Ivan Petrovich Pavlov

(1849-1936)

Chapter 7

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov

1. Born in Ryazan, Russia on
Sep 14, 1849.
2. Studied the digestive
system and won the
Nobel Prize in 1904 for
physiology and medicine.
http://www.epub.org.br

3. At age 50 discovered
classical conditioning.
(1849-1936)
Nobel Prize Seal
2

Salivary Reflex
Weak Tongue Glossopharyngeal Nerve
Acid Receptors (sensory)

Medulla

Glossopharyngeal Nerve
(motor)

Dilates blood vessels

in parotid gland

Salivation Parotid duct

in mouth releases watery
saliva 3

1
 Experimental Setup

www.sruweb.com
4

Classical Conditioning

Step 1: Reflex

Weak Acid Salivation

Unconditioned Unconditioned
Stimulus (US) Response (UR)

Classical Conditioning

Step 2: Selection

“Bell”
Neutral Stimulus or
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

2
 Classical Conditioning

Step 3: Training

Bell Weak Acid Salivation

CS US UR

Classical Conditioning

Step 4: Acquisition

Bell Salivation
CS CR

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpoLxEN54ho 8

Features of Classical Conditioning

1. Pavlov suggested that an association builds

between CS-CR after conditioning takes place
(psychic reflex).
2. CR (saliva) is similar to UR (saliva), however
magnitude (quantity of saliva) for CR is lesser
than UR.
3. For optimal conditioning to take place CS
needed to occur ½ second before US.

3
 History of Classical Conditioning

1. The concept of conditioning was suggested in

1751 by Robert Whytt, but no one was
interested in the idea.
2. In 1902, E. B. Twitmyer reported knee-jerk
reflex based on a similar association between
bell and knee-jerk response.

10

Extinction

CS US (Weak Acid) CR
(Bell) (Salivation)

1. CR (salivation) extinguishes if US (weak acid) is

removed.
2. Thus US (weak acid) serves as reinforcement.

11

Extinction
18
16
14
CR (Saliva, ml)

12
US
10 Removed
8
CR
6 Extingushed
4
2
0
-2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Trial

12

4
 Spontaneous Recovery
1. After extinction of CR (salivation) a rest period
“spontaneously” recovers the CR.

2. CR during spontaneous recovery, has a lower

magnitude than UR and extinguishes rapidly if
not reinforced with a US.

13

Spontaneous Recovery
18
16
14 Spontaneous
CR (Saliva, ml)

12 Recovery
10
CR
8
Extingushed
6
4
2
0
Rest
-2
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

Trial

14

Higher-order Conditioning

US (weak acid) UR (Salivation)

CS (Bell) CR (Salivation)
First-order conditioning

CS2 (Buzzer) CR (Salivation)

Second-order conditioning

CS3 (Tone) CR (Salivation)

Third-order conditioning

15

5
 Higher-order Conditioning
During conditioning a CS can develop reinforcing
properties (secondary reinforcer), and can be used
in place of a US (primary reinforcer) to condition a
second CS. This second CS can then be used to
condition a third CS, and so on. Second and third-
order conditioning are called higher-order
conditioning.

16

Higher-order Conditioning
1. Magnitude of CR (salivation) decreases with
each successive ordered conditioning.

2. Extinction is faster for higher-ordered

conditioned responses.

3. Higher-order conditioning is a complex form of

learning.

17

Generalization
US (weak acid) UR (Salivation)
CS (2kHz Tone) CR (Salivation)

CS (1kHz Tone) CR (Salivation)

CS (3kHz Tone) CR (Salivation)

Generalization refers to increased capability of

producing a CR by stimuli that are similar to the first
CS that lead to conditioning.
18

6
 Generalization Gradient

16

12
CR (Saliva, ml)

0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Tone Intensity (kHz)

19

Fear Generalized
After conditioned fear of the white furry rat was
inculcated in “Little Albert,” he was afraid of other
stimuli that resembled the white rat, like a furry
rabbit, a dog, or a Santa Claus mask, etc., (Watson
& Rayner, 1920).
www.greenhead.ac.uk

www.bdrum.com

20

Generalization
1. Magnitude of CR (salivation) is lower to CSs
other than the first CS (2kHz tone).

2. Responses extinguish faster to CSs other than

the first CS (2kHz tone).

21

7
 Discrimination
US (weak acid)
CS (2kHz Tone) CR (Salivation)

No weak acid
CS (1kHz Tone) CR (No Salivation)

You can train animals to discriminate between two

CSs, such that CR to one CS is different from the
other.
22

Discrimination Training
1. Repetition: Many CS-US pairing that lead to a
specific CR.

2. Selection: Among many CS only one CS

reinforced with US to generate a CR.

3. Discrimination precedes generalization. With

successive training the two CSs lead to different
(discriminate) CRs.

23

CS-US Relationship
Tone
Shock

CS
Forward Conditioning
US Strong
CS conditioning
Delayed Conditioning
US

CS Simultaneous Conditioning
US Weak/No
conditioning
CS Backward Conditioning
US

24

8
 Physiological Basis of
Conditioning

25

Physiology of Conditioning

Brain
CS
Weaker brain activity
(Tone) Auditory
Area Neighboring
CNS areas

Temporary
Connection
(excitation)
US UR/CR
(Acid)
Medulla (Salivation)
Dominant brain activity

26

Extinction

Brain
CS
(Tone) Auditory Weaker brain activity
Area Neighboring
CNS areas

Temporary
Connection
(inhibition) CR
US
Acid
Medulla (No
Salivation)
Dominant brain activity

27

9
 Generalization (Irradiation)

Brain
CS
Weaker brain activity
(1kHz
(2kHz
(3kHz Auditory
Tone) Area
Neighboring
CNS areas

US CR
(Acid)
Medulla (Salivation)
Dominant brain activity

28

Irradiation
Pavlov described irradiation as the physiological
process that took place during generalization. The
conditioned brain area irradiated (spilled) over
other brain areas permitting similar CSs to elicit CR.

29

Discrimination: Concentration

Brain
CS
Weaker brain activity
(1kHz
(2kHz Auditory
Tone) Area
Neighboring
CNS areas

US CR
(Acid)
Medulla (Salivation)
(No Salivation)
Dominant brain activity

30

10
 Concentration
Two CSs (or more) can be associated with two kinds
of CRs. CSs discriminate across CRs because they
excite non-overlapping areas (concentration) in the
brain. Thus one CS results in one kind of CR
(salivation) and the other CS in another kind of CR
(no salivation).

31

Excitatory Conditioning
CS US UR
(Bell) (Weak Acid) (Salivation)

CS CR
(Bell) (Salivation)

Excitatory conditioning occurs when a CS (bell) gets

associated with occurrence of US (weak acid). Thus
CS excites a CR.

32

Inhibitory Conditioning
Phase I: Acquisition
CS US CR
Interspersed Trials

(Tone) (Air Puff) (Eye Blink)

CSs US CR
(Tone + Light) (No Air Puff) (No Eye Blink)

Phase II: Testing

CS CR
(Light) (No Eye Blink)

Inhibitory conditioning occurs when a CS (light) gets

associated with absence of US (no air puff), and
does not elicit a CR (eye blink). 33

11
 Excitation & Inhibition
Excitation and inhibition govern all central nervous
system (CNS) activities caused by environmental
events.

Pavlov often talked about Janus, the Roman

god with two faces in opposite directions.
These opposing faces related to excitation
and inhibition, as two opposing processes in
the nervous activity (Babkin, 1949).

34

Cortical Mosaic
This excitatory and inhibitory activity in the brain
forms a cortical mosaic. Momentary cortical mosaic
determines how an organism will respond to its
environment at a given moment, and Dynamic
Stereotype is a stable cortical mosaic.

Brain Brain
Environment

E E

I I

35

Compound Conditioning

When two CSs of equal strength are used together

to conditioned a response, the CR is strong. When
these CSs are then tested separately they both
produce moderate responses.

36

12
 Compound Conditioning
Phase I: Acquisition
CSs US CR
Light (medium) + Tone (medium) (Weak Acid) (Salivation)

CSs CR
Light (medium) + Tone (medium) (Salivation)
Strong
Phase II: Testing Response

CS CR
Light (medium) (Salivation) Moderate
Responses
CS CR
Tone (medium) (Salivation)
37

Overshadowing

In overshadowing one CS is more salient (high tone)

than the other (low light). Thus tone elicits a
stronger CR than light (Pavlov, 1927).

38

Overshadowing
Phase I: Acquisition
CSs US CR
Light (medium) + Tone (high) (Weak Acid) (Salivation)

CSs CR
Light (medium) + Tone (high) (Salivation)
Strong
Phase II: Testing Response
Response Response

CS CR
Weak

Light (medium) (Salivation)

CS CR
Strong

Tone (medium) (Salivation)

39

13
 Blocking
Blocking involves conditioning a tone (CS) to elicit a
CR (Fear; Kamin, 1969) through shock (US). When
the tone reliably elicits the CR; tone is paired with
another CS (light) as a compound stimulus to elicit
CR. When the light and the tone are then tested
separately… it is the tone that elicits a stronger CR
(fear) and not light. So the tone blocks the light CS.

40

Blocking
Phase I: Prior Conditioning
CS US CR
Tone (medium) (Shock) (Fear)
Strong
Phase II: Acquisition Response

CSs US CR
Tone (medium) + Light (medium) (Shock) (Fear)
Strong
Phase III: Testing Response
Response Response

CS CR
Weak

Light (Medium) (Fear)

CS CR
Strong

Tone (Medium) (Fear)

41

Overexpectation

When two CSs have been paired separately with the

US and then together, both protocols produce
strong association. When the two CSs are tested
later separately produce a moderate response. This
is called overexpectation.

42

14
 Overexpectation
Phase I: Prior Conditioning
CS US CR

Responses
Tone (medium) (Shock) (Fear)

Strong
CS US CR
Light (medium) (Shock) (Fear)
Phase II: Compound Stimuli

Response
CSs CR

Strong
Tone (medium) + Light (medium) (Fear)
Phase III: Testing
CS CR
Light (Medium) (Fear) Moderate
Responses
CS CR
Tone (Medium) (Fear)
43

Signal Systems
Pavlov’s work introduced stimulation in the context
of future behavior. And therefore suggested that CS
preceded as a signal to biologically significant
events.

CS US UR
(Bell) (Weak Acid) (Salivation)

Signal

44

Types of Signals
Events that evoke biological responses are termed as
first signal system. Symbols that represent these
events and lead to biological responses are called
second signal system or “signals of signals.”

Signal System Stimulus Response

First signals See a lion You sweat

Second signals Hear the word “lion” You sweat

45

15
Other Ideas about Classical
Conditioning

46

Contingency
Kamin’s (1969) blocking effect and surprisingness
hypothesis lead Rescorla & Wagner (1966, 1972) to
propose that classical conditioning relied on
contingency between CS and US.

47

Rescorla-Wagner Model
www.flyfishingdevon.co.uk

1. Dogs jump the hurdle in the shuttle box to avoid

the shock which comes after 30 seconds. Dogs
jump based on their own mental clocks.
48

16
 Contingency
2. Dogs were taken out of shuttle box and were
put into three contingency groups (CS-US
pairing).

Contingency
Positive Negative No
CS-US US-CS CS/US
(tone comes (tone comes (tone-shock follow
before shock) after shock) each other randomly)

49

Training
www.flyfishingdevon.co.uk

3. Dogs were put back in the shuttle box and

trained to avoid the shock with tone as the CS.

50

Results
Contingency
Positive Negative No
Rate of Rate of Rate of
responding responding responding
increased decreased same as baseline
Rate of Responding

Tone Precedes Shock Tone Follows Shock Tone/Shock Random

51

17
 Contingency
Rescorla & Wagner (1966, 1972) thus suggested
that a contingency exists between CS and US to
cause conditioning and not to CS-US contiguity as
proposed by Pavlov (1927).

Tone (T) T T T T T T

Shock (S) S S S S S S

Little or no conditioning

Tone (T) T T T

Shock (S) S S S
Strong conditioning 52

Learned Helplessness
Seligman et al., (1969, 1975)
argued that the animals do
learn a state of helplessness in
Rescorla’s, No Contingency
group. The group loses its
relevance (learned irrelevance)
to CS. Whenever a US is paired
with this CS, its efficacy is
diminished.

53

Superconditioning
1. Concept of CS-US relevance
became important in
aversive conditioning.
Naturally it was food that got
associated with illness and
not the plate in which it was
served. Certain CS belong
with US.
2. Conditioning is possible with
longer time interval between
CS and the US. (Garcia,
1960s). John Garcia (1917-Present)
54

18
 Taste Aversion
Rats like drinking saccharine water. Garcia &
Koelling (1966) used light, tone and taste
(saccharine water) as compound CS. They called it
the “bright-noisy-tasty” water.

55

Aversive Conditioning
Phase I: Acquisition

Group 1 CSs US CR
Light + Tone + Taste (Shock) (Fear)

Group 2 CSs US CR
Light + Tone + Taste (Drug) (Fear)
Phase II: Testing

Group 1 CSs CR
(Fear light and tone but
Light or Tone
drink saccharine water)

Group 2 CSs CR
(Fear light and tone and NOT
Light or Tone
drink saccharine water)
56

Taste Aversion: Garcia Effect

1. Some CSs are biologically relevant (or belong to)
US.
2. Time delay between CS and the US can be very
long (up to hours) unlike observed in other
forms of classical conditioning.
3. Only a few presentation (sometime one) are
enough to bond CS with US.
4. Taste aversions are resistant to extinction.

57

19
 Clinical Applications
1. Extinction: Unwanted habits can be eliminated
through the process of extinction. If US is
withdrawn the CR will extinguish after some
time. When mother ignores the toddler’s
tantrum, whining behaviors fades.

2. Counter-conditioning: CS is paired with a

noxious US to counter the original CS-US
strength. Smoking (pleasure) replaced with
anectine (threat) to quit smoking.
58

Clinical Applications
3. Flooding: Sustained presence of the US
abolishes an undesired response like a phobia.
The individual is forced to stay with the fear
inducing stimulus only to learn that it is not
threatening.

4. Systematic Desensitization: A gradual process of

diminishing phobias and fears with the
introduction of relaxation using a hierarchy of
fear inducing stimuli.
59

Pavlov Institute of Physiology

Russian Academy of Sciences

http://www.infran.ru/history_eng.htm 60

20
 Questions
Q9. How does Pavlov explain the physiological
basis of stimulus generalization and
discrimination?
Q10. Why does Rescorla say that classical
conditioning occurs due to contingency
between CS-US and not contiguity. Describe
Rescorla (1966) study to elucidate this point.
Q11. Explain in detail compound conditioning.
Include in your answer overshadowing,
blocking and overexpectation.
61

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