor that is connected to 120
0.03 in. (30 mils) and the resistance of 1000 feet will
increase to about 1.25 ohms. If the frequency of the
volts d.c. The resistor is then connected to an a-c
current is increased to 1 megacycle (1,000,000 cps),
voltage with a peak value of 170 volts. What is the
the current will penetrate the wire to a depth of
a-c current through the resistor and the power con-
only about 0.003 in. (3 mils) and the resistance goes
sumed in the resistance?
up to about 10 ohms per 1000 feet. Finally, increas-
Solution: The d-c or a-c resistance R =—= ing the frequency to a 100 mc (10* cps) will de-
I 2 crease the "skin depth" to about 0.0003 in. (0.3 mil)
= 60 ohms. and increase the resistance of 1000 feet of wire to
The rms (effective) value of the a-c voltage = about 98 ohms.
.
INDUCTANCE IN AC CIRCUITS filtering appHcations at low frequencies, and a vari-

ety of air-core inductors, used in electronic applica-
Wehave already discussed the property of in-
tions at high (radio) frequencies. Fig. 132a and b
ductance in conductors and coils which by pro-
shows two typical iron-core chokes; the choke in (a)
ducing a counter emf opposes any change in the
is completely enclosed by a metal housing, which
current flowing through the inductor. We have
acts as a shield for the magnetic field. This type is
also seen that the magnitude of this counter emf is
hardly distinguishable from an iron-core trans-
equal to the product of the inductance and the rate
former without an investigation of the lead arrange-
of change of the current through the coil (E = ment. A low-loss, self-supporting air-core coil, such
—L — ). Up to now we have considered inductance as may be found in short-wave radios, is illustrated
At in Fig. 132c. Another low-loss type is the single-layer

primarily in connection with direct or slowly vary- air-core coil wound on a ribbed frame (d), used
ing currents. The real importance of inductors, how- primarily in radio transmitters. Fig. 132e, f and g
ever, lies in their application to a-c circuits. illustrate the multi-layer radio-frequency coils used
A typical assortment of inductors for a-c circuits in tuned circuits and as r-f chokes in radios and
is illustrated in Fig. 132. The construction and de- television sets. In addition to these fixed inductors,
sign of an inductor depends, of course, on the ap- there are variable radio-frequency inductors whose
plication. We distinguish primarily between iron- inductance may be varied over a certain range by
core inductors (called chokes), used for power and moving an iron-core slug in and out of the coil form.
Inductors in Series. If inductors are spaced suffi-
ciently far apart so that they do not interact with

each other (i.e., have neghgible mutual inductance),
they combine just like resistors when connected to-
gether. Thus, the total inductance (L) of a number
of inductors connected in series, as in Fig. 133, is
simply the sum of the individual inductances, or
expressed mathematically
L = Lj + L^ + L3 -f L, + . .
L=L,-t-L-l-L-f-L
Fig. 133. Inductors in Series I
But two series-connected coils are spaced close
if
together so that their magnetic field lines interlink,

their total inductance is
L = Li + Lj, 2M
where M
represents the mutual inductance be-
tween the coils (in henrys). The plus sign in the ex-
pression above is used, if the coils are arranged in
series-aiding (Fig. 134o); that is, in such a manner
that the current flows through the turns of both
coils in the same directionand the magnetic fields
assist each other. The minus sign is used if the coils
Fig. 132. Various Types of Inductors: (a) and (b) iron-core tliat is, in such a
are connected in series-opposing;
chokes; (c) low-loss air-core, self-supporting coil; (d) single-
layer air-core coil on ribbed frame; (e),(f) and (g) multi- manner that their magnetic fields oppose each other
layer radio-frequency coils and chokes (Fig. 134b).
— I
/-">
I. U
I °W^- —
O 6 6
L»=L, + L+2M L=Li + L-2M
i-iiiii.
u+u
Fig. 134. Mutually Coupled Inductors Connected in Series-
Aiding (a)and in Series-Opposing (b)
1--
EXAMPLE: A 5-henry and a 12-henry choke are
connected in series and, initially, spaced far apart. I- U Li U
What is their total inductance? The coils are then
moved close together so that they are coupled by
a mutual inductance of 7 henrys. What is their total
inductance, if (a) the current flows through the coils
Fig. 135. Inductors in Parallel: (a) Two Coils; (b)
in the same direction and (b) the current flows Several Coils
through the coils in opposing directions?
Solution: The inductance of the two uncoupled lei; and group D of a 7-henry and a 9-henry choke
coils in series is in parallel. Groups A, B, C, and D are then con-
L = Lj 4- Lj = 5 + 12 = 17 henrys nected in series. What is the total inductance?
When the mutual inductance is 7 henrys and the Solution: The inductance of group A,
coils are connected in series-aiding, L Lj ^ +
Lj -f 2M = +5 12 14 + =
31 henrys; when the L. = = — = 3 henrys
^
coils areconnected in series-opposing, their total 4/12 4
inductance L Lj =
Lj +
2M 5 12 14 — = + — = The inductance of group B,
3 henrys.
Inductors in Parallel. When inductance coils are L, i2<A = ^ = 1.875heniys
^
spaced sufficiently far apart so that their mutual
3 +5 8
The inductance of group C,
inductance can be neglected, the rules for com-
bining inductors in parallel are the same as for re-
= — = 2.4 henrys
sistors. Thus, as for two resistors in parallel, the 4 -f 6 10
total inductance of two coils in parallel (Fig. 135a) The inductance of group D,
is
L„ = 7X9 _ 63
: 3.94 henrys
7+ 9
Hence, the total inductance of all groups connected
Again as for resistors in parallel, the total in-
in series,
ductance of a number of coils in parallel is equal
to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of L = L^ + Lb + Lo + Lo = 3 + 1.875 + 2.4 +
the individual inductances (Fig. 135fo). Expressed 3.94 = 11.22 henrys.
as a formula, Inductive Reactance. We have noted that an in-
ductance opposes any change in the magnitude of a
1
L= ciurent flowing through it. Since an alternating
current, by definition, is changing continuously, an
Lj Lg -r+i^-
Xj3 '-'4, inductance has a constant opposition to it, termed
example: a number of inductors are connected inductive reactance. You can easily convince your-
together into an inductance network. Group A is self of this reactance by making the following
made up of four 12-henry chokes in parallel; group simple experiment.
B of a 3-henry and a 5-henry choke in parallel; EXPERIMENT 23: Obtain a choke coil of several
group C of a 4-henry and a 6-henry choke in paral- henrys inductance with a removable iron core
make one yourself by winding

(called a solenoid), or and the inductive reactance? We have previously
several hundred tums of fine, insulated copper defined the counter emf as being equal to the
wire around a bakelite or cardboard form and then product of the inductance (L) and the rate of
inserting a slug of soft-iron that loosely fits the in-
side dimensions of the coil (see Fig. 136). Connect change of the current with time (— ); that is
the coil in series with a 25-watt or 40-watt bulb and

screw the free ends of the wire into a standard F - T
^'
male plug. At
First remove the iron core from the coil and con- clearly, the rate of change of an alternating current
nect the plug into an a-c power outlet. Note that must be proportional to its frequency, since more
the lamp bums at almost normal brightness. This a-c cycles are completed in a given time as the fre-
is so because the inductance of the air-core coil quency increases. In fact, it is easily shov^m in ele-
(without the iron slug) is relatively low and its mentary calculus that for an alternating current of
counter emf or inductive reactance is small. Now instantaneous value i =
I^, sin wt, the coimter emf
start to insert the iron core into the coil and observe
that thelamp dims perceptibly. The effect becomes E = -L di — wL I„ cos wt
dt
more pronounced the farther the core is pushed
into the coil, and the lamp may be almost extin- (where di/dt is the calculus notation for the rate of
guished when the slug is completely inserted. What change of current with time, or the derivative.) The
is happening is that the magnetic field inside the first part of the right-hand expression above, wL
coil becomes greatly strengthened by the insertion (disregarding the sign), refers to the inductive reac-
of the high-permeability iron core and, hence, the tance, which has the symbol X^. (Reactance, in gen-
inductance of the choke coil is tremendously in- eral is denoted by the symbol X and is measvured in
creased. This, in turn, multiplies the coimter emf ohms.) Here w stands, of course, for the angidar
or inductive reactance to the current by the same velocity and is equal to 2^ X frequency. Thus, we
factor and results in weakening the current through have the simple formula for inductive reactance
the bulb. As long as the core is inserted, there is Xl = =
wL 2,r fL 6.283 f L (ohms) =
a continuous choking effect on the lamp. If you where / is the frequency and L is the inductance.
repeat the same experiment vdth d.c, you wall ob- The second part of the right-hand expression
serve only a momentary dimming of the lamp when above, I^ coswt, is the same in magnitude as the
the iron slug is first inserted. original current i (= I„ sinwt), since a cosine wave
Magnitude of Inductive Reactance. What is the is identical with a sine wave, except that it is dis-
relation between the magnitude of the counter emf placed in phase by 90 degrees Qi cycle). Thus, we
A.C.
115V A.C.
40-WAniAMP
CHOKE COIL IRON CORE
(a) CORE OUT - LAMP BRIGHT (b) CORE PARTIALLY INSERTED (c) CORE FULLY INSERTED
- LAMP DIMMED ~ LAMP ALMOST EXTINGUISHED
Fig. 136. Experiment 23: Action of a Choke Coil in an A-C Circuit
i
see that the magnitude of the counter emf is simply (J), the applied voltage (V) and the counter emf (E)
the product of the inductive reactance and the are pictured by the instantaneous waveforms of Fig.
original current.(We shall soon consider the phase 137Z7 and the vector diagram (c).
relationsbetween current and voltage.)

CURRB
EXAMPLE: A 10-ampere (peak value), 60-cycle, a-c
current flows through a 20-henry choke. Write the
!
expression for the instantaneous current and the APPUED

'
coimter emf, and compute the values of the induc- VOLTAGE

V
tive reactance and the magnitude of the coimter
emf.
Solution: the angular velocity w= 2ir f = 6.283
X 60 = =
377. Hence, the instantaneous current i
I„ sin = 10 sin 377 The inductive reactance

wt t.
XI = wL = 377 X 20 = 7540 ohms. The instan-

taneous value of the counter emf
E = — wL I^ cos wt = —7540 X 10 cos 377 t =
—75,400 cos 377 t. The peak value of the counter
emf, thus, is 75,400 volts. The effective (rms) value
of the counter emf is, therefore,

0.707 X 75,400 = 53,400 volts.
Magnitude of Current in Inductive Circuit. We
have to modify Ohm's Law only shghtly to compute
the value of the current in an inductive a-c circuit.
Since, as we have just seen, the total opposition to
an alternating current in a pure inductance is given
by the inductive reactance, X^, the current is simply
the impressed voltage (V) divided by the induc-
tive reactance (X^). Thus, we have the simple
relation for the magnitude of the current in an in-
ductive circuit:
V
I = V
2,rfL 6.283 fL
example: What is the magnitude of the (rms)

current flowing through a 5-henry choke connected
across the 115-volt, 60-cycle, a-c line?
Solution: I = V
2«-fL
115 115
= 0.061 ampere.
6.283 X 60 X 5 1885
Phase Relations. Fig. 137a illustrates the circuit
of a pure inductance L, connected across an apphed
a-c voltage, V. The inductive reactance of the coil
permits just enough current to flow to induce a
counter emf, E, that equals and opposes the applied
emf. Thus,
V = I Xi^ = -E
(since E ^ — wL
!„, wt
I). Moreover,
cos := — X^
we have seen that there is a 90-degree phase dif-
ference between the current and the counter emf.
The resulting phase relations between the current
I
where the current wave goes through its maximum complete cycle of the impressed voltage (V). Since
points, the rate of change or slope of the waveform positivepower means power consumed or absorbed
is instantaneously zero and, hence, the induced by the circuit, while negative power indicates
counter emf (E), as weU as the apphed voltage (V) power returned from the circuit, it is evident that
are both zero at these points. no net or real power is consumed by a pure induct-
The vector diagram (Fig. 137c) summarizes the ance. During one-quarter cycle energy is supplied
ciurent-voltage phase relations in convenient form. to the inductor and in the next quarter-cycle the
The applied voltage, V, serves as reference vector same amount of energy is returned by the inductor.
and is therefore drawn horizontally to the right. Physically this simply means that the energy con-
The counter emf, E, which is equal and opposite to tained in the magnetic field, when it is built up by
V, a vector of the same magnitude as V, but
is current flow in one direction, is returned by the
drawn in the opposite direction. The phase angle collapsing magnetic field when the direction of
between V and E, thus is 180° or one-half cycle. current flow reverses. Although a pure inductance
The ciurent, 7, is another vector that has a magni- does not absorb any power, you must remember
tude equal to V/X^ and is drawn vertically down- that all actual (physically realizable) inductors al-
ward to indicate that it is lagging V by 90°. (Recall ways have some resistance and hence always ab-
that positive or leading angles are drawn counter- sorb some amount of power. Just how much, we
clockwise from the horizontal reference, while shall see presently.
negative or lagging angles are drawn clockwise
from the reference vector.) Though lagging the ap-
plied voltage by 90°, the current vector (Z) is also
CAPACITANCE IN AC CIRCUITS
seen to lead the counter emf (E) by 90°. We have already considered the action of two
Power in Inductive Circuit. To obtain the power metal plates separated by a dielectric— a capacitor.
in a pure inductance we simply multiply the instan- We saw then that the plates of a capacitor rapidly
taneous values (ordinates) of V and /, just as we did charge up to the voltage of the source when it is
in the case of a resistance. The resulting power connected to a d-c supply. The energy taken from
curve (P) is shown in Fig. 138. Note that this curve the source is stored in the electrostatic field be-
has two positive and two negative loops during one tween the plates. Nothing further happens after
the brief charging pulse, and the current ceases
(because of the electrostatic repulsion between the
charges) when the potential between the plates at-
tains the same value as that of the source. A capac-
itor, therefore, is an effective barrier to direct
current.
When a capacitor is connected to a source of
alternating current, the plates become charged,
then discharged, and charged again in the opposite
direction, in rapid sequence and in accordance with
the alternating polarity of the applied voltage. As a
consequence, the electrons surge to and fro in the
connecting wires of the capacitor and give rise to
an alternating current that is said to flow "through"
the capacitor. Because of the insulating dielectric
no current can actually flow "through" the capac-
itor, but since a current surges back and forth in
the connecting wires, the effect is the same as if

an alternating current would flow through it. A
capacitor, therefore, does not bar tlie flow of al-
ternating current, though it materially reduces it.
You can convince yourself of this basic fact by the

p p following experiment.
Fig. 138. Graph of Power in a Pure Inductance EXPERIMENT 24: ProcuTc a 2-5 microfarad, 150-
volt paper capacitor. (Do not buy the electrolytic

type, since it is useless on a pure a-c source.) Con-
nect the capacitor in series with a 25-40 watt bulb
and plug the free ends of the wire into the 115-volt
a-c line (See Fig. 139). Note that the lamp Ughts,
though much more dimly than when it is connected
you have a source of
directly across the a-c line. If
you can repeat the experi-
115 volts d.c. available,
ment and convince yourself that the lamp will not
bum at all, since the capacitor blocks d.c.
115V^
(b)
25-40 WAH
Lamp
(d)
2-5 ^f
CAPACITOR
Fig. 139. Experiment 24: A Capacitor is not a Barrier to

i») 0)
Alternating Current
Fig. 140.Some Types of Capacitors— (a) and (b) fixed mica
Types of Capacitors. Capacitors come in various and ceramic capacitors; (c) and (d) paper by-pass capacitors;
(e) electrolytic filter capacitor; (f) variable air-dielectric
types, shapes and sizes depending on use and the
capacitor
requirements of the particular circuit. An assort-
ment of some typical capacitors, used primarily in
electronic appHcations, is illustrated in Fig. 140.
by applying a d-c voltage between two electrodes
of alvmiinum immersed in a chemical solution. The
Note the variety of shapes.
resulting electrolytic action forms a thin film of
Capacitors are frequently used in radio and other
electronic circuits to by-pass (shunt) alternating oxide on one of the electrodes, with a high dielec-
tric constant and, hence, a large capacitance per
currents of relatively high frequency when direct
When the frequency high unit area. However, since losses are high and in-
current is also present. is
and be kept low, fixed mica capacitors

losses are to crease with frequency and a d-c polarizing voltage
are used,which use flat sheets of relatively expen- is required, electrolytic capacitors are used only in
sive mica as dielectric between tlie plates. (Fig. low-frequency, d-c filter circuits, where a relatively
140a and b.) At low frequencies and where losses large, inexpensive capacitance is required.
are not critical, paper by-pass capacitors are used Finally, capacitors are used in tuned or resonant
(c and d). These are made of alternate sheets of circuits to adjust the frequency. For these, air-
wax-impregnated paper and metal foil, which are dielectric capacitors are universally used, since air
rolled or folded for compactness. For filtering resid- is an almost perfect dielectric (Fig. 140). The capa-
ual a.c. in a d-c power supply, large electrolytic citor is made variable by meshing a set of rotable
filter capacitors are used (e). The latter are made plates between another set of fixed stator plates.
.
Capacitors in Parallel. Capacitors connected in

parallel combine the same way as resistors in series;
thus, the total capacitance of a number of parallel

capacitors is the sum of the individual capacitances.
It is evident from Fig. 141 that connecting a num-
ber of capacitors in parallel increases the total plate
area, and hence total charge, in proportion to the
total number and value of the capacitors. Thus,
adding the individual charges on each capacitor
Q2> Qs' etc.) to obtain the total charge Q
(in
(Qi.
Fig. 140),
Q= Qi + Q^ + Q3 + Q4
By the definition of capacitance, the charge on
each capacitor equals the product of the capaci-
tance and the voltage between the plates, or
Q = CV
The voltage across each of the capacitors is equal
to the applied voltage, V, of the battery. Therefore,
substituting for Q,
Q = CV = CiV + C^V + C3V + C,V
Dividing both sides of the equation by the common
factor, V, we obtain the formula for capacitors in
parallel:
C = Ci + C, + C3 + c, + . .
where the dots stand for any additional capacitors.

Hence, the total capacitance of capacitors in paral-
lel equals the sum of the separate capacitances.
sum of the reciprocals of the individual capaci- rent is the rate of flow of charge per unit time, i =
tances. If all the capacitors are the same, the total
capacitance is simply the value of one capacitor — When
. a capacitor is connected to a.c, the rate
divided by the number of series-connected capaci-
of flow of chai'ge and, hence, the current is con-
tors. Moreover, for two capacitors connected in
stantly changing. We therefore must take the ratio
series, we obtain the simple formula:
of a very small change in charge over a short period
_ Ci X C2 of time to obtain the instantaneous current at any
" Cj + C2 AQ
It might strike you odd that anyone would want time. This is written mathematically, i = , where
to connect capacitors in series, since the total ca-
A stands for "a small change." Since the charge is
pacitance obtained in this way is less than that of
the product of the capacitance and the voltage im-
any individual capacitor. The reason is that series-
connected capacitors split the total applied voltage
pressed between the plates of the capacitor (Q =
CV) we can substitute in the expression for the
between them, as we have seen (Fig. 142). Since the
price of a capacitor goes up steeply with its voltage
instantaneous current
AQ _
~ ACV _ AV
rating, it is often more economical in high-voltage At At
~ At
circuits to series-connect a number of large capaci-
where we have taken C out of the expression, since
tors of relatively low voltage rating rather than a it is a constant. This expression, then, tells us that
single, lower capacitance of the required high volt- we
to obtain the instantaneous value of the current
age rating. must multiply the capacitance by the rate of change
EXAMPLE 1: A 4-/xf and a 12-;u.f capacitor are con-
of the applied voltage with time. Since the applied
nected in series. What is the total capacitance of
voltage is a sine-wave a-c voltage of the form
the combination?
V = V„ sin wt
Solution:
we can easily compute
its rate of change with time
C=— = ^ — = 3 microfarads. by methods of elementary calculus. It is shown

tlie
there that the rate of change (or derivative) of the

Ci -f C2 4-1-12 16
EXAMPLE 2: If the capacitors in Fig. 142 have the above expression for V
same values as those in tlie example for parallel
capacitors (Fig. 141), what is the total capacitance
— = w V„
•
dt
cos wt
of the series combination?
dV
where—— stands for the rate of change in cal-
Solution: —
C
=
Cj
1
Cj
1
C3
1
culus symbols. Equating this expression with the

C^
1
one previously obtained for the instantaneous cur-
= 254.5 rent:
C 2 .02 .005 .25
AV
i =C = wC V„ cos wt
Hence, C= = 0.00393 iii = 3,930 ^/^f. At
254.5
This resvdting expression tells us tliat the instan-
Thus, the capacitance of the series combination is
taneous current in a capacitive a-c circuit varies as
less than that of the smallest capacitor (C3 = 0.005 a cosine wave; that is, it has the same waveshape as
the sine-wave voltage, but it leads the voltage by an
Capacitive Reactance. A capacitor offers a certain
angle of 90 degrees, since a cosine wave leads a
opposition to the flow of alternating current, as we sine wave by 90°. Moreover, the maximum (peak)
have observed Experiment 24. In the case of a
in
capacitor, this opposition is termed capacitive re-
value of the current, I^,, is obtained when cos wt =
1, so that we can write
actance (symbol X^) and it is also measured in
ohms. Let us see just what the magnitude of this
I„ = wC V„ (substituting cos wt = 1)
capacitive reactance is.
or —V„=- = 1
We have seen that the total charge accumulated Im wC
over a period of time, when a capacitor is con- Finally, since the ratio of the maximum values of
nected to d.c, is Q =
i t, or equivalently, the cur- the voltage and current equals the ratio of the ef-
fective (rms) values (i.e., reaches its maximum points 90** earlier than the
sine-wave voltage. This is also evident from physi-
V„ 1.414 V
cal considerations. When the voltage is first ap-
1.4141 I
plied, the uncharged capacitor immediately draws
we get the result a large charging current. But as soon as the poten-
tial between the plates of the capacitor reaches the
JV 1_
T" wc value of the impressed voltage, the current drops to
zero, since a capacitor cannot be charged to a volt-
Just as in the case of inductive reactance the
age higher than that apphed. In other words, the
ratio of voltage to current represents the opposition
current is greatest at the beginning of the voltage
to the current, this ratio in a capacitive circuit de-
cycle and becomes zero at the maximum value of
fines its opposition to current flow or the capacitive
we obtain the final result
the voltage. When the apphed voltage starts to
reactance, X^. Thus,
decrease from its peak value, the capacitor begins
V__
— = ^- and the current flows in the opposite
~ wC = X.
J^ to discharge
I direction. This implies that the current leads the
1 1 impressed a-c voltage by a 90°-phase angle.

1
or V
Xo = = =
wC 2^fC 6.283 fC
where we have substituted for the angular ve-

locity w= 2 TT f, as before. This expression shows
that the capacitive reactance of a circuit decreases
with increasing capacitance and increasing fre-
quency of the supply voltage.

EXAMPLE 1: What is the capacitive reactance of
a 0.002 juf capacitor at a frequency of 2.5 mega-
cycles (2,500,000 cps)?
1
Solution: Xp =
6.283 f C Fig. 143. Phase Relations in Pure Capacitance
The vector diagram at right of Fig. 143 sum-

6.283 X 2.5 X 10« X 0.002 X 10"*
marizes these phase relations in simple form. Here
^ 31.8 ohms.
the voltage (V) is the horizontal reference vector
The example shows that when the capacitance is
and the current (/) is drawn vertically upward, thus
given in microfarads and the frequency in mega-
forming a positive or leading 90° -angle (ccw) with
cycles, the factors of 10* and 10^* can be omitted,
the voltage.
since they cancel out, and the result is obtained
Power in Capacitive Circuit. Fig. 144 illustrates
directly in ohms.
the power graph resulting when the instantaneous
EXAMPLE 2; What is the magnitude of the cur-
values of the voltage and current waves in a pure
rent, when a 220-volt, 60-cycle a-c voltage is ap-
capacitance are multiplied by each other at various
plied across a 25-/xf capacitor?
points along the time axis. The curve (P) has two
Solution: The capacitive reactance
positive and two negative loops during one com-
Xo = = 106 ohms. plete cycle of the a-c voltage (V), exactly as in the
6.28 X 60 X 25 X 10-« case of a pure inductance (Fig. 138). Hence, we
have again the situation that no net power is con-
Hence,
X
I = V = 220 „ „„,
= 2.075 ,
(rms) amperes.
^
,
i- simied, power being supplied to the capacitor and
Xo 106 /
stored in its electric field during one-quarter (charg-
Phase Relations. We already know that the cur- ing) cycle and the same amount being retvmied dur-
Ient in a pure capacitance leads the impressed volt- ing the next quarter-cycle of capacitor discharge.
age by 90 electrical degrees or one-quarter cycle. But in any actual capacitor, a tiny amount of powei
Pig. 143 illustrates these phase relations in graphi- isconsumed because of the leakage of charge be-
cal form. The instantaneous waveforms show clearly tween the plates, which is the equivalent of a high
that the current consists of a cosine wave, wlaich resistance shunting the capacitor.
I
reactance, thetwo cannot be added arithmetically,

but must be combined vectorially to obtain the im-
pedance. Moreover, the fundamentally different na-
ture of resistance and reactance makes it impossible
to add them directly.As we have seen, only the
resistance absorbs electric energy (and converts it
into heat), while either inductive or capacitive re-

actance store energy temporarily, in the form of
magnetic or electric fields, respectively. When re-
sistance and reactance are added vectorially, the
formula for the magnitude of the impedance (Z) of
an a-c circuit becomes
Z = VR' X X2
where R is the resistance and X is the net re-
actance of the circuit. According to this formula,
the impedance of an a-c circuit is equal to the
square root of the sum of the squares of the re-
sistance and the net reactance. The impedance also
has a phase angle as we shall see presently.
Net Voltage and Net Reactance. We have not yet
explained the term net reactance (symbol X). Net
reactance is simply the vector sum of all reactances
p p
Fig. 144. Power in a Pure Capacitance or the algebraic addition of inductive and capaci-
tive reactance (with regard to sign). Since the volt-
IMPEDANCE age across a pure inductance leads the current by
We have seen that the alternating current in a 90° it is represented by a vector drawn perpen-
circuit containing only resistance is in phase with dicularly upward from the start of the horizon-
the applied a-c voltage, while the current in a pure tal reference vector, as shown in Fig. 145. This
inductance lags the impressed voltage by 90° and upward vector, Vx^, is considered positive, since it
that in a pure capacitance leads the applied voltage forms a positive (counterclockwise) angle with the
by 90°. What happens when an alternating voltage reference vector. (Recall that the counterclockwise
is applied to a circuit containing a combination of direction is taken as positive.) Similarly, since the
resistance and inductance, resistance and capaci- voltage across a pure capacitance lags the current
tance, or all three? We may venture a guess that by 90°, the capacitive voltage is represented by a
the resulting alternating current would adjust it- vector drawn perpendicularly downward, Vx^. This
self to some value and assume a phase angle with vector considered negative because it forms a
is
respect to the voltage intermediate between the clockwise angle of 90° with the reference vector.
extremes (±90°), depending on the amounts of re- Since Vxl and Vx^ are, thus, 180° out of phase with
sistance,inductance and capacitance in the circuit. each other, they are in line, but in opposite direc-
This guess is correct, but we have yet to find an tions. Their vector sum, which is the net voltage
effective method of calculating the magnitude and (Vxl — Vxq), may be found, therefore, either by
phase angle of the current in such a combination algebraic addition [Vx^ + — Vx^)],
( or simply by
circuit. The concept of impedance (symbol Z), or subtracting Vx^, from Vx^.
total opposition to the flow of alternating cur- As shown in (b) of Fig. 145, the net reactance is
rent in a circuit containing resistance, inductance, found in exactly the same way as the net voltage.
and capacitance, has been devised to deal with this Inductive reactance, X^, is considered positive,
situation. while capacitive reactance, X^., is negative. The net
Impedance, or the total opposition to the flow of reactance, X, thus is either the algebraic sum of the
a.c, is a vector quantity, since it is composed of re- vectors [X^ + (— X^,)], or simply the arithmetic
sistance—in phase with the emf of the source; and difference of their magnitudes, X^ — X^. In Fig. 145
of reactance— OMf of phase with the apphed emf. Xl =6 ohms and X(j =4 ohms; hence the net re-
Because of the phase angle between resistance and actance X = Xi, — Xq = 6 — 4 = 2 ohms. We may
As an example, let vis find the impedance for the

/XL=(5il
situation pictured in Fig. 145, where the inductive
reactance 6 ohms and the capacitive reactance is
is
2 ohms, assuming in addition a resistance of 3

ohms. The net reactance X X^ Xo 6 2 ^ = =
4 ohms. The impedance (Z), thus, is \/R^ -f X^ =
\/3^ + 4* = V25 = 5 ohms. The tangent of the
V
= — = — = 1.333.
A
(REFERENCE VECTOR) REFERENCE VECTOR
phase angle 6
R 3
'% •-Xc=2A Hence ^ = 53.2°
(from tables). The resulting impedance diagram is
pictured in Fig. 147.

Fig. 145. Representation of Net Voltage (a) and Net A Xt-6A
Reactance (b)
substitute this result in the formula for impedance,

obtaining
z = VR^' + x^ = VR' + (Xi. - Xe)^ X-ZA
'J 25- S ohm*
K either inductance or capacitance are absent, X^
ione=i^ =fr?=i = 1.333
or Xq, respectively, drops out of the formula.
Impedance Triangle and Phase Angle. The form R«3A e- arctan 1.535=55.1*
of theimpedance equation indicates that the im-
pedance vector may be represented as the hypote- Xc=lA
nuse (resultant) of a right triangle, the short sides Fig. 147. Impedance Diagram for R = 3 ohms, Xi, =
of which are formed by the resistance and the re- 6 ohms, and Xj, =: 2 ohms
actance. Fig. 146 shows such an impedance triangle,
Ohm's Law for A.C. A modified form of Ohm's
with the resistance laid off along the horizontal side
Law apphes to altemating-cvurent circuits, with the
and the net reactance along the vertical side. As we
resistance being replaced by the impedance. Thus,
have seen, the tangent of the acute angle (6) is given
we can state in a manner similar to Ohm's Law,
by the ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent
that for an a-c circuit:
side of the triangle. Hence, the tangent of the phase
angle, 6 (in Fig. 146),
ance to the resistance, or
is the ratio of the net react-
current I := —=
Z VR' + (Xi,- Xo)*
— X —
tanfl = = XL Xj, Further, the a-c voltage
R R E = IZ = IVR^ + (X:,-Xc)''
The phase angle 0, thus, is the arctangent of this
and the impedance Z
T
:
ratio, or
= arctan —R = arctan
L ~Xo Moreover, the phase angle 6 between the applied
voltage (E) and the voltage drop in the resistance
R
of the circuit (V^) is the same as that in the im-
pedance triangle; that is
tan S =—
X ^ X^-Xq ^
= V1.-V0
R R Vh
where V^ and V,, are the voltage drops in the in-
ductance and capacitance, respectively. When
either the impedance and resistance or the applied
voltage (£) and the voltage drop across the resist-
ance (Vjj) are known, it is more convenient to obtain
RESISTANCE (R) the phase angle 6 from the relation for the cosine
Fig. 146. The Impedance Triangle of a right triangle, which is defined as the ratio of
i
: —
the side adjacent to the angle 6 to the hypotenuse. Vq, perpendicularly downward. From the vector
Hence, for the impedance triangle or a voltage diagram it is evident that the applied emf, =E
triangle V^n' + (Vi. - Vo)- = V1802 + (400 - 160)2 ^
cos e = — = —5- V90,000 = 300 volts. As a check, cos e=z-^=
V,
Z E E
This formula is an alternative way for finding the 180
phase angle 0. = 0.6, and hence, — 53.2°, as before. Finally,
300
example: a series a-c circuit has a resistance of
90 ohms, an inductive reactance of 200 ohms and the line current, I =E 300 volts
= 2 amperes.
a capacitive reactance of 80 ohms. Voltmeters Z 150 ohms
placed across the components reads 180 volts for
the voltage drop across the resistance, 400 volts for Practice Exercise No. 12
the voltage drop across the inductance, and 160 1. What is the phase relationship between an alter-
volts for that across the capacitance. Find the im- nating current flowing through a resistance and the
pedance of the circuit, the applied emf (£), the voltage applied across it?
phase angle, and the line current in the circuit.

2. A is connected
200-volt, 60-cycle a-c generator
across a resistive load of 25 ohms. What is the load cur-
Solution: Let us first construct the impedance
rent, the phase angle, and the true power consumed ia
triangle, illustrated in Fig. 148a. Since R =r 90
the load?
ohms, = 20 ohms and X^ = 80 ohms, the imped-
Xj,
3. What is the "skin e£Fect"? What factors does it
anceZ = y/R^ + (X^ - Xo)^ = V90- + (200 - 80)^ depend upon?
= V22,500 150 ohms. The tangent of the phase 4. Coils of 250-mh, 350-mh, and 400-mh inductance
What the
X 200 - 80 -^:^= are connected in series, spaced far apart. is
angle:
^ tan 9 = 120 1.333. total inductance? If the coils are then connected in
R 90 90 what is their total inductance?
parallel,
Hence, from trigonometric tables, 6 = arctan 1.333 5. A
10-henry and a 20-henry choke are placed to-
R 90 gether so that their mutual inductance is 5 henrys.
= 53.2°. Equivalently, cos 6 = = 0.6. What is the total inductance if the coils are connected
150
together (a) in series-aiding and (b) in series-opposing?
Again, from trigonometric tables,
6. Explain the phase relationships between the ap-
e = aic cos 0.6 = 53.2° plied emf, the counter emf, and the (alternating) cur-
,
vi..40oir rent in an inductance.
,
XfZooa 7. What is inductive reactance and what does it de-
pend upon? State the formula.
8. A 2-henry inductance coil is connected across a
100-voIt, 50-cycle a-c supply. What is the inductive
X-lZOA reactance? Neglecting coil resistance, what is the al-
x-izoa
ternating current through the coil?
9. An inductance coil is connected in turn across
two generators, which have a terminal voltage of 100
R'SOA volts each. When connected across generator A the coil
draws 2 amps; when connected across generator B it
fa'SOA
draws 50 amps. How do you explain this? Which of
Vft>l80V the two generators might be an a-c machine, which
d.c? What is the impedance of the coil; its d-c resist-
(P)
ance and its inductive reactance? What is the power
tVc>l60V
consumed in each case?
(b) 10. Why is a capacitor not a barrier to alternating
Fig. 148. Impedance Diagram (a) and Voltage Vector current?
Diagram (b) for Text Problem 11. What is capacitive reactance? How does the ef-
fect of an increase in frequency on capacitive reactance

Nowf let us consti-uct the voltage triangle (Fig. differ from that on inductive reactance?
148b), by laying off the resistive voltage drop, V^, 12. A \-pi and a 6-;uf capacitor are connected first in
as horizontal reference vector, the inductive drop, series and then in parallel. What is the capacitance in
Vl, perpendicularly up, and the capacitive drop, each case?
.
13. A lOO-fifJ capacitor connected across a 5-

=—=
is
megacycle oscillator with a terminal voltage of 20 volts. tive reactance. (I^, .)
What is the capacitive reactance and the current drawoi 2^fL

from the oscillator? In a pure inductance energy is stored in the mag-
14. What is the phase angle between the current netic field and then returned to the source during
and the impressed voltage in a capacitor? Is the current alternate quarter-cycles. No net or real power is
leading or lagging? How much power
consumed? is consumed. An actual inductance (coil) contains
15. What is impedance? State the impedance for- some resistance and, hence, absorbs some amount
mula. of power.
16. The total resistance in a circuit is 50 ohms, the A capacitor is a barrier to direct current, but not
inductive reactance is 200 ohms, and the capacitive re-
to A.C.
actance is 80 ohms. What is the net reactance, the im-
Capacitors connected in parallel combine like
pedance, and the phase angle between impedance and
resistors in series, the total capacitance being the
resistance? Is the circuit inductive or capacitive?
sum of the separate capacitances.
(C Ci = C^ +
C3 -f C, +
.) + . .
SUMMARY Capacitors connected in series combine like re-

sistors in parallel, the total capacitance being the
At high a-c frequencies current tends to flow near
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the
the surface of a conductor, thus increasing its re-
separate capacitances.
sistance. The increase in the a-c resistance of a con-
ductor, called the skin effect, is proportional to the
(C = 1
)
diameter of the conductor and to the square root l/Ci-fl/C,-|-l/C3 + l/C,-f ...''
of the frequency. The opposition of a capacitor to the flow of al-
Alternating current through a resistance is in ternating currentis called capacitive reactance
phase with the applied voltage. Thus, Ohm's Law (X(,); capacitive reactance decreases with increas-
p ing frequency and increasing capacitance.
holds and I = — The power consumed in the
R
resistance, P = EI = PR = — The current through a (pure) capacitance leads
R
The the applied voltage 90° in phase; its magnitude,
total inductance of a number of inductors
connected in series, but not mutually coupled, V
equals the sum of the individual inductances. (L = Io = = VwC.
Lj -}- Lj
L3 4- L4
-|- •) The +
inductance of two
• In a pure capacitance energy is stored in the elec-
series-connected, mutually coupled coils is L ^ tric field and returned to the source during alter-
Lj -f Lg ± 2M, where is the mutual inductanceM nate quarter-cycles. No net or real power is con-
in henrys, the plus (-|-) sign is used for a series-aid- sumed in a pure capacitance.
ing arrangement, and the minus (— ) sign for a Impedance is the total opposition of a circuit to
series-opposing connection. the flow of alternating current. Impedance is a vec-
The total inductance of coils in parallel equals tor quantity and may be represented as the hyfôte-
the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the nuse of an impedance triangle, consisting of the
separate inductances. (1/L = l/L^ -f l/Lg + I/L3 total circuit resistance (R) as horizontal side and
+ 1/L, + . .
.) the net reactance (X^ — X^,) as vertical side. The
The counter emf
in an inductance coil is 180° out magnitude of the impedance, Z, is given by IZI =
of phase with or opposed to the applied voltage. VR^ + (Xl — X^)^. The angle which the imped-
The alternating current through an inductance lags ance vector makes with the resistance (horizontal)
the applied emf by 90° in phase and leads the is called the phase angle (d) and it is the angle by
counter emf by 90°. which the current leads or lags the applied voltage.
Inductive reactance is the opposition of an in- Its value may be obtained from:
ductance to alternating-current flow; inductive re-
X ~~Xl — Xo
actance is proportional to the frequency and the tan ^ =— = or
inductance. (Xj^ =2 ir f L.) R R
The (a-c) current through a pure inductance
eauals the aooUed voltage divided by the induc-
cos =— = (series circuit).
Z £
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

A.C. POWER the appliedemf and the in-phase component of the
total currentis then the power expended. Fig. 149
In the previous chapter we have learned some-
shows such a vector diagram of the applied emf
tiling about the strange behavior of capacitors and
(E) and the current (/), which is out-of-phase with
coils, when subjected to alternating current flow.
the voltage by the phase angle (6). It is immedi-
We have become acquainted with the concepts of
ately apparent from the diagram that the in-phase
"reactance" and "impedance" and have seen how
component of the current is the horizontal projec-
Ohm's Law must be modified for use with A.C. We tion of I upon E, or I cos 6. (In the current triangle,
are finally ready to apply these new concepts to
the ratio of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse
operating alternating-current circuits of varying
Icosfl
complexity. But before we delve into this fascinating
equals = cos9.) Similarly, the out-of-phase
subject, let us digress briefly to see what meaning I
we can give to the term "power" in an alternating- component of the current is its vertical projection,
current circuit, where reactance is present in addi- or Forming the product of the applied emf
I sin 6.
tion to resistance. You may want to review the (E) and the in-phase component of the current (I
chapter on "ELECTRIC POWER AND HEAT" cos 6), we see that the true power expended in an
(Chapter 8) at this point. a-c circuit is
When an alternating current flows through a re- P = E I cos «

sistance, the power consumed in it is the product
of the current and the voltage across the resistance
(P =EX I), just as for direct current. In contrast,
a pure inductance or a pure capacitance in an a-c U\n9
circuitdoes not consume any real power, as we (put-of-phase^
have seen, because the current is 90 degrees out-
cuireht)
of-phase with the voltage in these components. In
a-c circuits where a combination of resistance, ca-
pacitance and inductance is present, the current
assumes a phase angle intermediate between zero
and 90° and we would expect some amount of IcosG
power to be consumed. When the products of the CJn-phQse.-anTre«y
instantaneous current and voltage values are
plotted for such an intermediate phase angle, it is Fig. 149. In-Fhase and Out-of -Phase Components
of Current
found that the resulting power graph has positive
lobes that are larger than the negative lobes. The EXAMPLE: Compute the power consumed by the
power consumed by the expended by
circuit (or circuit of theexample (Fig. 148) in the last chapter.
the source) is then equal to the difference between Solution: We have already found that the appUed
the areas of the positive and negative power lobes. emf, E =
300 volts, the line current, 1 2 amps., =
You wiU find it cumbersome to plot the power and cos 6 =
0.6 for an angle of 53.2°. Substituting
graph from the instantaneous current and voltage these values in the power formula:
values and then obtain the power by finding the P =
EI cos e =
300 X 2 X 0.6 360 watts =
difference between the areas of the positive and power consumed.
negative power lobes. In practice, the same result Power Factor. Since the product of voltage and
can be obtained far easier by drawing a vector dia- current must be multipHed by the cosine of the
gram of the effective (rms) values of the current and phase angle to obtain the power, cos $ is known as
the appHed emf, and then computing the amount the power factor (abbreviated P.P.) of the circuit.
of current that is in phase with the emf (or the Rewriting the relation for a-c power, we obtain for
voltage drop across the resistance). The product of the power factor in an a-c circuit P.F. = cos = tf
145
.
— ; this is sometimes expressed as a percentage:
% P.F. = —p
EI
X 100. Thus, we can determine the REACTIVE
POWHl?
power factor of an a-c circuit by dividing the watt-
meter reading by the product of the voltmeter and
ammeter readings. The power factor is also given
by the ratio of resistance to impedance
(i.e., cos^ = —pZ ).

'
TRUE (REAL) TOWBR - E lioaB
Fig. 150. A-C Power Triangle Showing Relations between

EXAMPLE: An a-c voltmeter across the line of an True Power, Apparent Power and Reactive Power
and an ammeter in series
a-c circuit reads 220 volts
with the line current reads 4 (rms) amps. If the Real Power
wattmeter reading is 600 watts, what is the power Solution: The apparent power (EI)
factor of the circuit? What is its phase angle, im-
pedance and resistance? 4750
= 5,940 va. Since P.F. = cosfl = 0.8, the
Solution: P.F. =1^ = -^^ = ^= 0.682
"as"
EI 220 X4 880 phase angle 6 = 36.8°; hence, the reactive power =
(Power Factor). Since cos^ =
0.682, the phase angle EI sine = 5,940 sin 36.8° = 5,940 X 0.6 = 3,560
6 is found from tables to be 57°. The impedance vars.
E = 220
We could have obtained the same result more
Z^ — =55 ohms. Finally, since cos^=: EI
smiply by reauzmg
^' ^ * that
Reactive Power
Real Power
—
EIcosS
—
siaS
-, the resistance R=Z cosfl = 55 X 0.682 = 37.5 = tane, where 6 = 36.8° in this case. Hence, Reac-
Z
tive Power = Real Power X tan^ = 4,750 tan 36.8°
ohms.
Reactive Power. The product EIcos^ is usually
=
4750 X 0.75 =
3,560 vars 3.56 kvars. =
Although the power companies charge their cus-
termed the true or real power of an a-c circuit to
tomers only for the real power consiuned, they must
distinguish it from the apparent power obtained
make provisions for the additional reactive power
by multiplying the voltage by the current. The
that is alternately stored and returned by the elec-
apparent power, expressed either in volt-amperes
(va) or Idlovolt-amperes (kva), contains both the
trostatic and magnetic fields associated with ca-
pacitors and inductors, respectively. The cables sup-
true power expended in the resistance of the cir-
cuit, aswell as the reactive power alternately stored plying the various circuits must be heavy enough to
and returned by the inductors and capacitors of supply both the in-phase as well as the out-of -phase
the circuit. These power relations are conveniently (reactive) currents circulating through them. The
portrayed by a power triangle (Fig. 150), consisting lower the power factor (cosO), the greater is the
of apparent power (EI) as hypotenuse, real power apparent and reactive power demand and, hence,
as horizontal side, and reactive power as vertical the heavier must be the wire gauge (copper) used.
side. From the simple trigonometry of a right tri- To reduce excessive apparent power demands and
angle, we have the following: avoid waste of copper, the power companies try
Real Power = EI cosfl = Apparent Power X to keep the power factor as close to unity as pos-
Power Factor sible (cose =1 for resistance). The power factor
Reactive Power = EI sin8 = (Apparent Power) may be low because of a lagging phase angle due
X sine to highly inductive circuits, such as induction mo-
The reactive power (Elsinfl) of an a-c circuit is usu- tors, chokes, transformers, etc. In these cases the
ally expressed in volt-amperes-reactive (vars) or in power factor can be corrected by introducing large
Idlovolt-amperes-reactive (Icvars). groups of capacitors in the circuit whose leading
EXAMPLE: The wattmeter reading in an a-c cir- phase angle will cancel out the inductive lag. If the
cuit with a power factor of 0.8 is 4.75 kw. What is power factor is low because of a leading (capaci
*he reactive power? tive) phase angle, as is the case for fluorescent
lamps, for example, it may be corrected by intro- 115

ducing large inductors (called ballasts) into the cir-
1 = = 0.072 ampere (approximately).
cuit. Electrical machinery for a.c. is always rated in
The tangent of the phase angle {0) between the ap-
kilovolt-amperes, rather dian watts, to permit esti-
pUed voltage (E) and the current (I),
mating the current demands upon the associated
circuits. tan.= ^ = Zt^H^=l
R R 1130
Hence, from tables, the phase angle d between E
SERIES A-C CIRCUITS and / is 45°. We can also compute the voltage drop
Let us now apply the knowledge we have ac- across the resistance,
quired about reactance, impedance and a-c power Er = I R = 0.072 X 1130 = 81.4 volts
to some typical series a-c circuits. As is the case for and the voltage drop across the inductance,
d.c, the current in a series a-c circuits is everywhere El = I Xl = 0.072 X 1130 = 81.4 volts
the same. Moreover, the voltage drops across the Note that the arithmetic sum of the two voltage
various parts of the circuit, when added up vectori- drops is 162.8 volts, which is greater than the ap-
ally,equal the emf of the source. (This is in contrast plied emf, obviously an impossible situation. If we
to d.c, where the arithmetic sum of the voltage add the two voltage drops vectorially, however, as
drops equals the emf of the source.) For practical shown in the vector diagram of Fig. 151b, we ob-
tain correctly
circuit calculationsyou should recall that the cur-
rent flowing through an inductance lags 90° behind E = VEb^ + E^^ = y/jSlAy + =
{81Af
the applied voltage, while the current through a V13200 = 115 volts.
capacitance leads the appHed voltage by 90°. To show the phase and power relations in the
R-L Circuits. Consider first a simple series a-c cir- circuit of Fig. 151, we have plotted the instantane-
cuit, consisting only of an inductance and a resist- ous current (i), voltage (e) and their product— the
ance, connected across an a-c generator (See Fig. instantaneous power (p)— in Fig. 152 below. Note
151.) This is actually the simplest possible inductive that the ciurent (i) in this circuit lags behind the
circuit, since any real inductor (choke coil) must instantaneous voltage (e) by a phase angle (6) of
have at least the resistance of its windings in series about 45° or one-eighths cycle. Note further, that
with the inductance. because of this phase angle, there are two small
negative power lobes (each 1/8 cycle long) during
each cycle of the impressed voltage, where power
Fig. 151. R-L Series Circuit (a) and Vector Diagram (b)
Since there is no capacitive reactance, the im-

pedance of this simple R-L circuit, Z = \/B? -f X^*,
F E
and the current I =— ^— . Using the
z VR' + Xi,^
values given in the example of Fig. 151, where R =
1130 ohms, L = 3 henrys and E — 115 volts at 60
cycles, we obtain
Xl = wL = 6.283 fL =
6.283 X 60 X 3= 1130 ohms
Z = V(1130)2 -f (1130)2 _ ^2356 = 1,600 ohms Fig. 152. Phase and Power Relations in R-L Series
and Circuit of Fig. 151
—
is being returned by the circuit to the supply, and each adjustment, until the point of equal voltage is
there are also two large, positive power lobes (each reached.) As soon as the equal- voltage point is at-
3/8 cycle long), where power is being consumed by and measure the d-c
tained, disconnect the circuit
the circuit or expended by the supply. Since the and fixed contact) of
resistance (between the slider
positive lobes are far greater in area than the nega- the rheostat with the ohmmeter. Also measure the
tive ones, their difference is positive and, thus, real d-c resistance between the terminals of the black
power is being consumed. box, if any.
Rather than obtaining the average area of the Let us say, for the purposes of illustration, that
power lobes,
positive let us compute the power con- the following values were obtained during a typical
sumed by means of the power factor. The power black box experiment:
factor of the circuit Resistance of rheostat (for equal voltages)
PF = cose = cos 45° = 0.707. R = 1,895 ohms
Hence, the real power consumed = EI cos9 = 115 d-c resistance (between terminals) of black box
X 0.072 X .707 = 5.85 watts. Equivalently, since R, = 200 ohms

all real power is consumed in the resistance, Since the low d-c resistance of the black box in-
P = Eh X I = 81.4 X 0.072 = 5.85 watts dicates a continuous circuit for d.c, we shall assume
Further, the reactive power = EI sin6 = 115 X that some form of inductance (coil) with a certain
0.072 X -707 = 5.85 vars. The apparent power is winding resistance is contained in the box. With the
EI = 115 X 0.072 = 8.3 volt-amperes. current in a series circuit everywhere being the
As another example, let us make a paper experi- same, and the voltage drops equal, we can write
ment that will illustrate the power of the methods Ejj =
Ex, and hence I R I Z^; =
we have developed for calculating a-c circuits. Say where E^ and Z^ are the voltage drop and im-
we have a "black box" with two terminals sticking pedance, respectively, of the black box. Cancelling
out, whose a-c characteristics we would like to de- I, we have
termine using only a cheap voltmeter, an ordinary R = Z, = VRx' + X''
d-c ohmmeter, and a variable resistance (rheostat) Squaring both sides:

of about 10,000 ohms. Let us connect the rheostat in R2 = R,2 ^ X*
series with the black box and the 120-volt, 60-cycle and, hence,
a-c power Une, as illustrated in Fig. 153. X = VR^ - R^^
Substituting the values obtained in the experiment,
we obtain
601
A.C. i
RMEOSWr
—WÂ/W
(O-lOIUi)
X = V(1895)2 - (200)2
_
V3,593,000 — 40,000 = 1,885 ohms
Bwac Since we assumed an inductive reactance.
ja 90X"
Imftdonati
For f =
X = X.
60 cps, the inductance
1,885 ohms
is, therefore.
Fig. 153. Determining the Impedance of a "Black Box"
1885
L= :
5 henrys
If manipulate the rheostat and measure
we now 6.283 f 6.283 X 60
Our "black box" thus turns out to be the equiva-
the voltage drop across it and the voltage drop
across the "black box" with oiu- voltmeter, we wiU lent of a 5-henry choke coil in series with a 200-ohm
resistance. It obviously does not matter whether or
find that the voltage across the rheostat keeps in-
creasing for clockwise rotation (increasing resist- not we made a wrong assumption about an in-
ance) and eventually becomes greater than the ductance being in the box. Even if the box con-
voltage drop across the black box. Let us adjust the tained a highly complicated network of inductors,
rheostat until the voltage drop across it is exactly capacitors and resistors connected in some series-
the same as that across the box. An inexpensive parallel circuit, for all practical purposes at a fre-
a-c voltmeter will suffice, since we are not interested quency of 60 cycles it acts just Uke a 5-henry choke
in the actual value of the voltage, but only in the coil with 200 ohms winding resistance and, hence,
fact that the two voltages are equal. (In practice, can be replaced by it. The problem is not as remote
you have to keep switching the voltmeter back and as it might appear at first glance, since many actual
forth between the rheostatand the black box after inductors are "potted" in a shielded container
(black box) with nothing but the terminals sticking Ee = I R = 0.0985 X 200 = 19.7 volts
out. If you wanted to determine the inductance of a and the voltage drop across the capacitor
transformer winding or of an unmarked choke coil, Ec = I Xc = 0.0985 X 995 = 98 volts
you can use the method we have just described. When a vector diagram is constructed (Fig. 154d),
R-C Circuits. Let us turn now to another simple using these voltage drops as the two sides, the re-
series circuit containing only resistance and capaci- sultant turns out to be the appHed voltage of 100
tance in series with an a-c generator. A typical R-C volts, as expected.
circuit with actual values is shown in Fig. 154a. Finally, the apparent power ^ E I = 100 X
0.0985 = 9.85 volt-amps. The real power consumed
uUOAft}
= E cose = 9.85 X 0.197 = 1.94 watts. The re-
I
\-nsa active power = E I sin6 — 9.85 sin 78.63° = 9.85
X .98 = 9.65 vars.
The phase between the waveforms of
relations
(I), and
the applied voltage (E) and the line current
between the voltage across the capacitor (E^) and
that across the resistor (Eg) are illustrated in Fig.
154b.
It wiU be instructive to make another "black box"
experiment, a capacitive one this time. The black
box again is connected in series vdth a 0-10 kilohm
rheostat and the 60-cycle a-c supply, exactly as the
last time (See Fig. 153.) After adjusting the rheostat
Ec'Sav E -lOOT for equal voltage drops across it and across the
[^ VECTOR OlAGRAU terminals of the box, we obtain the following read-
ings on the d-c ohmmeter:
PHASE RELATIONS
(b)
Resistance of rheostat for equal voltages, R =
Fig. 154. R-C Series Circuit Phase Relations (b),
(a),
and Vector Diagram (d)

1328 ohms.
Impedance Triangle (c)
D-C resistance between terminals of black box,
Here a 100-volt, 400-cycle a-c generator is con- Rj = infinity (i.e., larger than could be measured
nected in series with a 0.4 microfarad capacitor and with a simple ohmmeter).
a 200-ohm resistor. First, we determine the ca- Since the box presents a barrier to the flow of
pacitive reactance of the capacitor (C): direct current, we shall assume this time that an
essentially pure capacitance is contained in the box
y - 1 ^ 1
Again we can write for a series circuit
27rfC 6.283 X 400 X 0.4 X 10-«
= 995 ohms Er = E^ and, hence, I R = I X.
(With an infinite d-c resistance, the box has react-
The impedance of the circuit is
ance only.) Cancelling 7 on both sides, R = X, and
Z = VRM^X7= V (200F"+ (995)' = '
since we assumed capacitive reactance,
V40,000 + 990,000 = Vl.030,000 = 1,015

ohms
Fig. 154c illustrates the impedance triangle con- R = Xo° = -^
2,rfC
structed with a resistance of 200 ohms and a ca-
pacitive reactance of 995 ohms. C
Hence, the capacitance of the box,
The cosine of the phase angle {9), or power factor 2^fR
Substituting f = 60 cps, and R = 1328 ohms
P.F. = cos = —
R =
tf
200
0.197
Z 1015 C= '-
From tables, we
phase angle 6
find the = 78.63° 6.283 X 60 X 1328
Knowing the impedance, we can find the line cur- =2X 10~* = 2 microfarads.
rent The box, thus, presents a capacitive reactance equal
E _ 100
= 0.0985 ampere to that of a 2-^f capacitor. Again it does not matter
Y~ 1015 whether a capacitor is actually contained in the box,

or some combination of capacitance, inductance
The voltage drop across the resistor,
and (possibly) resistance. At the single frequency of shown in Fig. 155a. We would like to know the
60 cycles the box acts just like a 2-microfarad ca- impedance into which the generator is "working."
pacitor and can be replaced by it. The impedance will tell us whether the circuit is
R-L-C Circuits. A typical R-L-C circuit, such as primarily resistive, inductive or capacitive and we
that shown in Fig. 155a, combines the character- will then be able to determine the current and
istics of the R-L and R-C circuits we have already power requirements.
discussed. Assume that a 100-volt 10,000-cycle The total resistance of the series circuit is the
(10-kc) a-c generator is connected to the R-L-C load sum of the individual resistors, R^ and R2:
,^Xl=62.3k
— r. 46.9K '
^
I. s I HEKIRY
10 kc
V
I (00
-HI -MA
Kl'iOK
'"
(0) R-L-C SERIES ai?CUlT
R,= 20K R,+ Ri=SOK

Ri=30lC
X<;=I5.9K
\/L*9t.6V0UTS
(b) l/APEDANCE PIAGRWA
V0tT3
E"
L«
0100V
1 .
.15 K
.a*"*"*
—AMW^
I
Re«SOlf.
1
i
(d) EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Vr,= 29.Zy/ Vri+\/ri=75VOITS

f
VK2=4iav
(c) V6LTA6E Diagram

R-L-C Impedance Diagram Voltage Diagram
Fig. 155. Series Circuit (a), (b). (c) and Equivalent Circuit (d)
I
<
K = Ri + Ra = 20,000 + 30,000 = Hence: 27rfL. = X, or L. = =

50,000 ohms = 50 kilohms 2^
The inductive reactance of the 1-henry choke (L): 46,900
Xl = 2nih — 6.28 X 10,000 X 1 = 62,800 ohms 0.75 hy.
The capacitive reactance of the 0.001 /ifd capacitor

6.28 X 10,000
1
A 50,000-olmi resistor in series with 0.75-henry choke
1
would therefore present exactly the same load to the
^ 10-«
^ 27rfC 6.28 X 10,000 X .001 X 100-volt 10-kc generator as the original circuit of
= 15,900 ohms Fig. 155o.
The net reactance (X) is the difference between the Let us now find the line current (I) and the vari-
inductive and capacitive reactances:

p
= — =
X Xl Xo 62,800 15,900 46,900 ohms - = ous voltage drops in the circuit. The current I =—
Since the inductive reactance is greater than the
capacitive reactance, the net reactance comes out = = 1.46 X 10~^ = 1.46 milliamperes. The
positiveand the circuit is primarily inductive. In 68,600
the impedance diagram (Fig. 155fe) we have laid o£E current is in phase with the voltage across the re-
the resistance vectors along the horizontal (refer- sistors, or equivalently, is out of phase with the gen-
ence) direction and the inductive and capacitive erator voltage by the amount of the phase angle.
reactance vectors along the vertical, in opposing di- The voltage drop across resistor Rj,
rections. The impedance is the resultant (diagonal) Vî = I Ri = 1.46 X 10-=* X 20,000 = 29.2 volts
of the parallelogram formed by the total resistance, The voltage drop across resistor Rg,
Ri +
Rj, and the net reactance, Xj^ Xp. — Vi52 = I R2 = 1.46 X 10-' X 30,000 = 43.8 volts
According to our formula, the magnitude of the To construct the voltage diagram (Fig. 155c), we
impedance, have laid off the two vectors, Vjjj and Vu2, along
Z = VRM^(Xi^ - Xq)^ := V(5Q,000)^ + (46,900)^ the horizontal reference line, and also their vector
= V25X + 22 X 108 _ ^47 >< iqs -
lO'* sum, Vui + Vjj2 = 29.2 + 43.8 = 73 volts. (The
6.86 X 10* = 68,600 ohms vector sum of vectors that are in line and in the
The tangent of the phase angle, 6: same dii-ection is the same as the arithmetic sum of
their magnitudes.)
tane
X _ 46,900
0.938. = =
The voltage drop across inductor L, V^ I X^
50,000
— 1.46 X 10-* X 62,800 = 91.6 volts. Since this
From tables we phase angle
find the 43.2°.
voltage leads the current by 90°, we have laid off
Equivalently, the cosine of the phase angle,
vector Vl in the voltage diagram (c) perpendicularly
R = 50,000 upward, so that it forms an angle of -f 90° with the
cos = 0.729.
current (I) and the resistive drops.
Z 68,600
The phase angle be 43.2° (from
6 again turns out to The voltage drop across capacitor, C, Vq I Xq =
tables). If you measinre the magnitude of the im-
= 1.46 X 10-» X 15,900 =
23.2 volts. Since the
pedance vector (Z) in Fig. 155& and the phase angle capacitive voltage drop lags behind the cxurent by
0, you will find that the graphical result checks
the 90°, we have V^ perpendicularly
laid off vector
numerical computations. Thus we see that the gen- downward, so that it forms an angle of —90° with
erator works into an inductive load with an im- the current and the resistive drops. The net reactive
pedance of 68,600 ohms and a phase angle of 43.2°. voltage drop in the circuit, V^ — V^, = 91.6 — 23.2
As a matter of fact, we could replace the circuit of = and since this voltage is positive it is
68.4 volts,
Fig. 155a at the generator frequency by an equiva-

shoviTi as a perpendicular upward vector in the
lent circuit that has but a single inductance, L^, and
voltage diagram.
a single resistor, R^. (See Fig. 155d.) The value of Finally, the vector sum of the resistive and reac-
tive voltage drops in the circuit must equal the ap-
the resistor is equal to the total resistance (Rj + Rj)
of the circuit shown in (a); that is, R^ = 50,000 plied generator voltage, or E = V (73)^ -f (68.4)^
ohms. The equivalent inductance, L^, must have the = v'5329 + 4671 = VIO.OOO = 100 volts. Checking
same reactance at 10 kc as tlie net reactance (X) of the resultant vector diagram (c), you will find it to
the original circuit shown in (a). be 100 volts in magnitude (length) and, moreover.
it leads the current (I) and the resistive voltage the actual parallel branches by an equivalent simple
drops by the same phase angle we found pre- series circuit. The power calculations for a parallel
viously; that is, = 43.2°. Equivalently, the cur- same as for a series circuit, once the
circuit are the
rent in the circuit lags behind the generator voltage phase angle between the apphed emf and the total
by a phase angle of 43.2°. To make this phase rela- line current is knoviTi.
tion clear, the voltage vector diagram is frequently If the parallel a-c circuit consists only of resistive
drawn with the generator voltage (E) along the branches all the branch currents will be in-phase
horizontal reference line, which rotates the diagram with the applied voltage, and the calculations will
clockwise by the amount of the phase angle. The then be exactly the same as for a parallel d-c circuit
current then forms a negative or lagging angle with the same apphed voltage and the same resis-
(—43.2° in this case) with the apphed generator tive branches. If the parallel circuit consists of a
voltage, E. resistive and a capacitive branch, the current in
power relations
In conclusion, let us explore the the capacitive branch will lead the applied voltage
in the circuit of Fig. 155a. We have aheady seen by 90 degrees in phase, while that in the resistance
that the power factor, P.F. = cos ^ = 0.729, which will be in-phase vdth the applied voltage. As a con-
is rather low (compared to 1). The apparent power sequence, the total current supplying the circuit
= E I = 100 X 1-46 X 10-8 = 0.146 volt-ampere will lead the apphed voltage by a phase angle
The real power = EI cos^ = 0.146 X 0.729 = somewhere between zero and (plus) ninety degrees.
0.1063 watt The upshot is that the total circuit impedance is
The reactive power = EI sin^ = 0.146 sin 43.2° = made up of resistance and capacitive reactance and,
0.146 X 0.685 = 0.1 var hence, the parallel circuit can be replaced (for the
Summarizing the most important results of our purpose of calculation) by an equivalent series cir-
analysis, we see that the circuit of Fig. 155a offers cuit, consisting of a capacitor and resistor. Finally,
an impedance of 68,600 ohms, draws a current of if the parallel circuit consists of a resistive and an
1.46 ma that lags 43.2° behind the generator volt- inductive branch, the current in the inductive
age, and consumes 0.1063 watt real power. branch will lag behind the applied voltage by 90°,
while the current in the resistive branch will be in-
PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS phase with the applied voltage. The result is that
the total current supplying the parallel circuit will
We do not have to learn anything new to deal
lag behind the applied voltage by a phase angle
with parallel a-c circuits; we need only combine
our knowledge of simplifying d-c parallel circuits,
somewhere between zero and (minus) ninety de-
grees. Moreover, the total circuit impedance is
vectors,impedance, and power calculations. The
made up of resistance and inductive reactance, so
important fact, you will recall, that is true for any
that the parallel circuit can be replaced by an
parallel circuit is that the potential difference
equivalent series circuit, consisting of an inductance
across each branch of the circuit is the same and is
equal to the emf of the source. We need therefore

(coil) and a resistance. The most interesting case is
only divide this common potential difference by

when resistance, capacitance and inductance are all
present in the parallel circuit. It is not possible,

the "opposition" impedance) offered by each
(i.e.,
branch to determine each of the separate branch

then, to make a general prediction concerning the
phase angle and the nature of the total circuit im-
currents. Since impedance has a phase angle, each
pedance.
of the branch currents generally will have a phase
angle with respect to the line voltage or the current
R-L-C Parallel Circuit. Fig. 156 illustrates a typi-
cal parallel a-c circuit consisting of resistive, capaci-
in a resistive branch. Hence, to find the total "line"
tive and inductive branches. Let us compute the
current supplying the parallel branches, we must
branch currents, the total current, the total imped-
compute the vector sum of the individual branch
ance and the power consumed for the circuit valuef
currents, rather than the arithmetic sum (as we did
illustrated.
for parallel d-c circuits). Once we have the total
line current (I) in the circuit, we can easily obtain
First, we obtain the three branch impedances..
the total impedance of the circuit by dividing the

Zj, Zj and Zg: Zj = R = 6 ohms; Zj = Xg = L
2k iC
applied emf by this current (Z =— ). The resulting
1X io«
= 24 ohms;
total impedance, moreover, will permit us to replace 6.28 X 100 X
and Z3 = Xi, = 2 TT f L = 6.283 X 100 X 19 X 10-^ through the capacitor leads the impressed voltage
= 12 ohms. (E) by 90°; we thereforedraw the current vector I,,
upward along the vertical, from the
Substituting in Ohm's Law for A.C. (I =— ), we
perpendicularly
same starting point as the voltage vector. Finally,
the current flowing in the inductance lags the im-
obtain for the individual branch currents, I^, Iq and
pressed voltage by 90° and, hence, we lay out cur-
rent vector II perpendicularly downward from the
Ig = — =8 amps; 1(3 =— = 2 amps; and starting point of the voltage vector.
It isevident that the current through the capaci-
48
T
"-
= — =4 ,
amps. tor is
(!(,)180° out of phase with the current
12 through the inductor (1^); that is both are in Une,
To obtain the total current, Ij, which is the vector but in opposite directions. The vector sum of these
sum of the branch currents, we construct the cur- two reactive currents, therefore, is simply their
rent vector diagram, illustrated in Fig. 156. Since arithmetic difference, I^ — 1q. Since II is greater
the generator voltage (£) is common voltage
the than !(., this difference is positive and (I^ — lo) is
impressed across all the branches, we use it as the an inductive or lagging vector. The final step is to
horizontal reference vector in our diagram. The obtain the vector sum of (I^ — Iq) and I^, the re-
current through the resistance, I^, is in phase with sultant of these two vectors being tlie total cur-
the applied voltage and, hence, this current vector rent, I^. As you can see from the diagram, this re-
is laid out along the horizontal also. The current sultant is the diagonal of the parallelogram formed
Z3
CIRCUIT
s 1.41 oKtns
ohms VECTOR. PIAGRAW

R = s.îcosi+'s S.65"
IN\PEPANa TR\AN6Lt ll»4a
R-5.65A
4»V
100'^ 0'
E<JUIVAl£NT SEWES ORCUlF
WAVEFORMS
Fig. 156. R-L-C Parallel Circuit, Vector Diagram, Impedance Triangle, Waveforms and Equivalent Series Circuit
between vectors (Ij, — Iq) and 1^, or equivalently, resolve the impedance into two rectangular com-
the hypotenuse of a right triangle, of which the
it is ponent vectors, as we have learned in Chapter 11.
two sides are I^ and (I^ —
!(,). The length of this Fig. 156 shows the impedance triangle obtained
hypotenuse, you will recall, equals the square root by resolving the impedance vector into two rectan-
of the sum of the squares of the two sides. Accord- gular components. Here we have drawn the im-
ingly, the magnitude (length) of the total current pedance vector with a length equal to its magnitude
vector. of 5.82 ohms and with a direction that is inclined
It = + (II -
VIr" = V(8)^ + Ic)'' (4-2)2 = with respect to the horizontal by the amount of
V64 + = y/68 = 4
8.25 amps. the phase angle (9 =
14°). The horizontal compo-
Phase Angle and Power Factor. It is also evident nent represents the total resitance and it equals
from the current vector diagram (Fig. 156) that the R = Z cos^ = 5.82 X 0.97 = 5.65 ohms
cosine of the phase angle (6) between the total cur-
The vertical component represents the total react-
ance and it equals
rent (Ij) and the impressed voltage (E) is simply the
ratio of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse, or the X= Z sine = 5.82 X 0.242 = 1.41 ohms
Since the total current lags the impressed voltage,
resistive current (I^) to the total current (I^). This
is also the power factor. Hence, the power factor

we know that this reactance must be inductive and,
hence, we can write
8
P.F. = costf 'R = 0.97 Xl = 1.41 = 2Tf L= 628.3 L
It 8.25
From tables we obtain the phase angle Hence, L = ^^ = 2.25 X 10"* = 2.25 miUi-
^ = =
14° 628.3
arc cos 0.97
Power. The apparent power taken up by the cir- henrys.
cuit of Fig. 156 is the product of the appUed voltage Having thus resolved the total impedance into
and the total current: resistive and reactive rectangular components, we
Apparent Power = E = 48 X 8.25 = 396 volt-
It
can draw the simple equivalent series circuit shown
amperes in Fig. 156, consisting of a 5.65-ohm resistor and a
The real or true power consimied is this apparent 2.25-millihenry inductor in series with the 48-volt,
power mtiltiphed by the power factor, or 100-cycle generator. You must remember, however,
Real Power = E I^ cosS = 396 X 0.97 = 384 watts. that this equivalent series circuit replaces the orig-
You can check on this value by remembering that inal parallel circuit only at the generator frequency
real power is consumed only in the resistance. of 100 cps. If the generator suppUes a different a-c
Hence, frequency, another equivalent series circuit wiU re-
P = E
Ir X48 8 = X = 384 watts again. sult.
Finally, the reactive power is the apparent power Fig. 156 also shows the phase relations between
multipUed by the sine of the phase angle. (See Fig. the waveforms of the instantaneous generator volt-
150.) Hence,
age (E) and the various branch currents. The re-
Reactive Power E !» sin6 =396 sinl4° 396 = = sistive cirrrent, I^, is seen to be in-pJiase with the
= generator voltage, though smaller in ampUtude. The

X 0.242 96 vars.
Total Impedance and Equivalent Circuit. Accord- total (hne) current, 1^, lags slightly behind E. The
ing to Ohm's Law for a.c, the total impedance of inductive current, I^, lags E by 90°, while the capac-
the circuit is the apphed voltage divided by the itive current, I^, leads the voltage by 90°. The net
total current, or
reactive current, I^ — Iq, has a small amphtude and
lagsbehind E by 90°.
Z = -^=^« = 5.82 ohms Although the circuit of Fig. 156 is typical of many
It 8.25 R-L-C parallel circuits, there are circuits in which
Since the ciurent lags the voltage by a phase angle the current flowing through the capacitance is
of 14°, the impedance vector has this same phase greater than that flowing through the inductance.
angle (6 = 14°). From the construction of the im- This results in drawing a net capacitive current and
pedance triangle (Fig. 146) we know that the im- shifts the entire current vector diagram above the
pedance made up of resistive and reactive com-
is horizontal voltage vector, in contrast to that shown
ponents. To draw our equivalent series circuit, we in Fig. 156. The total ciurent (l^) will then lead the
would hke to know what these resistive and reac- impressed voltage (E) by a certain phase angle. The
tive components are. This means that we have to formula for the magnitude of the total ciurent
(I^ = VIr' + (Ir. - lo)'). however, is still good, 9. The circuit of problem 24 is disconnected and the
larger than I^, the square of the resistor,inductive coil and capacitor are connected in
since even with !(,
parallel across a 12-volt 60-cycle hne. What is the cur-
negative quantity (I^ — Iq) is still a positive num-
rent in each branch, the total line current, the total
ber. The equivalent series circuit will then contain
impedance, and the true power consumed?
a capacitor instead of the inductor.
Practice Exercise No. 13 SUMMARY

1. Explain the significance of the power factor. What The product of voltage and current (volt-amperes)
is its range of values? Do power companies desire a in an a-c circuit is caUed the apparent power (E I).
high or a low P.P.? To obtain the real or true power consumed by the
Draw a power triangle and explain the relations
2.
circuit, the apparent power must be multiplied by
between apparent power, real or true power, and re-
the power factor, which equals the cosine of the
active power.
phase angle between voltage and current. (P.P. :=
3. A
wattmeter in an a-c circuit reads 4000 watts, an
cos^; P = EI cosS.)
a-c voltmeter across the line reads 120 volts and an
The powerfactor may also be determined by
ammeter inserted in series with the circuit reads 50
dividing the wattmeter reading by the product of
amperes total current. What is the apparent power, the
power factor, the true power, and the reactive power? the voltmeter and ammeter readings. (P.P. = cos6
4. A 0.1-henry coil with a winding resistance of 18 p

ohms is connected across a 220-volt, 60-cycle power
= ) Power companies desire a high power fac-
source. What is (a) the reactance of the coil; (b) its

tor.
impedance; (c) the current through the coil;and (d)
Reactive power in an a-c circuit is the product
the phase angle by which the current lags the apphed
of apparent power and the sine of the phase angle
voltage?
5. A "black box" is connected in series with a rheo- (Preac = Î smO). It is measiuTed in vars.
stat across the 60-cycle a-c supply. When the rheostat The power relations in an a-c circuit may be por-
is adjusted for equal voltage drops across it and the trayed by a (right) power triangle, with apparent
black box, the d-c resistance of the rheostat measures power as hypotenuse, real power as horizontal side
3770 ohms and that of the black box 25 ohms. What is and reactive power as vertical side.
the impedance of the black box and by what could it Ohm's Law apphes to A.C., when resistance is
be replaced? replaced by impedance. Thus, the current is the
6. A capacitor of 80 ohms reactance is connected in
applied voltage divided the total impedance.
series with a 50-ohm resistance across a 100-volt, 60-
cycle a-c line. Calculate the current in the circuit, the
I Z, and Z = = VR' + (Xi. - Xc)^)
phase angle by which the current leads the applied Y
voltage, the capacitance, the real power consumed and In an alternating-current series circuit, the total
the reactive power.
7. A series R-L-C circuit consisting of a 200-ohm current (I =— ) is everywhere the same and the
resistor, a 20-millihenry choke coil, and a 0.36-iji ca-
pacitor is connected across a 20-volt, 1000-cycle a-c vector sum of the voltage drops across the separate
voltage. Compute the inductive reactance, the capaci- parts of the circuits equals the applied emf. The
tive reactance, the net reactance, the impedance, the total impedance is the vector sum of the separate
hne current, the phase angle and state whether the resistancesand reactances in the circuit. The total
current leads or lags the apphed emf. Also compute (line) cmrent leads or lags the applied emf, de-
the line current, when the capacitor is removed from pending upon whether the net reactance (X^ Xq) —
the circuit and that when the choke coU is removed
ftrom the circuit.
is inductive (-{-) or capacitive ( — ).
In an alternating-current parallel circuit, the

8. A IGO-ohm resistor, a 0.25-henry inductance coil
common potential difference applied across each
with a winding resistance of 40 ohms and a 17.7-jnf
branch of the circuit equals the emf of the soiu-ce.
capacitor are connected in series across a 220-volt, 60-
cycle a-c power
Find the potential difference
line.
The cmrent in each branch is this common voltage
and the capaci-
across the resistor, the inductance coil, divided by the impedance of the branch. The total
tor. Also calculate the total impedance, the hne cur- cuiTcnt is the vector sum of tlie branch currents.
rent, the phase angle, the apparent power and the true The total impedance is the applied emf divided by
power consumed. the total (line) current (Z = E/IJ.
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
RESONANCE
If you have ever taken a pretty girl on a leisurely quency and the timing your impulses to the nat-
of
boat ride on a balmy summer night, you may know you have produced
ural frequency of the oscillator,
what "resonance" is— a feehng of "being in tune," resonance with consequent large-amplitude oscilla-
"having sympathetic vibrations" and pleasant har- tions. You can produce forced oscillations of the
mony between you and the maiden. Although the spring at some other frequency by varying the
romantic version of resonance defies an exact defi- rhythm of your pulling, but the amplitude (maxi-
nition, the state of 'Tjeing in tune" and having mum displacement) of these forced oscillations will
"sympathetic vibrations" describes pretty well the be much smaller than those produced at the natural
principle of physical resonance, which is a univer- frequency of oscillations.
sal mechanical and electrical phenomenon.
Ordinary physical objects best illustrate the prin-
ciple of resonance. Every object has a "natural"
frequency of vibrations, which depends on its di-
mensions and on its mass. When you strike a key
on a piano, the hammer "excites" a string of a cer-
tain length, mass and tension to its natural fre-
quency of vibrations and it gives forth a tone of cor-
responding pitch. The piano tone may excite a
nearby vase into vibrations, resulting in unpleasant
"resonance." The vibrations of the vase occur only
Fig. 157. Mechanical Spring Pendulum
when the frequency of the piano tone is the same
as the natural frequency of the vase, and the two It is showTi in advanced texts (e.g.. See Elec-
are said to be in tune or in resonance. Moreover, tronics Made Simple) that electrical circuits con-
as long as the same key is struck repeatedly, energy taining inductance and capacitance comprise oscil-
will continue to be transferred to the vase and its lating systems similar to the mechanical spring
resonant vibrations will be maintained. pendulum. The inductance of a coil, which resists
As another example, soldiers marching across a any change of the cmrent, is analogous to the in-
bridge in step and at a certain cadence may cause ertia of a mass or weight that resists any sudden
the bridge to vibrate at its natural frequency. If change in its motion. Similarly, the charge on a
the constant small impulses from the marching feet capacitor is analogous to the displacement and ten-
take place at thesame frequency as the natural fre- sioning of the spring. The capacitance and elasticity
quency of bridge oscillations, resonance takes place of the spring are also (inversely) related.
and the bridge is forced into oscillations at its nat- When you extend the spring of the mechanical
ural frequency. Since the effect is cumulative, the pendulum by pulling tlie weight, you store potential
amplitude of vibrations may become so large that energy in it in the form of tension. Analogously,
the bridge will be destroyed. This is the reason why placing a charge on a capacitor, stores potential
soldiers are told to break step when crossing a (electric)energy in the electric field between the
bridge. plates. When youlet the weight go, the tension or
Electrical Oscillations and Resonance. A weight potential energy is released into the (kinetic) energy
on a spring, when pulled downward and released, of motion of the weight. Moreover, because of the
will oscillate freely as a pendulum at its natural mechanical inertia or flywheel effect of the weight,
frequency, which depends on the weight and the it does not stop when the spnng is slack, but con-
elasticity of the spring (See Fig. 157). If you pull tinues moving until the spring is compressed again
the weight each time it approaches its bottom posi- and the energy of motion is once again stored as
tion,you can produce very large, continuous oscil- potential energy in the compressed spring. Simi-
lations,which die down only after you stop the larly, a you discharge a capacitor through an in-
rhytlunic impulses. Again, by adjusting the fre- ductance coil (in a closed circuit) the energy of the
156
electric field is released by the motion of the in the resistance in order to maintain the oscilla-
charges (i.e. current) through the coil, which build tions at their large, resonant amplitude. Thus, one
up a magnetic field about the coil. The energy in of the significant effects of resonance is that it per-
the electric field of the capacitor is thus temporarily mits the most efficient possible transfer of energy
stored in the magnetic field of the coil. And because from a power source to a load. Another and even
the inductance (inertia) of the coil resists any more important result of resonance is the fact that
change in the current (motion of charges), the cxu-- a resonant circuit responds to or "selects" only a
rent does not stop when the capacitor is fuUy dis- particular (resonant) frequency and rejects all
charged, but continues to flow until the capacitor is others. This selectivity of resonant circuits makes
recharged in the opposite direction and the energy them highly useful, in conjunction with electron
is again stored in its electric field. Just as the me- tube ampHBers, for the selection and amplffication
chanical pendulum continues to oscillate by the al- of a specfic radio frequency, or a narrow band of
ternate storage and release of mechanical energy frequencies. (See Electronics Made Simple)
in the spring and weight, respectively, the electrical
SERIES RESONANCE
L-C circuit continues to oscillate by the alternate
storage and release of energy in the fields of the
We have seen that the inductive reactance (XJ
of a coil increases with frequency, while the capaci-
capacitor and coil. The mechanical pendulum stops
tive reactance (X,,) of a capacitor decreases with
oscillating when all its used up in the
energy is
of the spring and bearings; similarly, an

frequency (See Fig. 158). At some frequency, f„
friction
they must both be equal and the net reactance
inductive-capacitive circuit stops oscillating when
all its electrical energy is used up in the inevitable
—
(X^ Xp) will equal zero. At this resonant frequency
winding and conduc- f^, therefore, the total opposition to current flow
resistance present in the coil
(impedance) of an R-L-C circuit is simply the re-
tors.
sistance. Since the net reactance is zero, the cur-
The analogy between mechanical and electrical
rent at resonance is in phase with the applied volt-
circuits explainshow an L-C circuit can function as
an oscillating system, when d-c pulses of energy
age (0 =0) and is Law (I
given by Ohm's E/R). =
Since the impedance equal to the resistance at
is
are fed to it with the right timing to excite its nat-
on electronics the resonant frequency, it is obviously at a mini-
ural frequency of oscillations. In texts
it isexplained how such an electrical oscillator is
mum and, hence, the line current supplying the cir-
cuit is a maximum.
capable of converting direct to alternating current
at the frequency of natural oscillations. What hap-
pens when current that is already alternating is fed
to such an L-C oscillating system? The situation
is analagous to pulhng the weight of the spring
pendulum back and forth at a frequency that is

not its natiu-al frequency, thus forcing it to oscillate
at the impressed frequency. This can be done, of
course, but the amplitude of the oscillations (dis-
placements) is strictly limited by the opposition of
the spring and the weight. Similarly, forcing an
electrical L-C circuit to oscillate at some arbitrarily
imposed frequency, hmits the amphtude of the
oscillating (alternating) current to that permitted by
the combined opposition (impedance) of the coil
Fig. 158. Variation of Inductive Reactance, Capacitive
and the capacitor. Reactance and Net Reactance with Frequency
However, when the frequency of the force (volt-
age) impressed on the spring pendulum or the L-C Conditions for Series Resonance. Let us sum
circuit equals the naturalfrequency of either oscil- marize the conditions for resonance in an R-L-C
lating system, resonance is produced, and the am- series circuit in mathematical form. At resonance:
plitude of the oscillations is limited only by the Reactances: X^ =
X^ (Inductive Reactance equals
(mechanical or electrical) resistance of the system. capacitive reactance)
At resonance, only sufficient energy need be fed to Net Reactance: X = X^ — X^ = (Net reactance
such an oscillating system to overcome the losses is zero)
Impedance: Z VR^ =
X* V^^ + R = + = f, =
159.1
(Impedance equals resistance and is minimum)
VLC
Total (line) Current: I =—= V
Z
—R f where either f is in cps, L in henrys, and C in micro-
farads (/tf) or f is in megacycles (mc), L in micro-
(Current follows Ohm's Law and is maximum) henrys (/xh) and C in micromicrofarads (ft/tf).
EXAMPLE 1: A 2-henry inductance coil is con-
Power Factor: P.F. = cos^ = A = _5. = 1 nected in series with a 10-microfarad capacitor and
Z R both are placed across a variable-frequency a-c
(Power Factor is unity) source. At what frequency will resonance occur?
= =
Phase Angle: 6
(Phase angle
arc cos 1
is zero; current is
0°
in phase with volt- Solution: L =—
159.1
= — 159.1
zn^^zz = —V20
159.1
zir —
age) VL C V2 X 10
35.6 cps.
Resonant Frequency. We can easily derive the
resonant frequency, f„ at which resonance occurs
EXAMPLE 2: A S-fipi capacitor and a coil are
placed in series in a circuit designed to resonate at
and these conditions prevail. By definition, at the
50 megacycles. What should the inductance of the
resonant frequency, f^
coil be to attain this resonant frequency?
Xi. Xn
(159.1)2 25,330
Hence, L
1
X^ and
Solution: i^ =
27rf,
27rf,C
(Substituting for LC LC
25,330 25,330 25,330
Xc) hence, L
f ,2 C (50)2 X5 2500 X5
4,r2LC
(Cross-multiplying)
= 2.02 microhenrys.
Series-Resonant Circuit and Resonance Curve.
1
andf. r=: (taking the square root) A typical series-resonant circuit, consisting of re-
EttVLC sistance, inductance, and capacitance, is illustrated
where f^ is in cycles per second, L in henrys and C in Fig. 159. Here a 150 microhenry coil is con-
in farads. By substituting for the constant l/27r, this nected in series with a 169-micro-microfarad ca-
may be written pacitor and a resistor to a 1-volt, variable-frequency
UBr-*
a-c source. The resistance (R) represents the wind- capacitance are 125 times as great as the voltage
ing resistance of the coil, the "leakage" resistance of drop across the resistance or the applied emf. An
the capacitor, plus any additional resistance (such emf of 1 volt produces coil and capacitor voltages
as that of the wires) in the circuit. of 125 volts each! This situation, which is typical of
Let us first determine the resonant frequency of a resonant circuit, is pictured in vector diagram (a)
this circuit, using the simplified formula for L in of Fig. 160 below. Note that the voltage drops
microhenrys and C in micromicrofarads. Hence, across the inductance and capacitance, being in
159.1 159.1 159.1 phase opposition, cancel each other out completely,
r^mc;_ ^___^__ _ - while the voltage drop across the resistance (I R) is
^25;3gQ ^gg ^
in plutse with the current and equals the emf of
= 1 mc = 1000 kc the source (each 1 volt).
The resonant frequency of the circuit, thus, is 1000
kilocycles. At this frequency, the inductive react- 4 Eu-IXl = »15V
ance of the coil
Xi, = 2 TT f L = 6.283 X 10« X 150 X lO""* =
942 ohms
Eu-15V
The capacitive reactance of the capacitor
1 1
Xo = 10-"
2 TT f C 6.283 X 10« X 169 X
= 942 ohms.
As expected, the inductive and capacitive react-
ances turn out to be equal at the resonant fre-
quency. It is apparent from the formulas for ca- Er.= IR='IV=E Er=E«1V
pacitive and inductive reactance and from Fig. 158
that at frequencies below resonance tlie capacitive
reactance is greater than the inductive reactance
and, hence, the circuit is said to be capacitive at
these frequencies. At frequencies above resonance,
in contrast, the inductive reactance exceeds the
' Et-15V
capacitive reactance and, hence, the circuit is said
to be inductive above resonance. This means that
for frequencies below resonance the entire circuit
can be replaced by an equivalent capacitance in
Ec=IXcHZ5V
series with a resistance, while for frequencies above
resonance the circuit can be replaced by an equiva-
h^ = 115
(0)^
lent inductance in series with a resistance.
Let us assimie initially that the total series re- R=7.5A
sistance, R, in the circuit, is 7.5 ohms. This includes Fig. 160. Vector Diagrams for the Resonant Circuit
Illustrated in Fig. 159
the coil winding resistance, the resistance of the
connecting leads, the leakage resistance of the
At the right of Fig. 159 we have plotted a graph
capacitor, etc. With R = 7.5 ohms, the total current. of the total (line) current in the R-L-C circuit at
1 = = — = 0.1333 ampere
^
left against the frequency of the applied voltage.
Such a graph is known as a resonance curve, since
~R 7.5
it portrays the variation of the hne current for fre-
The voltage drop across the resistance,
quencies near and at resonance. The upper curve
Ejj = I R = 0.133 X 7.5 = 1 volt has been drawn for a total circuit resistance (R) of
The voltage drop across the inductance.
7.5 ohms, the case we have just discussed; while the
El = I Xl = 0.133 X 942 = 125 volts (approx). lower curve appHes for a circuit resistance of 12.5
And the voltage drop across the capacitance, ohms. Note how sharply the upper curve rises to its
Eo =I Xo = 0.133 X 942 = 125 volts maximum current of 0.133 ampere at resonance,
Thus, we end up
with the amazing situation that while the lower curve approaches its maximum
the voltage drops across both the inductance and point more gradually, with its sides (called "skirts")
-
sloping out considerably. Because of the higher re- winding resistance of the coil, you will usually
sistance, the lower curve has a maximum current
find the term Q apphed to the coil of a resonant cir-
cuit. Thus, for the lower resonance curve in Fig.
E 1
=
at resonance of only — = -— = 0.08 ampere, com- 159, where R 12.5 ohms,
pared to 0.133 ampere for the upper cvirve. At fre-

below resonance
^ ^=^=75,orQ
Q =
R 12.5 ^
= = ^=75
R 12.5
^
quencies considerably above or
(about 25 kc on either side), the hne current de- The circuit Q also determines the ratio of the
pends chiefly on the reactance and is practically in- voltage drop across either the coil or the capacitor
dependent of the circuit resistance. Both curves, to the source voltage (E). This is easily shown:
merge off-resonant frequencies of
= -—E
therefore, for
greater than about 25 kilocycles. The current I
"Q."
Sharpness of Resonance and Quality Factor
R-L-C The voltage drop across the coil,
The sharpness of the resonance curve of an
circuit is of considerable importance in tuned
El = I Xl = -p- Xl
(resonant) radio-frequency amplifiers, since it de-
termines the ability of the amplifier to select only
the desired frequency or a narrow band of fre- hence. ^=%=Q;orEL = QE.
quencies from die great number of incoming fre-
E R
quencies. Let us compare the "selectivity" of the The voltage drop across the capacitor
upper resonance curve in Fig. 159 (R = 7.5 ohms)

against frequencies adjacent to the resonant fre-
Eq — I Xo —
R
quency, f^, with the selectivity of the lower curve
(R = 12.5
ohms) against adjacent, off-resonant fre- hence, Ê = ^R = Q; or Eo = QE.
quencies. For example, at 5 kilocycles on either
side off resonance (i.e., at 995 kc and 1005 kc), the Thus, in the lower resonance curve (Fig. 159),
line current of the upper curve has dropped from
where R= 12.5 ohms, the hne current
,
I = -E =
R
0.133 ampere to 0.08 ampere, which is -^ = 0.6
= 0.08 ampere, the voltage across the coil,
or 60 per cent of resonant value. In contrast, the

its 12.5
hne current of the lower curve at 5 kc off resonance El = Xl = 0.08 X 942 = 75 volts, and the voltage
I
has dropped from 0.08 ampere to only 0.06 ampere, across the capacitor, E^ = X^, = 0.08 X 942 = 75
I
volts again. These results could have been obtained

which is -— = 0.75 or 75 per cent of its resonant more simply by using the Q-f actor:
0.08
The voltage across the coil, E^ = Q E = 75 X
value. Since the upper curve has dropped by as 1 = 75 volts and the voltage across the capacitor
much as 40 percent for 5 kc off resonance, while Eo = Q E = 75 X 1 = 75 volts. The phase relation!
the lower curve has dropped only 25 per cent, the between El, Eq and En (=E) for the circuit of Fig
upper curve is clearly far more selective and dis- 159, when R =
12.5 ohms and Q 75, are shown ir =
criminates far better against unwanted frequencies the vector diagram of Fig. 160 (b). Note that th«
than the lower curve. voltage across the resistance equals the appliec
The sharpness of the resonance ctrrve is deter- emf (1 volt), as before.
mined by tiie ratio of the reactance of either the example: lO-microhenry coil with 20 ohm:
a
coil or the capacitor at the resonant frequency to winding is connected in an L-C circui
resistance
the total resistance of the circuit. This ratio is that resonates at 150 megacycles. What is the Q o
known as the quality factor or "Q" of the circuit. the coil? If the apphed emf is 5 milhvolts, what i
Mathematically, the Q is definad: the coil voltage at resonance?
X, 2^ X,^ 1 Solution: Q =
X
^ R R ' ^ R 2,rfCR 2,rf L 6.283 X 150 X 10" X 10 IP-* _ ^^^
Since X^ = resonance, both definitions result
X^, at R ~ 20
in the same value for Q. However, with most of the the coil voltage E^, = Q E = 471 X 5 X lO"* =
circuit resistance (R) being associated with the 2.36 volts.

Since the coil voltage in a resonant circuit is "ampli-

120
fied"by the Q-factor over the appUed voltage, it is the 0-100 miUiammeter should be about
evident why a high-Q coil is desirable. 1940
You can perform a relatively simple experiment 0.062 ampere or 62 ma. Placing the 0-500 volt A-C
that wiU demonstrate clearly the basic facts voltmeter across the choke, you should measure a
of
series resonance. voltage of about 0.062X 3770 234 volts coil volt- =
EXPERIMENT 25: The components needed for this
age. Next place the voltmeter across the capacitor.
It should read a voltage drop of about 0.062
experiment are: a 1000-ohm, 10-watt resistor; a 10- X
henry filter choke with about 200 ohms (d-c) wind- 5300 =
328 volts capacitor voltage. Finally, place
ing resistance (or less); three paper capacitors, rated the voltmeter across the 1000-ohm resistor and read
at 500 volts working voltage each, with values of a voltage of about 0.062 1000 X
62 volts. Al- =
0.5, 0.2, and 0.3 microfarads (other combinations though the choke coil and capacitor voltages each
totaling up to these values are also acceptable); a exceed the line voltage considerably, the circuit is
0-500 volt range A-C voltmeter; a 0-100 ma A-C not at resonance, since the net reactance (X^ — X^)
milliammeter; and a 200-ma fuse to protect the com- isnot equal to zero.
ponents. Hook the components in series with each Now place the 0.2-niicrofarad capacitor in paral-
other and the 120-volt, 60-cycle a-c power Une, as
lel with the 0.5-fii capacitor to obtain a total ca-
illustrated in Fig. 161. Initially, place only the 0.5- pacitance of about 0.7 microfarads. The capacitive
microfarad capacitor in series with the 10-henry
ixio«
choke and the 1000-ohm resistor. reactance is now = 3770 ohms (ap
We shall approach resonance by changing the 6.28 X 60 X 0.7
proximately) or the same as the inductive reactance
capacitance, since the frequency of the power hne
(which imchanged). By the definition of series
is
(60 cycles) is not under our control. As you can
easily check, the inductive reactance of the coil is
resonance (Xl =
Xo), the circuit is now at reso-
about 3770 ohms. With the nance. The line current indicated on the milham-
0.5-/j,f capacitor in the
circuit,the capacitive reactance timis out to be meter will rise to the value of E/R or 120/1200 =
about 5300 ohms, so that the net reactance is 3770 0.1 ampere or 100 ma. (The total resistance R=
—5300 = —1530 ohms capacitive. Since the total 1000 -j- 200 = 1200 ohms.) The "Q" of the resonant
resistance
plus
1200 ohms (i.e., the 1000-ohm resistor
is
200 ohms coil winding resistance), the total im-

.
circmt
.
IS
.
—
X.
—- =
= 3770 3.14, which is not very high.
pedance turns out to be Z =
V(1200)2 -f (—1530)2 (Much higher Q's could be produced easily by
= 1940 ohms. Hence, the line current measured on lowering the value of the resistor, but this would
izovoir
60 CYCLE
AC
rOWERlME
1000
«»..»_
.
lOWATTfJEaSTOR
I 0-2/1/ CAPACITOR I
O.'ijxj CAPACITUK
Fig. 161. Esperiment 25: Series Resonance
—
i62 Electricity Made Simple
and excessive voltages,

result in a large line current and one of the most widely used devices in
it is
which would damage the components or blow the and receivers.

radio transmitters
fuse.) The voltage drops across the choke coil and

ParaUel-Resonant Frequency. When an a-c volt
the capacitor rise to Q times the line voltage at age (£) is impressed across a parallel-tuned (tank)
resonance, or to 3.14 X 120 = 377 volts each. The circuit, electrical resonance occurs at approximately
voltage drop across the resistor should read about the same frequency at which the circuit would
=
100 volts. Do not keep the circuit in "naturally" oscillate when excited. Analogous to the
0.1 X
1000
resonance too long to avoid overheating and pos- mechanical oscillating system we have discussed, a
sible damage to the components. parallel-resonant circuit just draws sufficient energy
Finally, let us take the circuit out of resonance from the a-c supply to overcome its internal (re-
When the 0.3- sistance) losses. This, indeed, is the fundamental

by connecting an excess capacitance.
microfarad capacitor is added in parallel with the meaning of resonance: at the resonant frequency
0.5 and 0.2-iii capacitors, the total capacitance

will the external energy supply releases just enough
be 1 microfarad, and the capacitive reactance turns energy with the proper timing to sustain the natu-
out to be about 2,650 ohms. The net reactance is ral self-osciUations of the tank circuit. There are,
now 3770 2650 — =

1120 ohms inductive and, however, at least three definitions as to just what
hence, the entire cii-cuit behaves like an inductance. this parallel-resonant frequency of a tank circuit
is. These definitions of parallel resonance
are:
The total impedance in this case is
1. The frequency at which the line

current is in
V(1200)2 + (1120)2 ^ 1640
line current indicated on the milliam- phase with the impressed line voltage. This is the
ohms and the
condition of unity power factor.
120
meter should be about = 0.073 amp. or 73 ma. 2. The frequency at which the inductive react-
1640 ance equals the capacitive reactance (X^ = X^), as
Note that the current has dropped considerably in the case of series resonance.
from its maximvmi value at resonance. The voltage 3. The frequency at which the impedance of the
across the choke coil should now read 0.073 X 3770 tank circuit is a maximvim, or equivalently, the line
= 276 volts and that across the capacitor, 0.073 X current is a minimirai.
2650 = 194 volts, each being considerably less than When the resistance of the tank circuit is high and
the values measured at resonance. The voltage the ratio of (inductive or capacitive) reactance to the
across the resistor should read 0.073 X 1000 = 73 resistance (i.e. the "Q") is low, these definitions lead
volts. to parallel-resonant frequencies that differ shghtly
PAPIALLEL RESONANCE with each other and the frequency of natural oscil-
Resonance can be attained in a parallel cir-
also lations. Fortunately, when
the Q of the circuit is at
cuit, consisting of a capacitive branch and an in- all large (more than
10), the various parallel-reso-
by as httle as one per cent.
ductive branch (see Fig. 162). The capacitive nant frequencies differ
branch may be represented by an essentially pure Neglecting this small difference, we define the
capacitance (C), while the inductive branch always parallel-resonant frequency for all practical pur-
contains, in addition to the inductance (L), some poses as the frequency at which the inductive re-
resistance (R) that represents the resistance of the actance equals the capacitive reactance.
coil and of the associated conductors. Such a cir- When Xl = X^,
cuit is known as a parallel-tuned or tank circuit
It wL= —
wC
4,r2PLC =l
and the resonant frequency,
1
f.=
2 ,rVL C
just as in the case of series resonance. The simpli-
fied formula we have developed for the series-reso-
159.1
nant frequency (f, = —=z=) may
^ ,
therefore also b«
,
Fig. 162. Parallel-Resonant (Tank) Circuit \/L C

applied to parallel resonance. Again we shall approach (parallel) resonance by

To get an idea of what happens at parallel reso- varying the capacitance. With C = 0.5 /if, the
nance, let us modify our circuit from the experi- (negative) capacitive reactance
ment in series resonance shghtly to make it a paral-
lel-resonant circuit. Xo = = —5300 ohms,
6.28 X 60 X 0.5 X 10-«
EXPERIMENT 26: We shall use the same com-
as before, while the inductive reactance X^ =
ponents as for Experiment 25, except that we omit
the 1000-ohm resistor, since we have no longer any
6.283 X 60 X 10 = 3770 ohms. With only the 200
ohms winding resistance present, the Q of the cir
need to hmit the current and the voltage drops and
Xl 3770
want to attain a circuit Q that is as high as possible. cmt
. .
is
.
raised to
,
— ^^ = = 18.85 or about 19.
Initially, connect the 10-henry, 200-ohm choke in R 200
parallel with the 0.5-microfarad capacitor and con- The impedance of the inductive branch.
nect a lead from each side of the parallel combina- Zl = VR' + Xl=^ = V(200)2 + (3770)2 =
tion to the 120-volt, 60-cycle a-c power line, as il- 3780 ohms (approximately).
lustrated in Fig. 163. You
need the 0-500 volt
will Hence, the current through the inductive branch.
a-c voltmeter only once, to measiu-e the hne volt-
age, which is also the voltage across the parallel I _ __i?2_
~ Zl ~ 3780 0.0318 ampere. The miUiam-
^
L-C combination. After you have recorded the line-
meter, thus, should indicate an inductive cun-ent of
voltage value, you can lay the a-c voltmeter aside.
Since we have to measure the currents in various about 32 milliamps. The current through the ca-
make E
parts of the circuit,
0-100 ma, a-c milliammeter into the
provisions to insert the
line, as well as
. .
pacitive branch,
, , T
I^, =— ^ 120
: 0.0227 amp. or
Xo 5300
into the inductiveand capacitive branches. You can about 23 ma on the meter. Finally, the impedance
break the hook-up wires at these current-measuring of a parallel circuit with branch impedances Z^ and
points to permit connecting the meter into the cir-
cuit, but be sure the wires are twisted together and
make contact when the ammeter is not inserted. Z = Zl X Zg , and since Zq = Xq, Z= ZlXq
+ Z0
ZI. Zi, + Xo"
Note that the denominator of this expression is the
total series impedance of the tank circuit, and since
Zl is primarily inductive reactance in this case (R

being very small), we may substitute the net react-
ance in the denominator with very little error re-
sulting. Hence, approximately.
Z = Zr. Xr, ZlXq 3780 X 5300

X -(Xo - XJ 5300 — 3770
3780 X 5300
13,100 ohms
1530
(where we have disregarded the — sign, since we
only want the magnitude). The total line current is
E= 120
therefore L= — = 0.00916 ^
ampere. Thus,
*
Z 13100
the miUiammeter, when inserted into the main line
(Fig. 163), should read about 9 mUHamperes line
current.
Now connect the 0.2-microfarad capacitor in
parallel with the 0.5-microfarad capacitor to obtain
a total capacitance of about 0.7 microfarad. ITiis
value,you will recall, produced series resonance in
Experiment 25; and since the parallel-resonant fre-
quency is the same, it should also produce parallel
Fig. 163. Experiment 26: Parallel Resonance resonance in the present setup. The inductive and
capacitive reactances equal 3770 ohms each, as

now 120
in the case of series resonance (experiment 25). The
has increased to about = 0.0136 ampere, oi
8,800
impedance of the inductive branch is 3780 ohms, as 13.6 ma. We conclude that the impedance of a
before, and the miUiammeter should again read parallel-resonant circuit is a maximum, while the
about 32 ma in the inductive branch. The current

line current is a minimum.
120 Circuits. Ex-periment 26 has
in the capacitive branch, !„ = —— = 0.0318 am-
Parallel-Resonant
demonstrated clearly that the behavior of a parallel-
o77U
pere, or about the same as the current in the induc- resonant circuit is radically different from that of a
tive branch (32 ma). The total impedance of the two aspects: 1. the
series-resonant circuit in at least
tank circuit is again impedance of a parallel-resonant circuit is a maxi-

'^^'^ Zlô mum, while that of a series-resonant circuit is a
Z= minimum; 2. the total (line) current of a parallel-
^L "T -Ô ^sertcB
resonant circuit is a minimum, while that of a series-
or stated in viôrds, the product of the branch im-
resonant is a maximum. There is one other im-
pedances divided by the total series impedance.
portant difference between these two types of reso-
Since the inductive and capacitive reactances can-
cel in this case (each being 3770 ohms), the total
nance. We
have seen that in a series-resonant circuit
the individual voltage drops across the inductance
series impedance is simply the circuit resistance of
and capacitance may be large, but the sum of the
200 ohms. Hence, the total impedance
reactive voltage drops must equal zero, and, more-
^^ Zi^XXq 3780 X 3770
^7^^0(^(j^j^^ over, the voltage drop across the resistance equals
200 the impressed (supply) voltage. Since in a parallel
Thus, the total impedance at parallel resonance has circuit the same, constant supply voltage is im-
risen to over five times its non-resonant value
of
pressed across all branches, there can be no voltage
The current, consequently, has
13,200 ohms. line
rise across any branch at resonance. The individual
decreased to a much lower value of
currents in the inductive and capacitive branches,
120 however, may be quite large at resonance, though
: 0.00169 ampere,
*
Z 71,000 their vector sum— which is the line ciurent— is very
or less than one-fifth of its former value. When in- small, as we have seen. In a paraUel-resonant
serted into the main Une, the miUiammeter

will circuit,moreover, the reactive currents in the paral-
now read a barely perceptible current between 1 lel branches are equal and, hence, their vector sum
and 2 ma. equals zero. (This is so because the impressed

Finally, complete the experiment by connecting voltage and the reactances are the same.)
the 0.3-,xf capacitor in parallel vdth 0.7-,xf combina- In most other respects, parallel resonance is very
tion, obtaining a total capacitance of about 1

micro- similar to series resonance. We have
seen that both
farad. The inductive impedance is 3780 ohms, as types of circuits have the same resonant frequency,
before, and the current in the inductive branch when the Q is high. The inductive reactance equals
should read again about 32 ma. The capacitive re- the capacitive reactance for both types of reso-
actance, however, is now nance. Also, for both series and parallel-resonant
circuits, the phase angle is zero, the power factor is
X° = =
10-«
= 2650 ohms imity and, hence, the total (line) current is in phase
6.28 X 60 X 1 X with the impressed voltage.
and, hence, the current in the capacitive
branch
Impedance and Resonance Curve. It is of interest
120
should read = 0.0453 ampere, or about 45 ma. to plot the impedance of a tank circuit against fre-
2650 quency to study its variation around parallel reso-
The net reactance now X^ — Xp = 3770 — 2650
is
nance. Such a parallel-resonance curve has been
= 1120 ohms, and hence the series impedance of
plotted in Fig. 164 for the same component values,
the tank circuit is Z,„„, \/(200)2 (1120)^ = + = as were used for the series-resonant circuit; that is,
1138 ohms. Thus, the total parallel impedance C = 169 fi/x,f, L = 150 microhenrys (see Fig. 162).
Z^^XX,^ 3780X2650^ The resistance of the inductive branch, R, has been
1138 made variable to illustrate the relative sharpness of

Z«,
or a value of about one-eighths (approx.) of the the resonance curve for various Q's.
Note that the variation of impedance with fre-
resonant impedance. The line current, accordingly.
)
quency of a tank circniit near parallel resonance is isinductive below resonance, resistive at resonance,
similar to the variation of the Hne current with fre- and capacitive above resonance.
quency of an R-L-C series circuit near series Magnitude of Impedance. We can easily derive
resonance (See Fig. 159.) The impedance of a tank an approximate expression for the impedance of a
circuit is a maximum at the parallel-resonant fre- parallel-resonant circuit. The impedance of the two
quency (1000 kc, in this case). Again the sharpness parallel branches of a tank circuit (Fig. 162)
of the resonance cmre depends on the Q of the cir-
cuit; that is, on the ratio of the (inductive or ca-
7 î. Zo _ Zl Zq
Zi,-+-Ze -"series
pacitive) reactance at resonance to the total circuit
where Z^ is the impedance of the inductive
resistance. For Q's that are lovi?, the impedance
branch, Z{, is the impedance of the capacitive
curve rises moderately at resonance; for a high cir-
branch, and Zg^^j^g (= Z^ -{- Z^.) is the total series im-
cuit Q, the impedance rises sharply at resonance;
pedance of the two branches added together. Since
for an "infinite" Q (zero resistance), the resonant
there is no resistance in the capacitive branch,
impedance— theoretically— becomes infinite. Since
there is always some resistance, this is not realizable
Zq =
Xj,. Moreover, when the circuit ^ is at all
large (greater than 10), the impedance of the in-

in practice.
ductive branch approximately equals the inductive
Fig. 164 also shows a graph of the phase angle of
the impedance against frequency, near resonance.
reactance (Z^ = X^ approx.), so that we can write
The phase angle is seen to be lagging below y _ Xl Xq
resonance, zero at resonance, and leading above
resonance. Accordingly, a parallel L-C (tank) circuit At the parallel-resonant frequency
u«nn3 ivioi
Xl = Xo
and the impedance, Z,
series -"series
R = (i.e., the cir-
cuit resistance). Hence, at resonance.
X,
Z = ^^^ = QX, QwL (since Q = ^^
R R
Thus, the impedance of a parallel-resonant circuit
is approximately Q times the inductive (or capaci-
tive) reactance at resonance.
1
We also have the repression, Q = —^ =
R wCR
Substituting this relation for Q in the impedance
formula, we finally obtain:
Z = QwL: wL L
wCR ~CR
Hence, the resonant impedance of a tank circuit
is also approximately equal to the inductance di-
vided by the product of capacitance and resistance.

The impedance is purely resistive, since there is no
pliase angle.
example: In the circuit of Fig. 162, L = 150
microhenrys; C = 169 fi/xf; and let R = 12.5 ohms.
What is the Q and the impedance of the circuit at
resonance?
Solution: We have already previously determined
=— =—
159.1 159.1
the resonant frequency, f.
—
VL C V150 X 169
IMS ^ i i i ^ § ^ I sM §
= 1 mc =
1000 kilocycles, and the inductive react-
SWHO Nl unsaO JO 3DNVQ3dW1

ance, Xl =: 27rf L 6.283 =
10« X 150 X 10-« X =
X,. 942
Fig. 164. Variation of Magnitude and Phase Angle of Tank 942 ohms. Hence, the O = _i = 75 (ap-
Circuit Impedance with Frequency and Circuit Q. R 12.5
proximately). Thus, the resonant impedance

Z = Q Xl = 75 X 942 = 70,500 ohms
(approximately).
Equivalently,
Z = -^= 150X10-^ ^71^000 ohms.

CR 169 X lO-^'' X 12.5 -%
Both these values check well with the impedance
value of the resonance curve for 75 and a fre- Q=
quency of 1000 kc.
Current and Voltage Relations. Since the im-
pedance of a tank circuit approaches a maximum at
resonance, the line current approaches a minimum. ta)ATRESONANa (p) BEIDW KESONANtt (C) ABWe RESONANCE
When a curve is plotted of the variation of the line Fig. 166. Vector Diagrams of Currents and Voltage (a) at
current with frequency in a parallel-tuned circuit, resonance, (b) below resonance and (c) above resonance
its shape turns out to be the inverse of the im-

current is equally large and lags behind the voltage
pedance curve of Fig. 164. A typical plot of line
by somewhat less than 90° because of the resistance
current vs. frequency is shown in Fig. 165.
in the inductive branch. The vector sum of these
currents is the total (line) cvirrent, Ij, which is seen

to be very small, but in phase with the voltage.
At frequencies below resonance the reactance of
the capacitive branch increases and the reactance of
the inductive branch decreases. As a consequence,
the inductive branch draws a large lagging current
(II), while the capacitive branch draws
only a small
leading current (Ip). The total current, Ij, which is
the vector svim of I^ and Ip, thus, is a fairly large
FREQUENCY inductive current that lags behind the impressed
fr'RESONANCE FREQUENCY
voltage, as shoviTi in Fig. 166b.
Fig. 165. Variation of Line Current with Frequency At frequencies above resonance, finally, the re-
near Parallel Resonance
actance of the capacitive branch decreases from its
resonant value, while the reactance of the inductive
The phase between tiie currents and
relationships branch increases. As a result, the capacitive branch
the impressed voltage at, below and above reso- draws a large leading current, while the inductive
nance are also of interest. At resonance, the total branch draws a smaller lagging current. The vector
(line) cvurent is resistive and is given by sum of the ciurents, or the total line current, Ij,
is a fairly large capacitive current that leads
_ E _ E _ E hence,
I
*~ Z "QXi^^QwL the impressed voltage, as illustrated in Fig. 166c.
The relationship between the Une and branch
The capacitive and inductive currents are much
currents for the circuit of Fig. 162 is also illustrated
larger tiian the total current and they are nearly
in Fig. 167. Here the inductive current (IJ, the
but not quite (because of the resistance) 180 degrees
capacitive current (lo) and the total current (IJ
out of phase with each other. Since X^ X^ at = have been plotted against frequency for an im-
resonance, the cvurents are approximately equal in
pressed voltage of 100 volts and the circuit con-
magnitude and are given by the relation
stants shown in Fig. 162. As is evident from the
illustration, the capacitive and inductive ciurents
IL = Ic (approx.) = -_=—-
3^~wL are both large and vary only sUghtly for frequencies
By comparing with the previous relation for Ij, we near resonance (1000 kc). I^ is greater than lo be-
also see that low resonance and the reverse is true above reso-
Ij_ = Iq =Q It (approximately) nance. At resonance, the two currents have the same
The phase relations at resonance are shown in magnitude and being neai-ly 180° out of phase, their
Fig. 166o. You can see that the capacitive current is vector sum adds up to a very small, resultant line
large and leads the voltage by 90°; the inductive current, I^. With the current being a minimum at
!
12. Describe the characteristics of a parallel-resonant

circuit and draw vector diagrams of the line and
quency, f, = .
2,rVLC
branch currents at resonance, below resonance, and
above resonance. A series-R-L-C circuit is capacitive below reso-
13. Derive the impedance of a parallel-resonant cir- nance and inductive above resonance. At resonance,
cuit in terms of (a) the Q and the inductive reactance; the sum of the reactive voltage drops is zero, the
(b) L, C, and R. What is the phase angle of the im- impedance is a minimum and the line current is a
pedance at resonance?
maximum. The voltage drop across the resistance
14. A 0.1-henry coil with 10 ohms resistance is con-
equals the supply voltage.
nected in parallel with a 70-microfarad capacitor of
The quality factor "Q" is the ratio of the re-
negligible resistance. At what (approximate) frequency
does the circuit act like a non-inductive resistance and actance of the coil or that of the capacitor at the
what is the approximate value of this resistance? resonant frequency to the total resistance.
15. A
300-microhenry coil with 18 ohms resistance is
connected in parallel with a loss-less capacitor and the ). The circuit Q
combination is connected to a 10-volt a-c source. If R R R wC
resonance is to occur at 450 kc, determine (a) the ca- determines the sharpness of the resonance cvirve.
pacitance needed for resonance; (b) the circuit Q; (c) The voltage drop across the coil of a series-reso-
the resonant impedance; (d) the hne current at resonant circuit equals the voltage drop across the ca-
nance, and (e) die current through the inductance at
pacitor and both are approximately equal to Q
resonance.
times the supply voltage (E^ = Eq = Q E).
SUMMARY Three definitions of parallel resonance are:
1. frequency at which the line ciu-rent is in phase
An electrical oscillating system is analogous to a
with impressed voltage. (Condition of imity power
mechanical oscillator (pendulum) and must have
factor).
the following elements:
2. frequency at which the inductive reactance
inductance to resist any change in the current
1.
—analogous to the inertia of a mass (weight of equals the capacitive reactance (X^ = Xq).
pendulum); 2. capacitance to store electric energy 3. frequency at which the impedance of the cir-
cuit is a maximiun and the Hne current is a mini-

(charge)— analogous to the inverse of elasticity (dis-
placement of a spring); and 3. a soiu-ce of energy mum.
(voltage) to excite the oscillations with the proper When the resistance of a parallel-connected
timing (frequency)— analogous to mechanical force. R-L-C (tank) circuit is low and the Q is fairly high
An oscillating system usually also has resistance- (greater than 10), the three definitions lead to the
analogous to mechanical friction.
Impressing an alternating current of a certain same parallel-resonant
^ frequency, f, =
frequency upon an R-L-C oscillating system is anal-
2^VLC
The impedance of a parallel-resonant circuit is a
I
ogous to forcing a mechanical oscillator (pendu-
lum) to vibrate at a predetermined frequency. maximum, the line current is a minimum and in
The amplitude of forced oscillations in a mechan- phase with the impressed voltage (phase angle is
ical or electrical oscillating system is greatest, when zero, power factor is unity). At resonance, the sum
the frequency of the impressed force or voltage of the reactive currents in the parallel branches
equals the natural frequency of oscillations. Either equals zero. I
system is then said to be in resonance and draws A tank circuit has a lagging phase angle below
just sufficient energy from the supply to overcome resonance and, hence, is inductive below resonance;
its internal (resistance) losses. above resonance the phase angle is leading and the
Series resonance takes place in a series-connected circuit is capacitive.
R-L-C circuit, when the inductive reactance equals At parallel resonance:
the capacitive reactance (X^ = X^,), so that the net
reactance is zero. The circuit is then purely re- impedance Z ^ QX^ =QwL = ;
sistive, has unity power factor, and the line current CR

=
= —E = E
'« in phase with the impressed voltage. (Z R;
total (line) current, I.
p Z QwL
I =— e = 0; P.F. = 1). The series-resonant fre-
R
;
branch currents, Ij, = I^ = Q Ij.

APPENDIX I
ELECTRICAL DATA
i
Table VII-COPPER-WIRE TABLE-STANDARD ANNEALED COPPER: American wire gauge (B 6- S)
gauge
no
Table VIII-COPPER-WIRE TABLE-ENGLISH AND METRIC UNITS
Amer
Table IX-STANDARD STRANDED COPPER CONDUCTORS
American wire gauge
— '
Table XI-COMPOSITION RESISTORS

ikXIM UU RISISTOR
RADIM HAD (lAND) RISISTOR RADIll HAD DOT RISISTOR

•tack- DwJaKlMW •lllflKt
. Ma<lltli«
'IM li|H«
""I I I I
Tt4«fMH«
hi iimt
sj^CtiM
i»itti«< > '<r"t
lii ot4 and fifif •»
Wkt wMid r«tltt*f • Iwvt

III 4Vt told MIfwIM
MOLDED MICA TYPE CAPACITORS

CURRINT STANDARD (ODl RMA 3-DOT lOBSOlETE) lUTTON SILVER MICA
RATID SOO W.V.D.C. 20% TOl. CAPACITOR,
wMm iiai)- A- — iw."III
I
SI|nC<Ml ri|W«
. Molliîtr
Taitiwl*
'
COOi •
] T r 'iJ
j
si^B.wi ii|»i
Mallirlnt
lid *jil
RMA (5-DOI OISOLITI CODI) RMA 6-DOT (OISOUTE) RMA 4-DOI (OISOIETE)
- 1.1,
Wnklni-
- 7nA > SigHifitMl tifuti
r—- W»iki«t V«lM«t
•hiltlflin Ml
Slfiriliual flrii>
Mvlliylifr
— •Il«ll«
W«kto| V<llit« Mwlliptltr
Vsi9«ific«lF)««ii
Wcrkidf Vtllaf*
T*l«rMft W«rki*|
Timk
MOLDED PAPER TYPE CAPACITORS

MOIDED FIAT CAPACITOR JAN. CODI CAPACITOR
TUiWAR CAFACITOR <*fliin»iital C*d«
ill/ UllitlMl
Wwkiai Villi
>''?•' I _ JiJf ll|«ia
ll«k
tlMip«d f«r
villi*
MllHtliH
7ad I ^V^fif Ml Milliîtr ^^
III ! V>Ha|< f Ifnt
? SJinifitliil f if «ra
Ul > IWM M nd •! 1 «til amkn.
Table XII-COMMON ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS
Central
T losiUof
Goflorol -AAAr -^ Socoptoclo
two-candwdor
-®-
loop
lotlifor
Toppod ^vyv-
lllunlnolino
Lomp
o eottory
^-
Switch
_L MUof Vorlobla
-yc^ Singlo polo
Singl* thrcrw
oN, fuM
<S\P
Switch
Inductor
Cvnarol "i fotonttoaMlor doubl* pot*
»«nsl« threw
Piozooloctrle
Crystal hQh
Air coro
Switch
olô o
Tfomformor 3 O
O I
.TLnrL Tripl* pol*- oro o K

Gtntrol DoubU throw o>o o
Switch
Adiuitoblo
Powdarvd Iron
Jack
two conductor
Multipoint or
M
^
Rotary
Cero
Mogntllc Coro
Vorioblo Coupling
Jock
ihrw conductor
Sptokor *=il
Iron
TronsfoniMr
Coro Wirvs
cennocttd x^ + Mlcnrfonu) = 1^ p
Wiroi
Capacitor
Hf- Crottlng but

,-HK + MIcraphono
<\ Mluoioriul = MM F
^
Gensrol
not conn«etod
Typical tub* >rm

Copoeitor A. Amm«tO»
Etodrolirtk V. Voltmolor
^Hf-- G. Colvoflomotor
CopocHor
Voriobl* -^ MA. MiDlofflmotor
Ma, AUcroommolor, otc
(Courtesy, The Institute of Radio Englneeis)
174
APPENDIX II
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
^
COMMON LOGARITHMS OF NVMBERS-Continued
N
Table XIV
TABLE OF NATURAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Degrees
TABLE OF NATURAL TRIGONOMETRIC F\JNCT10NS-C ontinued
Degrees
TABLE OF NATURAL TRIGONOMETRIC FVNCTIONS-C ontinued

I Degrees
I
TABLE OF NATURAL TRIGONOMETRIC FVNCTIONS-C ontinued
Degrees
I TABLE OF NATURAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS-Contmued
Degrees
I
I
ANSWERS
Exercise No. 1 Exercise No. 3
1. No Answer. 1. (a) Place it near the north pole of the marked

2. 92 in nature; 6 to 8 artificially produced. magnet; the pole that is repelled is the north
3. No Answer. pole; (b) suspend the magnet and identify the
4. No Answer. north-seeldng pole.
5. No Answer. 2. Any ferromagnetic material will attract the poles
6. 10 neutrons. Element is inert, because outer of a magnet, but only the poles of another mag-
shell is filled. net will repel like poles.
7. When two electrons are knocked out from the 3. The right end is the north pole.
atom, double ionization is said to occur. 4. The bar has been stroked with the south pole of
8. Free electrons are not bound to the atom. a permanent magnet from the center outward,
9. Conductors— many free electrons; semiconduc- in one direction, then in the other. This pro-
first
tors—relatively few free electrons; insulators— duces consecutive north poles at the ends.
practically no free electrons. 5. 48 e.m.u.
10. A flow of free electrons towards positive ter- 6. 12,280 dynes repulsion.
minal of supply. 7. (a) 4 oersteds; (b) 15 e.m.u.
11. Just as many electrons leave the wire at one end 8. (a) 500 gauss; (b) 72,000 maxwells.
than enter it at the other end; hence, wire re-
mains electrically neutral.
Exercise No. 4
12. No Answer.
13. (a) mechanical; (b) chemical; (c) photoelectric; 1. No Answer.
(d) thermoelectric; (e) piezoelectric. (See Sum- 2. The thermal emf is directly affected by the tem-
mary of chapter 1.) perature; the thermoelectric current is also af-
fected by the resistance of the wire, which— in
turn— depends on the temperatuje.
Exercise No. 2
3. Increasing the temperature difference increases
1. No Answer. the emf; increasing the area of the metals in con-
2. First a charge of opposite polarity is induced, tact (or decreasing their resistance) will increase
converging the leaves; then a charge of the same the current capacity.
polarity is transferred by contact, which di- 4. No Answer.
verges the leaves. 5. No Answer.
3. First opposite charges are induced, attracting the 6. The photoemissive cell requires amplification;
balls. After contact, like charges repel the balls. the others do not.
4. (a) contact the sphere with a positive charge till 7. No Answer.
it is charged. 8. The deformation of a piezoelectric crystal when
(b) Bring a negative charge near the sphere; an emf is connected to its faces.
then momentarily ground the sphere and remove 9. Time the echo returning from the opposite side
the external negative charge, thus freeing the of the metal or from the ocean floor. Knowing
bound positive charge. the speed of sound in either medium, the dis-
5. No Answer. tance traveled (thickness) can be computed.
6. 30dynes/esu.
7. 50 dynes attraction.
Exercise No. 5
8. (a) 1200 esu; (b) 1.33 dynes/esu.
9. (a) 8 esu; (b) 16 esu. 1. The penny and the dime are made of different
10. 6000 joules. metals; when in contact with the moist tongue,
11. 4 V/in., 48 V/ft. an emf is generated by chemical action. Ion flow
12. (a) 50 ixi; (b) 500 in. X 500 in. in the electrolyte (tongue) creates the sour taste.
185
2. Open circuit: Zinc ionizes, Z^ ->Zii++ + 2e- 6. Remains the same.

Copper ionizes slighdy, Cu- -»Cu++ + 2e- 7. 0.204 inch.
Sulfuric acid dissociates, 8. 0.462 ohm.
H2SO4 >2H+ + S04— 9. 0.299 ohm.
Closed circuit: Equilibrium is upset and the sur- 10. 0.397 ohm.
plus of electrons on the zinc electrode flows 11. 2720°C.
through the wire to the copper electrode. More 12. 271 ohms.
zinc dissolves and the additional Zn++ ions dis- 13. 0.3 ampere.
14. 220 volts.
place H+ and drive them
ions over to the cop-
15. No.
per electrode. There neutral hydrogen gas is
16. (a) 5.9 volts; (b) 2.95 ohms.
evolved by the reaction: H+ e~ > H°+ 17. 0.0735 ohm.
3. (a) 2.52 volts; (b) 2.01 volts.
4. No Answer.
Displaced hydrogen ions combine with electrons Exercise No. 7
5.
arriving at the positive electrode (see 11 above),

everywhere the
In a series circuit the current is
1
thus evolving hydrogen gas, which coats the elec-
same and the sum of the voltage drops must
trode. This polarization reduces the emf of the
equal the emf of the source. A series circuit
cell, unless a depolarizer removes the hydrogen
either operates throughout all parts, or not at all.
from the electrode.
132 volts emf, 24 V, 48 V, 60 V.
6. It decreases it, thus increasing the emf.
0.75 amp line current, 112.5 volts across lamp,
7. No Axiswer.
7.5 volts drop in the hnes.
8. Connect 10 cells in series.
0.5 amp through both.
9. Connect them in parallel.
2 ohms.
10. Salts, bases, and acids are electrolytes.
In a parallel circuit the total current divides into
11. Cathode: 2H+ -f 2e- -> Hj t (hydrogen gas)
Arwde: 2S0^ -f
— a number of separate branches; the total current
flowing in and out of the junction points must
2H2O >4H+ +2SO4— -f 4e- 0^1 + equal the branch currents. The volt-
sum of the
2H2SO^ age drop across each branch is the same and
12, Make either object the cathode in a salt solution equals the emf of the source. Failure in a parallel
of the covering metal (silver or gold); make the branch does not disable the remainder of the
anode pure silver or pure gold as required. Can- circuit.
not nickel-plate a silver spoon, since silver is 7. E = Ij Ri I2 ^2-
less active than nickel.

13. No Answer. 8. 4.5 amps through 20-ohm branch; 2.25 amps
14^5X6 through 40-ohm branch; 90 volys emf, 9.24 ohms
X 15 = 67.5 grams. total resistance; 9.75 amps total current.
5X4 9. 48 ohms.
15. (a) 0.0003 gm/coulomb; (b) 15 grams.
16. No Answer. 10. 10 amps, 5 amps, 15 amps total.
11. 0.14 amp.
17. PbOa + Pb + 2H2SO4 f 2PbSO^ -|- HgO 12. 94.3 V and 125.7 V.
Pos. Plate Neg. Plate 13. 5 ohms.
charge 14. No Answer.
15. Rj = -^ X Rg. as before.

Exercise No. 6 R,
1. 1,800 coulombs.
Exercise No. 8
2. 0.000005 volt; 0.015 amp; 2,500,000 ohms.
3. 1 absolute ampere = 1.000165 international 1. Iron for series connection; copper for parallel
ampere. connection.
4. No Answer. 2. 1,720,000 calories.
5. 1 international ohm = 1.000495 absolute ohms. 3. 722,000 cals, 4.2^ Aour.
I Electricity Made Simple 187
4. $2.27. 3. Yes.
5. 876 watts. 4. 0.196 volt directed clockwise, looking down.
6. $1,640.00. 5. 2500 gauss.
7. 5 ohms; 1125 watts. 6. 3 volts.
7. Conservation of Energy.
8. Yes.
Exercise No. 9
9. A generator converts mechanical work into elec-
1. Right to left. tric energy; a motor converts electric energy into
2. The sum, or 0.63 oersted. into mechanical work. An a-c generator has slip
3. Same direction: midway between wires; oppo- rings; a d-c generator has a commutator.
site direction: a point equal to half the distance 10. The sine-wave output is converted into a series
between the wires, beyond either wire. of positive, unidirectional alternations (pulsating
4. 79.5 amps. d.c).
5. One ampere is that current, which in a circular 11. No Answer.
loop of 1 cm. radius will produce a field inten- 12. The inductance of the coil opposes the interrup-
sity of 2 tt/IO or 0.62831 oersteds at the center. tion of the current through the energy stored
6. 10.5 oersteds. in its magnetic field. This results in the spark.
7. 943 oersteds. 13. The inductance of the coil opposes the buildup
8. No Answer. or change in the current, causing it to lag be-
9. 6.28 oersteds. hind the voltage.
10. No Answer. 14. 6henrys.
11. No Answer. 15. 0.667
12. The permeability of its core and the magnetiz- 16. The transformer is more efiBcient.
ing force (ampere-turns). Ampere-turns are the Ep Np
magnetizing force expressed by the product of
,_
17. — !^ =
Is
=— - ,^
(E = voltage; = current;
I
Es Ip Ns
the number of turns in the winding and the
strength of the current (amperes) flowing p = primary; = secondary.)
s
18. The thin wires.

through it.
19. 20:1; 50 turns on the secondary.
13. The permeability is decreasing because of
20. Losses due to the resistance of the windings of
hysteresis.
the transformer (copper loss), hysteresis and
14. Soft iron is suitable for electromagnets because
eddy currents (iron losses).
of its low hysteresis losses (small area of loop);
21. Eddy currents are circulating currents induced
hard iron is suitable for permanent magnets only.
masses of the transformer core; they
in the iron
15 Magnetic Flux = Magnetomotive Force

- ^ /
—F
-(<i=-)
j. can be reduced by laminating the core into thin
Reluctance strips or segments.
Length of Path Power Output ,„„
16. Reluctance = n,^m
22 % Efficiency = ^
X 100
Permeabihty X Area Power Input
1
Rp.,- = 23. 1 ampere.
Rj Rj R3 Exercise No. 11
17. Divide by 1.2566.
18. It quadniples. 1. No Answer
i/g,
19. 5 dynes. 2. (a) 2n; (b) 1/2, 1 cycles. Mo, %, 2 cycles. Ys,
20. No Answer. %, % -cycle.

3. f = 50 cps; e = 1115 sin 314 1.
4. (a) 21.2 amps; (b) 9.27 amps.

Exercise No. 10
5. I_ = 0.707I„;I,, = 0.636I„.
1. Speed of motion, strength of magnet, number of 6. (a) 31.1 amps, 545 volts; (b) 19.8 amps, 346 volts.
tiuns on coil. 7. Sine wave 2 leads wave 3 by 170 degrees.
S. Motion toward or away from coil. 8. No.
9. 390 mph in a north-westerly direction. 4. (a) 37.7 ohms; (b) 41.7 ohms; (c) 5.28 amps; (d)
10. (a) 250 units, 53.2°; (b) Yes. 64.5°.
11. Reactance =
250 ohms; resistance 433 ohms. = 5. Impedance = 3770 ohms, eq. inductance = 10
henrys with 25 ohms winding resistance.
6. 1.06 amps, 58°, 33 fxi, 56.2 watts, 90 vars.
Exercise No. 12
7. Xl = 125.6 ohms; Xo =
442.3 ohms; Z 374.6 =
1. They are in phase. ohms; I =
53.4 ma; I leads E by a phase angle
2. 8 amps, angle, 1600 watts. of 57.7°; if capacitor is removed, I 84.6 ma; =
3. Diameter of wire, square root of frequency. if coil is removed, I =
41.2 ma. 2
4. 1 henry, 107 millihenrys. 8. Er = 146 volts; E^ =
150 volts; E^ 219 volts;! =
5. (a) 40 henrys; 20 henrys.
(b) Z = 151 ohms; I^ =
1.46 amps; 6 22,° {I lags =
6. AppHed and cemf, 180° out of phase; current E); app. Power =
322 volt-amps; true power =
lags apphed voltage by 90° and leads counter 298 watts.
emf by90°. 9. Ir = 0.12 amp; I^ =
0.117 amp; !„ 0.08 amp; =
7. Proportional to and L; X^
f = 27r f L. I« = 0.168 amp; Z =
71.5 ohms; power 1.99 =
8. 628 ohms; .0159 ampere. watts.
9. Generator A is a.c, B is d.c; impedance 50 =
ohms; d-c resistance =
2 ohms; inductive react-
Exercise No. 14
ance =
49.9 ohms; power from A =: 8 watts;
power from B =
5 kilowatts. 1. No Answer
10. Because it is continually charged and dis- 2. No Answer
charged, which results in a current oscillating 3. (a) inertia of mass; (b) capacitance; (c) charge;
to and fro in the connecting wires. (d) potential energy; (e) energy of magnetic field.
4. No Answer
11. X. = ; capacitive reactance decreases with 5. When the impressed frequency equals the nat-
vu-al frequency of oscillations; i.e. at the reso-
frequency; inductive reactance increases vdth
nant frequency.
frequency.
12. series: 2.4 juf; parallel: 10 îf. 6. Xl = X^; f, = zzn
13. Xo = 318 ohms; = 63 milliamps.
I 2,rVLC
14. Current leads voltage by 90°; no power con- 7. No Answer.
sumed. 8. 0.352 henry.
15. Z = VR' + (Xi.-Xe)^ 9. (a) f, = 796 kc; (b) I = 25 ma; (c) and (d) E^, =
16. Net reactance = 120 ohms; impedance = 130 20 volts.
ohms; phase angle = 67.4°; the circuit induc- is 10. 40

tive. 11. 1. unity power factor; 2. X^ = X^,; 3. impedance
a maximum, or hne current a minimum.
Exercise No. 13
2,rVLC
. «^ = Real Power „ , , , _ 12. No Answer
1. P.F. -; 0-1; high P.F. is desirable.
Appar. Power
13. (a) Z =Q Xx; (b) Z = piu-e resistance
2. Apparent power = EI; real power = EI cos B; CR
;
reactive power = E I sin 0. 6 = 0.
3. App. power = 6000 volt-amps; P.F. = 0.667; 14. f, = 60 cps; Z = R = 143 ohms.
true power = 4000 watts; reactive power = 15. (a) 417 ,t|«f ; (b) 47.2; (c) 40,000 ohms; (d) 0,jza
4,450 vars. ma; (e) 11.8 ma.
I INDEX
A-c capacitance, 136-140 Color codes, 173-174 Electromagnets, 28, 87-92
A-c circuit components, 129-145 Common logarithms, 177-178 strength of, 92
A-c circuits, 147-155 Commutator, 99 Electromotive force, induced, 102-118
series, 147-152 Conductance, 57 magnitude of, 111-112
parallel, 152-155 Conductors, 11 Electromotive series of metals, 44
A-c cycle, 120 Copper wire tables, 171-173 Electron spins, 35
A-c generators, 107-109 Coulomb, 20, 26 Electron theory, 91-94
A-c impedance, 141-143 Coulomb's law of force, 20 Electrons, free, 11
A-c inductance, 132-136 Counter emf, 110 Electrophorus, 18
A-c power, 145-147 Crystal microphone, 41 Electroplating, 48-49
A-c resistance, 130-131 Curie, Pierre and Jacques, 41 Electroscope, 17-18
Alternation, 109 Current, electric, 11 Electrostatics, 12, 15-27
Ampere, Andre, M., 55 conventional, 12 charging by contact, 15
Ampere, def., 55 Frankhnian, 12 charging by induction, 17
Ampere's law, 96 inductive, 135 Equipotential lines and stuiaces, 24
Ampere-hour, 49 sources of, 37-42 Experiment 1, 15
Ampere-turns, 92 standards, 55 Experiment 2, 17
Amplitude, of sine wave, 109 vmits, 55-56 Experiment 3, 18
Angular velocity, 120 Experiment 4, 28
Anode, 47 D-c generator Experiment 5, 29
Answers to practice exercises, 185-188 Dielectric, 25 Experiment 6, 30
Apparent power, 146 Dielectric constant, 26 Ex-periment 7, 32
Armature, 99 Dielectric material, 26 Experiment 8, 32
Atomic nimiber, 10 Direct-current circuits, 69-79 Experiment 9, 32
Atomic structxire, 9-11 Kirchlioff's laws, 75-78 Experiment 10, 37
Atomic weight, 10, 49, 51 parallel circuits, 71-74 Experiment 11, 41
Atoms, 9 series circuits, 69-71 Experiment 12, 43
Autotransformer, 116 series-parallel, 74-75 Experiment 13, 48
Average a-c value, 121 Direct-current motor, 99-100 Experiment 14, 64
Disk dynamo, 103 Experiment 15, 80
Barrier-layer photocell, 41 Domains, 35 Experiment 16, 86
Batteries, 43, 45, 46 Doorbell, 91 Experiment 17, 89
46
in series, Dry cell, 45 Experiment 18, 99
in parallel, 46 Experiment 19, 104
B-H curve, 93 Edison cell, 53 Experiment 20, 104
Eddy currents, 115 Experiment 21, 104
Capacitance, 25 Effective (rms) value, 120-121 Experiment 22, 106
in a-c circuits, 136-140 Electric bell, 91 Experiment 23, 133
Capacitive reactance, 139-140, 141 Electric circuit, def., 62 Experiment 24, 136
phase relations, 140 Electric current, def., 11 Experiment 25, 161
power in capacitive circuit, 140 conventional, 12 Experiment 26, 163
Capacitors, 25-27 Franldinian, 12
types of, 137 sources of, 37-42 Farad, 26
in parallel, 138 units, 55-56 Faraday, Michael, 19, 49
in series, 138-139 Electric charges, 15-27 Faraday's experiments, 102
Capacitor color code, 173-174 Electric field of force, 20-24 Faraday's laws of electrolysis, 49-51
Cathode, 47 Electric generators, 107-110 Faraday's laws of induction, 103, 117
Charges, 15-27 Electric motors, 99-101 Field of force,
bound, 17 Electric potential, 21 electric, 20-24
free, 17 Electric power, 80-85 magnetic, 30-33

location of, 19 Electrical data. Appendix 1, 169-174 magnetic composite, 97
storage of, 25 Electrical oscillations, 156-157 Force on conductor, 96-100
units, 55 Electrical symbok, 174 Frequency, 109, 120
Chemical action, 43-54 Electrical units, 55-62 resonant, 158, 167
Chemical equivalent, 50 Electricity, soin-ces of, 12-13
Circuit components, a-c, 129-145 Electrochemical equivalent, 51 Galvanometer, 98-99
Circuits, electric, 62 Electrochenaistry, 43-55 Generator, electric, 107-110
a-c circuit components, 129-145 chemical emf, 43-47 Gilberts, 95
a-c parallel, 152-155 electrolytic conduction, 47-51
a-c series, 147-152 primary (Voltaic) cells, 43-47 Heat, by electricity, 80-85
d-c parallel, 71-74 secondary (storage) cells, 51-53 Hysteresis, magnetic, 91-94
d-c series, 69-71 Electrodes, 43 Hysteresis losses, 115
d-c series-parallel, 74-75 Electrolysis, 47-48
magnetic, 91-96 laws of, 49-51 Impedance, 127, 141-143
Coefficient of coupling, 112-113 Electrolytic conduction, 43, 47-51 triangle, 142
Coercive force, 93 Electromagnetism, 86-101 phase angle, 142
189
Induced emf, 102-118 Motor,electric, 99-100 types of, 61-62

magnitude of, 105 Mutual inductance, 112 Resonance, 156-168
Induced magnetism, 29 parallel, 162-168
Negative resistance, 66 series, 157-162
Inductance, 110-116
Neutron, 9-10 sharpness of, 160
coeflBcient of coupling, 112
in a-c circuits, 132-136 Resonance curves, 158, 164
Oersted, Hans Christian, 35, 86
mutual, 112 Resonant frequency, 158, 167
Oersted's discovery, 86
self. 111
Right-hand motor rule, 97
Ohm, Georg Simon, 55, 63
transformers, 113-116 R-m-s value of a.c, 120-121
Ohm, the, 57
Induction coil, 113 Rotating vectors, 123-124
Olim's law, 55-68
Induction, electric, 102-118 for magnetic circuits, 94-95 Schematic symbols, 174
laws of, 103-104, 117
Secondary (storage) cells, 51-53
Induction, electrostatic, 17 Parallel resonance, 162-168
Seebeck, Thomas J., 37
Induction, magnetic, 29 Period, 120
Self-inductance, 111-112
Inductive circuit, 134-136 Permeabifity, 94
coefficient of, 112
Inductive reactance, 133-135, 141 Phase, 121-122
Semiconductors, 11
Inductors in parallel, 133 Phase angle, 121-122
Series resonance, 157-162
Inductors in series, 132-133 Phase relations, at resonance, 159, 166
Sharpness of resonance, 160
Insulators, 11 Phono pickup, 41
Sine waves, production of, 108-109,
Ionization, 11, 40 Photocell, 41
119-120
Ions, 11 Photoconductive cell, 39, 41
alternation, 109
Photoelectric effect, 39-41
ampfitude, 109
Joule, James Prescott, 80 Photoelectric emf, 39
angular velocity, 120
Joule's law, 80-81 Photoelectricity, laws of, 41
frequency, 109, 120
Photoemission, 39
period, 120
Kilowatt, 81 Photon, 39
Sfip rings, 107
Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert, 75 Phototubes, 39
Solenoid, 87-88
Kirchhoffs laws, 75-78 Photovoltaic cell, 39
Sounder, 91
Piezoelectric effect, 41-42
between magnetic poles, Stanley, William, 113
Law of force converse, 42
30 Storage cells, 51-53
Piezoelectric emf, 41
Laws of induction, 103-104, 117 Edison cell, 53
Piezoelectric stethoscope, 42
51-52 lead-acid cell, 51-52
Lead-acid storage cell,
Polarization, 45
silver cell, 53
Left-hand rule, Potential, contact, 40
for conductors, 87 Potential (voltage), 56 Tank circuit, 162
for generators, 107 Potential, 21-24 Telegraph, 91
for long coils, 89 at a point, 22 Teletype system, 91
Lenz, Emil, 106 difference, 23, 56 Thermal emf, 37-39
Lenz's law, 106 equipotential fines, 24 Thermistors, 61
Lines of force gradient, 24 Thermocouple, 38
electrostatics, 15-27 Potentiometer, 71 Thermoelectric effect, 37-39
magnetic, 94 Power 145
factor, Thermogenerator, 39
Logarithms, 177-178 Power triangle, 146 Transformers, 113-116
Primary cells, 43-47 autotransformer, 116
Magnetic circuits, 91-96
Proton, 9-10 ideal, 114
Magnetic compass, 29 Pyrometers, 39 practical,115
Magnetic effect of current, 86
losses,115
Magnetic field, 31-34, 86-101 Q-factor, 160 Trigonometric functions, 179-183
about straight wire, 86
Reactance, 127 True power, 146
about circular loops, 87-88
about flat coil, 88 capacitive, 139-140 Valence, 10, 49, 51
about solenoid, 88 inductive, 133-135 Van de Graaff generator, 19
composite field, 97 net, 141 Variable resistors, 61
flux, 34, 91 Reactive power, 146 Vectors, 122-127
intensitv (strength) 31 Relay, 90 addition, 124-126
Magnetic field intensity, 31 Reluctance, 94 subtraction, 126
Magnetic flux density, 34, 91 Remanence, 93 representation, 123
Magnetic fines of force, 31-34 Residual magnetism, 93 resolution, 127
MagneUc poles, 28, 29 Resistance, 12, 56 resultant, 126
Magnetism, 28-36 in a-c circuits, 130-131 Voltage, 56
electromagnet, 28 internal, 66 open and closed circuit, 66
fundamental properties, 28-30 negative, 66 Voltage divider, 71
induced, 29 of conductors in series and parallel,
Voltage drop, 67
law of force, 30 59-60 Voltage standards, 56
theory of, 35-36 of wires and resistors, 57-62 Voltaic (primary) cells, 43-47
Magnetization curve, 93 Resistivity, 60
Resistor color code, 173-174 Watt, the, 81
Magnetomotive force, 94
Resistors, 57-62 Webers, 34
Mathematical tables, 177-183
in parallel, 72-73 Wheatstone, Sir Charles, 78
Maxwells, 34
in series, 69-71 Wheatstone Bridge, 78-79
Molecules, 11
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CADILLAC PUBLISHING CO., INC.

220 FIFTH AVENUE. NEW YORK 1, N. Y,

DOUBLEDAY & CoMPANY, InC.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Conductors and Insulators 11

Atomic Weight 10 Sources of Electricity 12

ELECTROSTATICS-CHARGES AT REST 15 Electric Potential 22

19 Strong Electrical Charge-The Capacitor 25

20 The Plate Capacitor 25

Magnetic Fields and Lines of Force 31

Electricity Made Simple

Resistance of Conductors in Series and in

57 Open and Closed-Circuit Voltage of Cells

Electricity Made Simple

ELECTROMAGNATISM - CHARGES IN Magnetic Circuits and Hysteresis 91

MOTION >. 86 Strength of Electromagnet 92

Left-Hand Rule for Conductors 87 Ohm's Law for Magnetic Circuits 94

The Relay 90 The Direct-Current Motor 99

The Telegraph 91 Summary 101

The Electric Bell 91

INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE . 102 Self Inductance Ill

Faraday's Experiments 102 Magnitude of Induced {Counter) Emf . Ill

Faraday's Laws 103 Mutual Inductance 112

Further Experiments with Induction . . 104 Coefficient of Coupling 112

Magnitude with Induced Emf 105 The Induction Coil 113

Direction of Induced Emf (Lenz's Law) 106 Transformers 113

Left-Hand Rule for Generator Action . . 107 Ideal Transformer 114

Inducing an Emf in a Rotating Coil: The Practical Transformers 115

Generator 107 Eddy Currents 115

Production of Sine Wave 108 The Autotransformer 116

Direct-Current Generator 109 Smnmary 117

Self Inductance and Mutual Inductance . 110

ALTERNATING CURRENT FUNDA- Vector Representation 123

MENTALS 119 Rotating Vectors 123

A-C Definitions 119 Vector Addition 124

Angular Velocity 120 Vector Subtraction 126

Effective (Root Mean-Square) Value of Finding the Resultant of Two Rectangu-

A.C 120 lar Vectors 126

Use of Vectors 122 Summary 128

Electricity Made Simple

COMPONENTS 129 Capacitance in A-C Circuits 136

A-C Circuit Components 130 Types of Capacitors 137

Resistance in A-C Circuits 130 Capacitors in Parallel 138

Skin Effect 131 Capacitors in Series 138

Inductance in A-C Circuits 132 Capacitive Reactance 139

Inductors in Series 132 Phase Relations 140

Inductors in Parallel 133 Power in Capacitive Circuit 140

Inductive Reactance 133 Impedance 141

cuit 135 Ohm's Law for A.C 142

Phase Relations 135 Summary 144

A.C. Power 145 Parallel A-C Circuits 152

Power Factor 145 Power 154

Reactive Power 146 Phase Angle and Power Factor 154

R-L Circuits 147 Summary 155

R-C Circuits 149

RESONANCE 156 Parallel Resonance 162

Electrical Oscillations and Resonance . . 156 Parallel-Resonant Frequency 162

Series Resonance 157 Parallel-Resonant Circuits 164

Resonant Frequency 158 Magnitude of Impedance 165

Series-Resonant Circuit and Resonance Current and Voltage Relations 166

Curve 158 Summary of Conditions at Parallel Res-

Sharpness of Resonance and Quality Fac- onance 167