2.7 VELOCITY-LOAD-FACTOR DIAGRAM The various loading conditions for an airplane usually are represented on a graph of the limit-load factor » plotted against the indicated airspeed V. This diagram is often called a V-n diagram, since the load factor n is related to the acceleration of gravity g. In all such diagrams, the indicated airspeed is used, since all air loads are proportional to g or pV7/2. The value of q is the same for the air density p and the actual airspeed at altitude as it is for the standard sea-level density po and the indicated airspeed, since the indicated airspeed is defined by this relationship. The V-n diagram is therefore the same for all alti- tudes if indicated airspeeds are used. Where compressibility effects are considered, they depend on actual airspeed rather than indicated airspeed and consequently are more pronounced at altitude, Compressibility effects are not considered here. The aerodynamic forces on an airplane are in equilibrium with the forces of gravity and inertia, If the airplane has no angular acceleration, both the inertia and gravity forces will be distributed in the same manner as the weight of various items of the aircraft and will have resultants acting through the center of gravity of the aircraft, It is convenient to combine the inertia and gravity forces as the product of a load factor n and the weight W, as described previously. The 2 component of the resultant gravity and inertia force is the force nW acting at the center of gravity of the airplane, as shown in Fig. 213. The load factor » is obtained from a summation of forces along the z axi C,,95 = nw = Cup SY? 2 or na (2.20) The maximum value of the normal force coefficient C,, may be obtained at various airplane specds. For level flight at a unit-load factor, the value of ¥ corresponding to C., .,, would be the stalling speed of the airplane, In acceler-onan a F ated flight, the maximum coefficient might be obtained at higher speeds. For C..,max 10 be obtained at twice the stalling speed, a load factor n = 4 would be developed as shown by Eq, (2.20). For a force coefficient of 1.25C,,, mx Fepresent- ing the highest angle of attack for which the wing is analyzed, the value of the load factor n is obtained from Eq, (2.20) and may be plotted against the airplane velocity V, as shown by line OA in Fig. 2.13. This line OA represents a limiting condition, since it is possible to maneuver the airplane at speeds and load factors corresponding to points below or to the right of line OA, but it is impossible to maneuver at speeds and load factors corresponding to points above or to the left of line OA because this would represent angles of attack much higher than the stalling angle. The line AC in Fig. 2.13 represénts the limil on the maximum maneuvering load factor for which the airplane is designed. This load factor is determined from the specifications for which the airplane is designed, and the pilot must restrict maneuvers so as not (o exceed this load factor. At speeds below that correspond- ing to point A, it is impossible for the pilot to exceed the limit load factor in any symmetrical maneuver, because the wing will stall at a lower load factor. For airspeeds between those corresponding to points A and C, it is not practiéal to design the airplane structure so that it could not be overstressed by violent maneuvers. Some types of airplanes may be designed so that the pilot would have to exert large forces on the controls in order to exceed the limit-load factor. Line CD in Fig. 2.13 represents the limit on the permissible diving speed for the airplane. This value is usually specified as 1.2 to 1.5 times the maximum indicated airspeed in level Night, Line OB corresponds to line OA, except that the wing is at the negative stalling angle of attack, and the air load is down on the wing. The equation for line OB is obtained by substituting the maximum negative value of C., into Eq. (2.20), Similarly, line BD corresponds to line AC, except that the limit-load factor specified for negative maneuvers is considerably less than for positive maneuvers. Figure 2.13‘The aircraft may therefore be maneuvered in such a manner that velocities and load factors corresponding to the coordinates of points within the area OACDB may be obtained. The most severe structural load ng conditions will be represented by the corners of the diagram, points A, B,C. and D. Points A and B represent PHAA and NHAA conditions. Point C represents the PLAA condition in most cases, although the positive gust load condition, represented by point F, may occasionally be more severe. The NLAA condition is represented by point D or by the negative gust condition, point E, depending on which condition pro- duces the greatest negative load factor. The method of obtaining the gust load factors, represented by points E and F, is explained in the following section.28 GUST LOAD FACTORS ~~ When an airplane is in level flight in calm air, the angle of attack is measured from the wing chord line to the horizontal. If the airplane suddenly strikes an ascending air current which has a vertical velocity KU, the angle of attack is increased by the angle Aa, as shown in Fig. 2.14. The angle Ac is small, and the angle in radians may be considered as equal to its tangent: KU - Aw (2.21) The change in the airplane normal force coefficient C,,. resulting from a change in angle of attack Ax, may be obtained from the curve of C., versus a of Fig. 2.4. This curve is approximately a straight line, and it has a slope which may be considered constant: (2.22) After striking the gust, the airplane normal force coefficient increases by an amount determined from Eqs. (2.21) and (2.22): ac, == (2.23) ‘The increase in the airplane load factor An may be obtained by substituting the value of AC,, from Faq. (2.23) into Eq. (2.20): an = C=0SY? 2W Figare 214_ eSBKUV or a now (2.24) standard sea-level air density, 0.002378 slug/N? wing area, ft? B = slope of the curve of C,, versus a, rad KU = effective gust velocity, ft/s icated airspeed, fi/s gross weight of airplane, Ib where w For purposes of calculation, it is more convenient to determine the slope B per degree and the airspeed V in miles per hour. Introducing the necessary constants in Eq. (2.24) yields peuv 7 where f is the slope of C,, versus a per degree, V is the indicated airspeed in miles per hour, and other terms correspond to those in Eq. (2.24). When the airplane is in level fight, the load factor is unity before the plane strikes the gust. The change in load factor An from Eq. (2.25) must be combined with the unit-load factor in order to obtain the total gust load factor: pu wis An=0.1 (2.25) n=1401 (2.26)