Zaki Notes Final Term, Sir Gohar Rehman

Sir, Gohar Rehman Lecture Notes
FINAL TERM
17.08.2014
Research Process RP = f (TF+HD)
The difference between Research Process & Research Design
Various steps in research process
1. Identification of the broad problem area
[The broad problem area refers to the entire situation where one sees a possible need
for research and problem solving. Such issues might pertain to:
 Problems currently existing in an organizational setting that need to be solved.
 Areas that a manager believes needs to be improved in the organization.
 A conceptual or theoretical issue that needs to be tightened up for the basic
researcher to understand certain phenomena.]
Problem is the difference between the actual and the desired one (P=A-D)
Why we focus on research:
 Current/existing problem prevailing in organization e.g. gender discrimination

etc.
 Improvement of the existing organization.
 Developments of terms and concepts i.e. Jargons.
 Empirical answers / solution
2. Preliminary data gathering (through research tools i.e. questionnaire, interview, and
survey etc.)
Data is mainly of two types:

(i) Primary data: 1st hand information / 1st hand data which cannot processed
through statistical tools.
(ii) Secondary Data: All published data received from books.
Information: (1) contextual factors (2) structural factors (3) attitudinal factors
3. Problem statement/problem formulation/research question/problem identification
Meaning of problem in the context of research

Problem is a dilemma. Problem mean a gap between existing and desired one.
How to determine the valid research problem
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Compiled by Zeeshan Ullah Khattak
First discuss the problem with your colleagues and then with you teachers and then with
subject experts.
Identification of the valid problem through literature review.
 JOHRI Window Paradigm/Identification of research problem

There were three scientists John, Harry, and Richard, they device a window which is
known as JOHARI. They have quoted four positions:
Position (A) “You know, I know”
It is very clear and precise position to both researcher and respondent. e.g. “I know, it is
raining outside” and “You know, it is raining outside”. In this case there is no need to
conduct research.
Position (B) “You don’t know, I don’t know”
In this case there is no need to conduct research.
Position (C) “you don’t know, I know”
In this case there is also no need to conduct research.
Position (D) “You know, I don’t know”
It is a valid position to conduct research work.
 Types of problem
There are two types of problem
1. Phenomenal Problem
2. Hypothetical problem
 Steps involved in identifying the research problem

1. Feelings of problem
2. Understanding the problem and its various aspects through literature review and
situational analysis.
Articulating with precision and rephrasing the problem into meaningful terms from
empirical and analytical view point.
4. Conceptual/Theoretical Framework (sometime it is also called related literature or

Literature review (we find out the various relationship among different variables)
It is the foundation on which the entire research work is based on. It is logically developed,
described and elaborated network of association among the variables, which is relevant to
the problem and have been identified through research tools i.e. questionnaires, surveys and
other historical methods etc.
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The relationship between literature survey and theoretical framework is that literature survey
provide a solid foundation for developing the theoretical framework. Literature survey
provides the variable that might be important, while theoretical framework elaborates the
relationship among the variables, explain the theory underlining these relations and describe
the nature and direction of the relationship.
The literature survey/review provides a base for developing theoretical framework and
theoretical framework provides a solid a base for developing a good hypothesis.
 Meaning and nature of theoretical framework
The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a
research study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory which
explains why the research problem under study exists.
 Needs for conduction of theoretical framework
 The concept of variable: A characteristic, number, or quantity that increases or
decreases time to time, or takes different values in different situations.
 Types/kinds of variable
1. Dependent variable / criterion variable: (that can take different values only
in response to an independent variable.
2. Independent variable / predictor variable: (that can take different values and can cause
corresponding changes in other variables)
3. Continuous variable: a variable which takes place in continuous manner e.g.
time, age, breathing etc.
4. Discrete variable: the variable which does not show continuity but
collect/show the data with various jumps or various modes of strata (sections)
5. Intervening variable: The variable occurred in various intervals.
6. Moderate variable: the third variable which shows relationship among two
variables.
7. Endogenous variable: the variable that is in the control of the researcher. E.g.
we have an organization ICP, it has various properties. The ICP has the control
over the increase and decrease the price.
8. Exogenous variable: the variable that are outside the control of the
organization. E.g. weather, flood, earthquake.
9. Extraneous variable: (causal
 Components of theoretical framework
1. The variables should be clearly identified and leveled.
2. The discussion should stay how two or more than two variables are related
with one another.
3. It should be identify in the discussion that whether the relationship is positive
or negative.
4. Reasons should be recorded and explained that why such relationship exists
among the variable.
5. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be given at the end
that the reader can comprehend the theorized relationship.
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5. Hypothesis development
6. Research design/elements of research design
Research process based on theoretical framework and hypothesis developments.
RD = f (planning, location, selection of sample, size of sample, collection, analysis and
interpretation.
Research Design is the
i) Planning for actual study
ii) Location of the study i.e. universe
iii) Selection of sampling
iv) Size of samples
v) Collection analysis and interpretation of data
Sampling
Technique
Probability Non Probability

Sampling (it is Sampling (it is
unbaised) baised)
Quota and
Simple Random
judgmental
Sampling
Sampling etc.
Stratified
Random
Sampling
Systematic
Random
Sampling
Cluster Random
Sampling
[ SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Sampling techniques are of two types:
1. Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is a sampling technique wherein the samples are gathered in a process
that gives all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.
In this sampling technique, the researcher must guarantee that every individual has an
equal opportunity for selection and this can be achieved if the researcher utilizes
randomization.
The advantage of using a random sample is the absence of both systematic and sampling
bias. If random selection was done properly, the sample is therefore representative of the
entire population.
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The effect of this is a minimal or absent systematic bias which is the difference between the
results from the sample and the results from the population. Sampling bias is also
eliminated since the subjects are randomly chosen.
(a) Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is the easiest form of probability sampling. All the researcher
needs to do is assure that all the members of the population are included in the list and
then randomly select the desired number of subjects.
There are a lot of methods to do this. It can be as mechanical as picking strips of paper with
names written on it from a hat while the researcher is blindfolded or it can be as easy as
using a computer software to do the random selection for you.
(b) Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified random sampling is also known as proportional random sampling. This is a

probability sampling technique wherein the subjects are initially grouped into different
classifications such as age, socioeconomic status or gender.
Then, the researcher randomly selects the final list of subjects from the different strata. It is
important to note that all the strata must have no overlaps.
Researchers usually use stratified random sampling if they want to study a particular
subgroup within the population. It is also preferred over the simple random sampling
because it warrants more precise statistical outcomes.
(c) Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic random sampling can be likened to an arithmetic progression wherein the

difference between any two consecutive numbers is the same. Say for example you are in a
clinic and you have 100 patients.
1. The first thing you do is pick an integer that is less than the total number of the
population; this will be your first subject e.g. (3).
2. Select another integer which will be the number of individuals between subjects e.g. (5).
3. You subjects will be patients 3, 8, 13, 18, 23, and so on.

There is no clear advantage when using this technique.
(d) Cluster Random Sampling
Cluster random sampling is done when simple random sampling is almost impossible
because of the size of the population. Just imagine doing a simple random sampling when
the population in question is the entire population of Asia.
1. In cluster sampling, the research first identifies boundaries, in case of our example; it can
be countries within Asia.
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2. The researcher randomly selects a number of identified areas. It is important that all
areas (countries) within the population be given equal chances of being selected.
3. The researcher can either include all the individuals within the selected areas or he can
randomly select subjects from the identified areas.
(e) Mixed/Multi-Stage Random Sampling
This probability sampling technique involves a combination of two or more sampling

techniques enumerated above. In most of the complex researches done in the field or in the
lab, it is not suited to use just a single type of probability sampling.
Most of the researches are done in different stages with each stage applying a different
random sampling technique.
2. Non Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a

process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being
selected.
In any form of research, true random sampling is always difficult to achieve.
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Most researchers are bounded by time, money and workforce and because of these
limitations, it is almost impossible to randomly sample the entire population and it is often
necessary to employ another sampling technique, the non-probability sampling technique.
In contrast with probability sampling, non-probability sample is not a product of a randomized
selection processes. Subjects in a non-probability sample are usually selected on the basis of
their accessibility or by the purposive personal judgment of the researcher.
The downside of the non-probablity sampling method is that an unknown proportion of the
entire population was not sampled. This entails that the sample may or may not represent
the entire population accurately. Therefore, the results of the research cannot be used
in generalizations pertaining to the entire population.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling
(a) Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is probably the most common of all sampling techniques. With
convenience sampling, the samples are selected because they are accessible to the
researcher. Subjects are chosen simply because they are easy to recruit. This technique is
considered easiest, cheapest and least time consuming.
(b) Consecutive Sampling
Consecutive sampling is very similar to convenience sampling except that it seeks to include
ALL accessible subjects as part of the sample. This non-probability sampling technique can be
considered as the best of all non-probability samples because it includes all subjects that are
available that makes the sample a better representation of the entire population.
(c) Quota Sampling

Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher ensures
equal or proportionate representation of subjects depending on which trait is considered as
basis of the quota.
For example, if basis of the quota is college year level and the researcher needs equal
representation, with a sample size of 100, he must select 25 1st year students, another 25
2nd year students, 25 3rd year and 25 4th year students. The bases of the quota are usually
age, gender, education, race, religion and socioeconomic status.
(d) Judgmental Sampling

Judgmental sampling is more commonly known as purposive sampling. In this type of
sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with a specific purpose in mind. With
judgmental sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects are more fit for the research
compared to other individuals. This is the reason why they are purposively chosen as subjects.
(e) Snowball Sampling
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Snowball sampling is usually done when there is a very small population size. In this type of
sampling, the researcher asks the initial subject to identify another potential subject who also
meets the criteria of the research. The downside of using a snowball sample is that it is hardly
representative of the population.
When to Use Non-Probability Sampling
 This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a particular trait exists in the
population.
 It can also be used when the researcher aims to do a qualitative, pilot or exploratory study.
 It can be used when randomization is impossible like when the population is almost
limitless.
 It can be used when the research does not aim to generate results that will be used to
create generalizations pertaining to the entire population.
 It is also useful when the researcher has limited budget, time and workforce.
 This technique can also be used in an initial study which will be carried out again using a
randomized, probability sampling.
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24th August, 2014
LITERATURE REVIEW
How to conduct Literature Survey

There are three major steps for conducting Literature Review
1. Identification of published and unpublished literature
There are three major databases through which we review literature i.e.
i. Bibliography
ii. Abstracts
iii. Full text
2. Extracting/Gathering the relevant information, either by going through necessary

materials at library or by getting access to online sources.
Four modes of references:
i. Chicago Manual of style: 1993 (outdated)
In this style we used to state the reference in this format: Rehman Gohar
“Research Methodology in Library and Information Science”, America. This
format was not fulfilling he requirement of the researchers.
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ii. Turabian Manual of writer: 1996 (outdated)

In this style we used to state the reference in this format: Rehman Gohar
“Research Methodology in Library and Information Science”, McGrawHIll,
America.
iii. The Manual of APA: 2001

Example of this style is: Name of the author (Year of Publication), “Research
Methodology in Library and Information Science”, Ed., Vol. II, the Print Man, Place
of Publication, Zip code/post code, Pakistan.
iv. MLA (Modern Language Association of America)

Example of this style: Author(s). "Title of the Article." Title of the Periodical volume
number. issue number (Date of publication): inclusive page numbers. Name of
database. Medium of publication consulted. Date accessed.
3. Writing up a literature review.

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31 August, 2014
3. Problem statement/problem formulation/research question/problem identification
 Meaning of problem in the context of research
Problem is a dilemma. Problem mean a gap between existing and desired one.
 How to determine the valid research problem
First discuss the problem with your colleagues and then with you teachers and then with
subject experts.
Identification of the valid problem through literature review.
 JOHRI Window Paradigm/Identification of research problem

There were three scientists John, Harry, and Richard, they device a window which is
known as JOHARI. They have quoted four positions:
Position (A) “You know, I know”
It is very clear and precise position to both researcher and respondent. e.g. “I know, it is
raining outside” and “You know, it is raining outside”. In this case there is no need to
conduct research.
Position (B) “You don’t know, I don’t know”
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In this case there is no need to conduct research.

Position (C) “you don’t know, I know”
In this case there is also no need to conduct research.
Position (D) “You know, I don’t know”
It is a valid position to conduct research work.
 Types of problem
There are two types of problem
3. Phenomenal Problem
4. Hypothetical problem
 Steps involved in identifying the research problem

3. Feelings of problem
4. Understanding the problem and its various aspects through literature review and
situational analysis.
5. Articulating with precision and rephrasing the problem into meaningful terms from
empirical and analytical view point.
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7.09.2014
4. Theoretical Framework
It is the foundation on which the entire research work is based on. It is logically developed,
described and elaborated network of association among the variables, which is relevant to
the problem and have been identified through research tools i.e. questionnaires, surveys and
other historical methods etc.
The relationship between literature survey and theoretical framework is that literature survey
provide a solid foundation for developing the theoretical framework. Literature survey
provides the variable that might be important, while theoretical framework elaborates the
relationship among the variables, explain the theory underlining these relations and describe
the nature and direction of the relationship.
The literature survey/review provides a base for developing theoretical framework and
theoretical framework provides a solid a base for developing a good hypothesis.
 Meaning and nature of theoretical framework
 Needs for conduction of theoretical framework
 The concept of variable: A characteristic, number, or quantity that increases or
decreases time to time, or takes different values in different situations.
 Types/kinds of variable
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10. Dependent variable / criterion variable: (that can take different values only
in response to an independent variable.
11. Independent variable / predictor variable: (that can take different values and can cause
corresponding changes in other variables)
12. Continuous variable: a variable which takes place in continuous manner e.g.
time, age, breathing etc.
13. Discrete variable: the variable which does not show continuity but
collect/show the data with various jumps or various modes of strata (sections)
14. Intervening variable: The variable occurred in various intervals.
15. Moderate variable: the third variable which shows relationship among two
variables.
16. Endogenous variable: the variable that is in the control of the researcher. E.g.
we have an organization ICP, it has various properties. The ICP has the control
over the increase and decrease the price.
17. Exogenous variable: the variable that are outside the control of the
organization. E.g. weather, flood, earthquake.
18. Extraneous variable: (causal
 Components of theoretical framework
6. The variables should be clearly identified and leveled.
7. The discussion should stay how two or more than two variables are related
with one another.
8. It should be identify in the discussion that whether the relationship is positive
or negative.
9. Reasons should be recorded and explained that why such relationship exists
among the variable.
10. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be given at the end
that the reader can comprehend the theorized relationship.
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21st September, 2014
5. HYPOTHESES
Synopsis:
- Meaning and definition of hypothesis

- The role of hypothesis in Library Science Research
- Difference between proposition and hypothesis
- Hypotheses Development/ Testing of Hypothesis
- Difficulties in the formulation / construction of Hypothesis
- Statement of Hypothesis (Format of Hypothesis)/ Forms of hypothesis
- If-then Statement/Hypothesis
- Directional and non-directional Hypothesis
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- Null and Alternative Hypothesis
- Steps involved in testing of Hypothesis
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MEANING AND DEFINITION OF HYPOTHESIS:
The term hypothesis has several meanings. It may be taken to mean a possibility, a supposition or an
assumption. In general it is taken as a proposal to accept something as true. It may prove to be correct
or incorrect. It is a tentative and is likely to be accepted as a scientific truth, e.g. if a man suffers from
fever, we guess that he has drunk impure water or if the price of a commodity suddenly shoots up, we
suppose that the merchants are hoarding. Thus constantly we are making hypothesis without being
aware of it. Thus, we can define hypothesis as tentative suggestions expressed as proposition to
explain an event.
A hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at the time, known
about a phenomenon and it is employed as a basis for action in the search of new truth. A hypothesis
is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory which is used as a guide in the
investigation of other facts and theories that are yet unknown.
It is a guess, supposition or tentative inference as to the existence of some fact, condition or

relationship relative to some phenomenon which serves to explain such facts as already known to
exist in a given area of search and to guide search for new truth. A hypothesis is a tentative supposition
or provisional guess, which seems to explain the situation under observation. A hypothesis states what
we are looking for. A hypothesis looks forward. It is a proposition which can be to a test to determine
its validity. It may prove to be correct or incorrect. A hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the
validity of which remains to be seen. In its elementary stage, the hypothesis may be hunch, guess,
imaginative idea which becomes the basis for further investigation.
Hypothesis reflects the research worker’s guess as to the probable outcome of the experiment.
A hypothesis is an assumption or proposition whose testability is to be tested on the basis of the

compatibility of its implications with empirical evidence and with previous knowledge.
A hypothesis is therefore, a shrewd and intelligent guess, a supposition, inference, hunch, provisional
statement or tentative generalization as to the existence of some fact, condition or relationship
relative to some phenomenon which serves to explain already known facts in a given area of research
and to guide the research for new truth on the basis of empirical evidence. The hypothesis is put to
test for its tenability and for determining its validity.
Testing of a hypothesis is the important characteristics of the scientific method. It is a pre-requisite of

any successful research, for it enables us to get rid of value approaches and meaningless
interpretations. It establishes the relationship of concept with theory, and specifies the test to be
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applied especially in the context of a meaningful value judgment. Therefore, a hypothesis plays a very
pivotal role in the scientific research method.
According to G.A. Lundberg, “A hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains
to be tested. In its most elementary stage, the hypothesis may be any guess, imaginative idea, which
becomes the basis for action or investigation.”
According to Goode & Hatt “a proposition which can be put to test to determine its validity is called a
hypothesis.
According to Walter R.Borg, “ a hypothesis reflects the research worker’s guess as to probable
outcome of his experiment and they play clear and specific goals before the researcher and provides
him with a basis for studying samples and research procedure to meet these goals.
A hypothesis is not the same as theory, though it is closely related with the theory. A hypothesis if
verified becomes a theory. It is a generalization drawn from the theory itself and when it has been
tested and found correct it becomes a part to the theory itself.
Thus the formulation of hypothesis is very crucial and the success or the failure of a research study
depends upon how best it has been formulated by the researcher. We may conclude by saying that it
is hard to conceive modern science in all its rigorous and disciplined fertility without the guiding power
of hypothesis.
A hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables
expressed in the form of a testable statement. Relationships are conjectured on the basis of the
network of associations established in the theoretical framework formulated for the research study.
By testing the hypotheses and confirming the conjectured relationships, it is expected that solutions
can be found to correct the problem encountered.
In short words a hypothesis is a testable statement of the relationships among variables. e.g. “If the
pilots are given proper training to handle crowded situations, air safety violations will be reduced”
i.e. training reduces violations i.e. v = f (trg) or if one can perform hard work for competitive exams,
he may get gold medal i.e. gold medals depends on hard work i.e. g= f (hard work). .
The preceding is a testable statement and describes the nature and direction of the relationships. Just
as the literature survey sets the stage for the theoretical framework, a good theoretical framework,
in turns, provides the logical base for developing testable hypotheses.
THE ROLE OF HYPOTHESIS IN LIBRARY SCIENCE RESEARCH
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In research, a hypothesis serves several important functions.

1. The most important is that it guides the directions of the study towards a researcher
interest.
2. A frequent problem in research is the proliferation of interesting information in the
relevant discipline.
3. The virtue of hypothesis is that, it limits what shall be studied and what shall not.
4. It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not relevant to the area of
research.
5. It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate.
6. A final role of the hypothesis is to provide a framework for organizing the conclusions
that result.
7. Specifically the role of the hypothesis in determining the direction of the research, the
hypothesis specifies
- Who shall be studied?
- In what context they shall be studied and
- What shall be studied?
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE CONCEPTS/ JARGONS:
Proposition:
We define a proposition as a statement about concepts that may be judged as a true or false if it
refers to observable phenomena. When a proposition is formulated for empirical testing, we call it a
hypothesis.
Hypothesis:
A hypothesis is a declarative statement. A hypothesis is of a tentative and conjectural nature.
Hypothesis has also been described as statements in which we assign variables to cases.
Case:
A case is defined in this sense as the entity or thing the hypothesis talk about.
Variable:
The variable is the characteristics, traits or attributes that is imputed to the case, while designing and
developing the hypothesis.
HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT:
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Once we have identified the important variables in a situation and established the relationship among
them through logical reasoning in the theoretical framework, we are in a position to test whether the
relationships is true or not. By testing these relationships scientifically through statistical analyses, we
are able to obtain reliable information that what kind of relationships exists among the variables
operating the problem situation. The results of these tests offer us some clues as to what could be
changed in the situation to solve the problem. Formulating such testable statements is called
hypotheses development.
DIFFICULTIES IN THE FORMULATION / CONSTRUCTION OF HYPOTHESIS:

There are a number of difficulties from which a beginner may suffer at the stage of formulating a
good hypothesis:
1. Lack of knowledge and clarity of the theoretical framework of the area.
2. Lack of ability to make use of theoretical framework logically.
3. Lack of acquaintance with available research technique resulting in failure to be able to

phrase the hypothesis properly.
4. Vagueness of the statement e.g. a course in ethics will make a student a more ethical
adult or some technical concepts in the field of library and information sc.
STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS (FORMAT):

1. IF-THEN STATEMENT:
A hypothesis can be tested whether there are differences between two groups with respect
to any variables. To examine whether or not the conjectured relationships or differences exist, these
hypotheses can be set either as propositions or in the form of if-then statement. e.g.
“Employees who are more healthy will take sick leave less frequently”
“If employees are more healthy, then they will take sick leave less frequently”
2. DIRECTIONAL & NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS:

a. If in stating the relationships between two variables, groups or terms such as positive, negative,
more than & less than etc. then these hypotheses are directional, because the direction of the
relationship between the variables (positive/ negative) is indicated as below or the nature of the
difference between two groups on a variable (more than/ less than) is postulated below:
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i. The greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of
employees.
ii. The greater the innovations/ new trends in the field of Lib. Sc. The greater would be
the inclination of the students towards this field.
b. On the other hand, non-directional hypothesis are those that postulate a relationship or
difference, but offer no indication of the direction of these relationships or differences. e.g.
“There is a relationship between age and job satisfaction”

OR
“There is a difference between the work ethic values of American & Asian employees”
3. NULL AND ALTERNATE HYPOTHESES:

The null hypothesis is a proportion that states definitive and exact relationships between two
variables e.g. it states that the population correlation between two variables is equal to zero or that
the different in the means of two groups in the population is equal to zero (or some definite
number).
In general, the null statement is expressed that there is no (significant) relationship between two
variables or no (significant) difference between two groups.
The alternate hypothesis, which is the opposite of the null, is a statement expressing a general or
common relationship between two variables or indicating differences between groups e.g.
“Women are motivational than men”
Thus the null hypothesis in respect of group difference is as under:
Ho : m = w “OR”
Ho : m = w = 0
Where:
Ho : Null hypotheses
m : mean motivational level of the men
w : mean motivational level of the women
The alternate for the preceding example would statistically between set as follows:
HA : w < 
HA : w > 
Where:
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He represents the term alternate hypotheses and m and w are the mean motivational levels of
men and women respectively.
STEPS INVOLVED IN TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

1. State the null and alternative hypotheses.
2. Choose the statistical test depending on whether the data collected are parametric or
non-parametric.
3. Determine the level of significance desired (p = .05 or more/ less).
4. Look up the critical values that define the regions of acceptance on the table (i.e. t-test,
f-test & χ2-test). This critical value demarcates the region of rejection from the rejoin of
acceptance of the null hypotheses.
5. When the resultant value is larger than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected
and the alternate accepted. If the calculated value is less than the critical value, the null
is accepted and the alternate reject.
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QUESTIONNAIRE
SYNOPSIS:
- Meaning of Questionnaire
- Methods for administering Questionnaire
- A. Personally administered questionnaire

- B. Questionnaire sent through the mail/ Mailed Questionnaire
- C. Electronically administered
Personally Administered Questionnaires
- Meaning
- Advantages
- Disadvantages
Mailed Questionnaires
- Meaning
- Advantages
- Disadvantages
- Effective Techniques of mailed questionnaire
Guidelines / Principles for Questionnaire Design

- The principles of wording of the questions
1. The appropriateness of the content of the questions
2. How questions are worded and the level of sophistication of the language
used
3. The type and form of questions asked
4. The sequencing of the questions
5. The personal data sought from the respondents
- How the variables will be categorized, scaled, and coded after receipt of the responses
- General appearance of the questionnaire.
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MEANING OF QUESTIONNAIRE
A questionnaire is a pre-formulated written set of questions to which respondents record their

answers. Questionnaires are an efficient data collection mechanism when the researcher knows
exactly what is required and how to measure the variables of interest. Questionnaires can be
administered through the following methods:
- Personally administered questionnaire

- Questionnaire sent through the mail/ Mailed Questionnaire
- Electronically administered
Now we explain in detail:

i. Personally Administered Questionnaires
When the survey is confined to a local area, and the organization is willing and able to assemble groups
of employees to respond to the questionnaires. It is good to collect data through personally
administered questionnaires.
ADVANTAGES:
1. The main advantage of this is that the researcher or a member of the research team can
collect all the completed responses within a short period of time.
2. Any doubts that the respondents might have on any question could be clarified on the
spot.
3. The researcher is also afforded the opportunity to introduce the research topic and
motivate the respondents to offer their frank answers.
4. Administering questionnaires to large numbers of individuals at the same time is less

expensive and consumes less time than interviewing
5. It does not require as much skill to administer the questionnaire as to conduct interviews.
Questionnaires are best administered personally to groups of people because of the above
advantages. However, organizations are often unable or disinclined to allow work hours to be spent
on data collection, and other ways of getting the questionnaires back after completion may have to
be found. In such cases, employees may be given blank questionnaires to be collected from them
personally on completion after a few days, or mailed back by a certain date in self-addressed, stamped
envelopes provided to them for the purpose.
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Scanner sheets (the answer sheets that are usually provided for answering multiple-choice questions
in exams) are usually sent with the questionnaire, so that respondents can circle their answers to each
question on the sheet, which can then be directly entered into the computer as data, without
someone having to code and then manually enter them in the computer. Disks containing the
questions can also be sent to respondents who have, and can use, personal computers.
2. Mailed Questionnaires
Questionnaire sent through the mail is called the mailed questionnaire.

Advantages:
The main advantage of mailed questionnaires is that a wide geographical area can be covered in the
survey. They are mailed to the respondents, who can complete them at their convenience, in their
homes, and at their own pace.
Disadvantages:
1. The return rates of mailed questionnaires are very low due to the lower rate of response.
2. Another disadvantage of the mail questionnaire is that any doubts the respondents might
have cannot be clarified on the spot.
3. With very low return rates it is difficult to establish the representativeness of the sample
Techniques:
However, some effective techniques can be employed for improving the rates of response to mail
questionnaires.
- Sending follow-up letters
- Enclosing some small monetary amounts as incentives with the questionnaire
- Providing the respondent with self-addressed envelopes
- Stamped return envelopes
- Keeping the questionnaire brief
- Mail questionnaires are also expected to meet with a better response rate when
respondents are notified in advance about the forthcoming survey, and a reputed
research organization administers them with its own introductory covering letter.
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However, for most organizational research, after the variables for the research have been identified
and the measures found or developed, the questionnaire is a convenient data collection mechanism.
Field studies, comparative surveys, and experimental designs use questionnaires to measure the
variables of interest. Because questionnaires are in common use in surveys, it is necessary to know
how to design them effectively. A set of guidelines for questionnaire construction follows.
GUIDELINES FOR QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Sound questionnaire design principles should focus on three areas.
1st: The first relates to the wording of the questions.
2nd: The second refers to planning of issues of how the variables will be categorized scaled, and
coded after receipt of the responses.
3rd: The third pertains to the general appearance of the questionnaire.
All three are important issues in questionnaire design because they can minimize the
biases.
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PRINCIPLES OF WORDING
The principles of wording refer to such factors as:
1. The appropriateness of the content of the questions
2. How questions are worded and the level of sophistication of the language used
3. The type and form of questions asked
4. The sequencing of the questions
5. The personal data sought from the respondents
Each of the above is explained below.
1. Content and Purpose of the Questions
The nature of the variable will determine what kinds of questions will be asked. If the variables tapped
are of a
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subjective nature (e.g., satisfaction, involvement), where respondents' beliefs, perceptions, and
attitudes are to be measured, the questions should tap the dimensions and elements of the concept.
If the variables are of an objective nature such as age and educational levels of respondents are
tapped, a single direct question i.e. that has an ordinal-scaled set of categories would be appropriate.
Thus the purpose of each question should be carefully considered so that the variables are adequately
measured and yet no superfluous (surplus / extra) questions are asked.
2. Languages and Wording of the Questionnaire
The language of the questionnaire should approximate the level of understanding of the respondents.
The choice of words would depend on their educational level, the usage of terms and idioms in the
culture, and the frames of reference of the respondents. For instance, even when English is the spoken
or official language in two cultures, certain words may be alien to one culture. Terms such as "working
here is a drag," and "she is a compulsive worker," may not be interpreted the same way in different
cultures. Some blue-collar workers may not understand terminology such as "organizational
structure." Thus it is essential to word the questions in a way that could be understood by the
respondent. If some questions are either not understood or are interpreted differently by the
respondent, the researcher will obtain the wrong answers to the questions, and responses will thus
be biased. Hence, the questions asked, the language used, and the wording should be appropriate to
tap respondents' attitudes, perceptions, and feelings.
Type and Form of Questions
Type of question refers to whether the question will be open-ended or closed. Form refers to positively
and negatively worded questions.
Open-Ended versus Closed Questions. Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer them in
any way they choose. An example of an open-ended question is asking the respondent to state five
things that are interesting and challenging in the job. Another example is asking what the respondents
like about their supervisors or their work environment. A third example is to invite their comments on
the investment portfolio of the firm.
A closed question, in contrast, would ask the respondents to make choices among a set of alternatives
given by the researcher. For instance, instead of asking the respondent to state any Jive aspects of the
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job that she finds interesting and challenging, the researcher might list 10 or 15 aspects that might
seem interesting or challenging in jobs and ask the respondents to rank the first five among these in
the order of their preference. All items in a questionnaire using a nominal, ordinal, or Likert or ratio
scale are considered closed.
Closed questions help the respondents to make quick decisions to choose among the several
alternatives before them. They also help the researcher to code the information easily for subsequent
analysis, Care has to be taken to ensure that the alternatives are mutually exclusive and collectively
exhaustive. If there are overlapping categories, or if all possible alternatives are not given (i.e., the
categories are not exhaustive), the respondents might get confused and the advantage of their being
enabled to make a quick decision is thus lost.
Some respondents may find even well-delineated categories in a closed question rather confining and
might avail of the opportunity to make additional comments. This is the reason that many
questionnaires end with a final open-ended question that invites respondents to comment on topics
that might not have been covered fully or adequately, The responses to such open-ended questions
have to be edited and categorized for subsequent data analysis.
Positively and Negatively Worded Questions. Instead of phrasing all questions positively, it is
advisable to include some negatively worded questions as well, so the tendency in respondents to
mechanically circle the points toward one end of the scale is minimized. For example, let us say that a
set of six questions is used to tap the variable "perceived success" on a 5-point scale, with 1 being
"very low" and 5 being "very high" on the scale, A respondent who is not particularly interested in
completing the questionnaire is more likely to stay involved and remain alert while answering the
questions when positively and negatively worded questions are interspersed in it. For instance, if the
respondent had circled 5 for a positively worded question such as, '7 feel I have been able to
accomplish a number of different things in my job," he cannot circle number 5 again to the negatively
worded question, "I do not feel I am very effective in my job." The respondent is now shaken out of
any likely tendency to mechanically respond to one end of the scale. In case this does still happen, the
researcher has an opportunity to detect such biases. A good questionnaire should therefore include
both positively and negatively worded questions. The use of double negatives and excessive use of
the words not and only should be avoided in the negatively worded questions because they tend to
confuse respondents. For instance, it is better to say, "Coming to work is no great fun "than to say
"Not coming to work is greater fun than coming to work." Likewise, it is better to say "The rich need
no help" than to say "Only the rich do not need help."
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Double-Barreled Questions. A question that lends itself to different possible responses to its subparts
is called a double-barreled question. Such questions should be avoided and two or more separate
questions asked instead. For example, the question "Do you think there is a good market for the
product and that it will sell well?" could bring a "yes" response to the first part (i.e., there is a good
market for the product) and a "no" response to the latter part (i.e., it will not sell well for various other
reasons). In this case, it would be better to ask two questions: (1) "Do you think there is a good market
for the product?" and (2) "Do you think the product will sell well?" The answers might be "yes" to both,
"no" to both, "yes" to the first and "no" to the second, or "yes" to the second and "no" to the first. If
we combined the two questions and asked a double-barreled question, we would confuse the
respondents and obtain ambiguous responses. Hence, double-barreled questions should be
eliminated.
Ambiguous Questions. Even questions that are not double-barreled might be ambiguously worded
and the respondent may not be sure what exactly they mean.
An example of such a question is "To what extent would you say you are happy?" Respondents might
find it difficult to decide whether the question refers to their state of feelings at the workplace, or at
home, or in general. Because it is an organizational survey, she might presume that the question
relates to the workplace. Yet the researcher might have intended to inquire about the general, overall
degree of satisfaction that the individual experiences in everyday life—a very global feeling not specific
to the workplace alone. Thus, responses to ambiguous questions have built-in bias inasmuch as
different respondents might interpret such items in the questionnaire differently. The result would be
a mixed bag of ambiguous responses that do not accurately provide the correct answer to the
question.
Recall-Dependent Questions. Some questions might require respondents to recall experiences from
the past that are hazy in their memory. Answers to such questions might have bias. For instance, if an
employee who has had 30 years' service in the organization is asked to state when he first started
working in a particular department and for how long, he may not be able to give the correct answers
and may be way off in his responses. A better source for obtaining that information would be the
personnel records.
Leading Questions. Questions should not be phrased in such a way that they lead the respondents to
give the responses that the researcher would like or want them to give. An example of such a question
is: "Don't you think that in these days of escalating costs of living, employees should be given good pay
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raises?" By asking such a question, we are signaling and pressuring respondents to say "yes." Tagging
the question to rising living costs makes it difficult for most respondents (unless they are the top
bosses in charge of budget and finances) to say, "No; not unless their productivity increases too!"
Another way of asking the question about pay raises to elicit less biased responses would be: "To what
extent do you agree that employees should be given higher pay raises?" If respondents think that the
employees do not deserve a higher pay raise at all, their response would be "Strongly Disagree"; if
they think that respondents should be definitely given a high pay raise, they would respond to the
"Strongly Agree" end of the scale, and the in-between points would be chosen depending on the
strength of their agreement or disagreement. In this case, the question is not framed in a suggestive
manner as in the previous instance.
Loaded Questions. Another type of bias in questions occurs when they are phrased in an emotionally
charged manner. An example of such a loaded question is asking employees: "To what extent do you
think management is likely to be vindictive if the Union decides to go on strike?" The words "strike"
and "vindictive" are emotionally charged terms, polarizing management and unions, Hence, asking a
question such as the above would elicit strongly emotional and highly biased responses. If the purpose
of the question is twofold, that is, to find (1) the extent to which employees are in favor of strike and
(2) the extent to which they fear adverse reactions if they do go on strike, then these are the two
specific questions that need to be asked. It may turn out that the employees are not strongly in favor
of a strike and they also do not believe that management would retaliate if they did go on strike!
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Social Desirability.
Questions should not be worded such that they elicit socially desirable responses, For instance, a
question such as "Do you think that older people should he laid off?" would elicit a response of "no,"
mainly because society would frown on a person who would say that elderly people should be fired
even if they are capable of performing their jobs satisfactorily. Hence, irrespective of the true feelings
of the respondent, a socially desirable answer would be provided. If the purpose of the question is to
gauge the extent to which organizations are seen as obligated to retain those above 65 years of age,
a differently worded question with less pressure toward social desirability would be: "There are
advantages and disadvantages to retaining senior citizens in the workforce. To what extent do you
think companies should continue to keep the elderly on their payroll?"
Sometimes certain items that tap social desirability are deliberately introduced at various points in
the questionnaire and an index of each individual's social desirability tendency is calculated therefrom.
This index is then applied to all other responses given by the individual in order to adjust for social
desirability biases (Crowne & Marlowe, 1980; Edwards, 1957).
Length of Questions. Finally, simple, short questions are preferable to long ones. As a rule of thumb,
a question or a statement in the questionnaire should not exceed 20 words, or exceed one full line in
print (Horst, 1968; Oppenheim, 1986).
Sequencing of Questions
The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should be such that the respondent is led from
questions of a general nature to those that are more specific, and from questions that are relatively
easy to answer to those that are progressively more difficult, This funnel approach, as it is called
(Festinger & Katz, 1966), facilitates the easy and smooth progress of the respondent through the items
in the questionnaire. The progression from general to specific questions might mean that the
respondent is first asked questions of a global nature that pertain to the organization, and then is
asked more incisive questions regarding the specific job, department, and the like. Easy questions
might relate to issues that do not involve much thinking; the more difficult ones might call for more
thought, judgment, and decision making in providing the answers.
In determining the sequence of questions, it is advisable not to place contiguously a positively worded
and a negatively worded question tapping the same element or dimension of a concept. For instance,
placing two questions such as the following, one immediately after the other, is not only awkward but
might also seem insulting to the respondent.
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1. I have opportunities to interact with my colleagues during work hours.
2. I have few opportunities to interact with my colleagues during work hours.
First, there is no need to ask the very same question in a positive and a negative way. Second, if for
some reason this is deemed necessary (e.g., to check the consistency of the responses), the two
questions should be placed in different parts of the questionnaire, as far apart as possible.
The way questions are sequenced could also introduce certain biases, frequently referred to as the
ordering effects. Though randomly placing the questions in the questionnaire would reduce any
systematic biases in the response, it is very rarely done, because of subsequent confusion while
categorizing, coding, and analyzing the responses.
In sum, the language and wording of the questionnaire focus on such issues as the type and form of
questions asked (i.e., open-ended and closed questions, and positively and negatively worded
questions), as well as avoiding double-barreled questions, ambiguous questions, leading questions,
loaded questions, questions prone to tap socially desirable answers, and those involving distant recall.
Questions should also not be unduly long. Using the funnel approach helps respondents to progress
through the questionnaire with ease and comfort.
Classification Data or Personal Information
Classification data, also known as personal information or demographic questions, elicit such
information as age, educational level, marital status, and income. Unless absolutely necessary, it is
best not to ask for the name of the respondent. If, however, the questionnaire has to be identified
with the respondents for any reason, then the questionnaire could be numbered and connected by
the researcher to the respondent's name, in a separately maintained, private document. This
procedure should be clearly explained to the respondent. The reason for using the numerical system
in questionnaires is to ensure the anonymity of the respondent, should the questionnaires fall into the
hands of someone in the organization.
Whether questions seeking personal information should appear in the beginning or at the end of the
questionnaire is a matter of choice for the researcher. Some researchers ask for personal data at the
end rather than the beginning of the questionnaire (Oppenheim, 1986). Their reasoning may be that
by the time the respondent reaches the end of the questionnaire he or she would have been convinced
of the legitimacy and genuineness of the questions framed by the researcher, and hence, would be
more inclined and amenable to share personal information. Researchers who prefer to elicit most of
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the personal information at the very beginning may opine that once respondents have shared some
of their personal history, they may have psychologically identified themselves with the questionnaire,
and may feel a commitment to respond. Thus whether one asks for this information in the beginning
or at the end of the questionnaire is a matter of individual choice, However, questions seeking details
of income, or other highly sensitive information—if at all deemed necessary—are best placed at the
very end of the questionnaire.
Even so, it would be a wise policy to ask for such information by providing a range of response options,
rather than seeking exact figures. For example, the variables can be tapped as shown below:
REFERENCE:
Research Methods for Business – A Skill Building Approach, By Dr.Uma Sekaran, 4th Edition (2003),
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
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STEP # 6 RESEARCH DESIGN
Synopsis:
 Meaning of Research Design alongwith diagrammatic representation
 Six basic Elements / Aspects of research design:
1. The purpose of the study
2. The types of investigation
3. The extent of researcher interference with the study
4. The study setting
5. The unit of analysis
6. The time horizons of the study
Other aspects of research design are as under
1. Measurement
2. Data Collection methods
3. Sampling design
4. Data analysis
MEANING & DEFINITION OF RESEACH DESIGN
After the identification of variables in a problem situation and developed the theoretical framework,
the next step is to design the research in a way that the data can be gathered and analyzed to arrive
at a solution.
There are many definitions of research design, but no one definition imparts the full range of
important aspects. Several leading authors define it as under:
 The research design constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data.
 It aids the scientist in the allocation of his limited resources by posing crucial choices
 It is the blueprint to include experiments, interviews, observations, the analysis of records,
simulation or some combination of these?
 Are the methods of data collection and the research situation to be highly structured?
 Res. Design is an intensive study of a small sample more effective than a less intensive study
of a large sample?
 Res. Design should be primarily the analysis of quantitative or qualitative?
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 Research design is the plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers
to research questions. The plan is the overall scheme or program of the research activities.
The above definitions give the essential of research design in this way.
1st : The design is a plan for selecting the sources and types of information used to answers
the research questions.
2nd : It is a framework for specifying the relationships among the study’s variables.
3rd: It is a blueprint that outlines each procedure from the hypothesis to the
analysis of data.
The design provides answers for such questions as:
- What techniques will be used to gather data?

- What kind of sampling will be used?
- How will time and cost constraints be dealt with?
Thus research design involves a series of rational decision-making choices. The various issues
involved in the research design relating to decision-making are:
 The purpose of the study (i.e. exploratory, descriptive, hypothesis-testing & case studies
analysis),
 where the study will be conducted (i.e. the study setting),
 the type of study it should be (type of investigation),
 the extent to which the researcher manipulates and controls the study (extent of
researcher inferences)
 the temporal aspect of the study (time horizons)
 the level at which the data will be analyzed (unit of analysis) are integral to research
design.
The research design is now comprehensively shown in the following figure.
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RESEARCH DESIGN
------------------------------ Details of study -------------------------------------- ----Measurement --- ---Data analysis ---
Purpose of the Types of Extent of research Study Setting Measurement &

study Investigation interference Measures
Establishing: Minimal: studying Contrived Operational

Explanation
PROBLEM STATEMENT
- Causal R/Ship events as they Non-contrived definition 1. Feel for data

- Correlation normally occur Items (measures)
Description - Group Manipulates and/or Scaling
differences, control and/or Categorization
Hypothesis
ranks etc. simulation Coding
Testing
Unit of Analysis Sampling Time Horizons Data Collection

(Pop. To be design Method
studied)
Individuals Probability One-short Observation

Dyads Non-Probability (Cross- Interview 2. Goodness of data
Group Sample size(n) sectional) Questionnaire
Organization Longitudinal Physical
Machines etc. measurement
Unobtrusive
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______________________________ 34
Class Lectures of Sir Gohar Rehman
In the above figure each component of the research design offers several critical choice points. It is
important to note that the more sophisticated and rigorous the research design, the greater the time, the
costs and other resources expended on the study.
SIX BASIC ELEMENTS / ASPECTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN:
1. The purpose of the study

2. The types of investigation
3. The extent of researcher interference with the study
4. The study setting
5. The unit of analysis
6. The time horizons of the study
Other aspects of research design are as under
7. Measurement
8. Data Collection methods
9. Sampling design
10. Data analysis
Now we shall explain the above aspects in detail below:
(In Quantitative research, data are gathered through Questionnaire etc. In Qualitative research, data are
gathered through observation & interviews)
1. THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY:
It consists of the following sub-headings
i. Exploratory
ii. Descriptive
iii. Hypothesis Testing
iv. Case study Analysis
I. EXPLORATORY:
An exploratory study is undertaken when no information is available about the situation on the spot or
no information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in the past. In
such cases, extensive preliminary work needs to be done to gain familiarity with the phenomena in the
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Compiled by Zeeshan Ullah Khattak, MS-LIS 2 Semester, 2014
situation and understand what is occurring, before we develop a model and set up a rigorous design for
comprehensive investigation.
In essence, exploratory studies are undertaken to better comprehend the nature of the problem.
Extensive interviews have been undertaken to get a handle on the situation and to understand the
phenomena. After obtaining a better understanding more rigorous research can then be proceeded.
Some qualitative studies, where data are collected through observations and interviews are exploratory
in nature. When the data reveal some pattern regarding the phenomena of interest, theories are
developed and hypothesis formulated for subsequent testing.
Exploratory studies are important for obtaining a good grasp of the phenomena of interest and for
advancing knowledge through good theory building and hypothesis testing.
II. DESCRIPTIVE STUDY:
A descriptive study is undertaken in order to ascertain (to find out, learn by investigation) and be able to
describe (to write) the characteristics of the variables in a situation e.g.
- a study of a class in terms of senior, junior,
sex composition
age grouping
no. of semesters etc. are considered descriptive in nature.
Descriptive studies are undertaken in organizations in order to learn about and describe the
characteristics of a group of employees e.g. the age, educational level, job status and length of service
etc.
Descriptive studies are also undertaken to understand the characteristics of organizations that follow
certain common practices. The goal of a descriptive study is to offer a profile or to describe relevant
aspects of the phenomena of interest to the researcher from an individual, organizational, industry-
oriented or other perspective.
Descriptive studies presents data in a meaningful form. It helps to:
i. Understand the characteristics of a group in a given situation

ii. Think systematically about aspects in a given situation
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iii. Offer ideas for further probe and research

iv. Help make certain simple decisions i.e. how many and what kind of individuals should be
transferred from one section / unit of the firm to another one.
III. HYPOTHESIS-TESTING:
Studies that engage in hypothesis testing explain the nature of certain relationships or establish the
differences among groups or the independence of two or more factors in a situation. Hypothesis testing
is undertaken to explain the variance in the dependent variable or to predict organizational outcomes e.g.
“If advertising is increased, then sales will also go up” This shown the nature of the relationship between
advertising and sales that can be established by testing the hypothesis.
IV. CASE STUDY ANALYSIS
2. TYPE OF INVESTIGATION: (CAUSAL VS. CORRELATIONAL):
When it is necessary to establish a definitive cause and effect relationship, then the causal study is needed
in order to find an answer of the issue.
The correlational study is needed to identify the important factors associated with a problem. In the causal
study the researcher is keen on delineating (to describe) one or more factors that are undoubtedly causing
the problem. In other words, the intention of the researcher conducting a causal study is to be able to
state that variable X cause’s variable Y. So, when variable X is removed or altered in some way, problem
Y is solved.
However, it is not just one or more variables that cause a problem. There are multiple factors that
influence one another and the problem. The researcher might be asked to identify the crucial factors that
are associated with the problem, rather than establish a cause and effect relationship.
In simple words, when the researcher wants to delineate the cause of one or more problems, then the
study is called a causal study. When the researcher is interested in delineating the important variables
that associated with the problem is called correletaional study e.g.
Does smoking cause cancer? (Causal study)
or
Does income caused consumption
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Are smoking and cancer related? (Correlational study)
or
Are income & consumption are correlated
Are the subjects of Maths & Statistics are correlated with each other.
3. THE EXTENT OF RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE WITH THE STUDY:
The extent to which the researcher interferes with the normal flow of work at the workplace has a direct
bearing on whether the study undertaken is causal or correlational. A correlational study is conducted in
the natural environment of the organization, with minimum interference, the researcher with normal flow
of work e.g. if researcher wants to study the factors influencing training effectiveness ( a correlational
study), the individual simply has to develop a theoretical framework, collect the relevant data and analyze
them to come up with the findings. Though there is some disruption to the normal flow of work in the
system as the researcher interviews employees and administers questionnaires at the workplace, the
researcher’s interference in the system is minimal as compared with that in causal studies.
In studies conducted to establish cause and effect relationships, the researcher tries to manipulate certain
variables so as to study the effects of such manipulations on the dependent variable of interest.
In other words, the researcher deliberately changes certain variables in the setting and interferes with the
events as they normally occur in the organization.
4. STUDY SETTING: (CONTRIVED AND NON-CONTRIVED (i.e. planned & unplanned/artificial):
Organizational research can be done in the natural environment where work proceeds normally (i.e. in
non-contrived settings (not planned, not managed) or in artificial / contrived settings (i.e. to plan, to
devise, to scheme). Correlational studies are invariably conducted in non-contrived settings, whereas
rigorous causal studies are done in contrived laboratory settings.
Correlational studies done in organizations are called field studies. Studies conducted to establish cause
and effect relationships using the same natural environment in which employees normally function are
called field experiment.
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Experiments done to establish cause and effect relationships beyond the possibility of the least doubt
require the creation of an artificial, contrived environment in which all the extraneous factors are strictly
controlled. Similar subjects are chosen carefully to respond to certain manipulated stimuli. These studies
are referred to as laboratory experiments. We may define it as under:
i. Field Study: A non-contrived setting with minimal researcher interference
ii. Field Experiment: Non-contrived setting but with researcher interference to a moderate
extent.
iii. Laboratory Experiment: A contrived setting with researcher interference in an excessive degree
5. THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS
(individuals, dyads, groups, organizations, cultures):
Dyads: (duo, two, two unit treated as one, a group of two, a pair, a couple)
The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data
analysis stage e.g. if the problem statement focuses on how to raise the motivational levels of employees
in general, then we are interested in individual employees in the organization and would like to find out
what can we do to raise their motivation. Thus here unit of analysis is the individual.
If the researcher is interested in studying two-person interactions, then several two person groups (also
known as dyads) will become the unit of analysis. Analysis of husband-wife interactions in families and
supervisor-subordinate relationships in workplace are good examples of dyads as the unit of analysis.
If the problem statement is related to group effectiveness, the unit of analysis will be at the group level.
In other words, we may gather relevant data from all individuals first, comprising six groups, then we
would aggregate the individual data in to group data so as to see the differences among the six groups.
If we compare different departments in the organization, then the data analysis will be done at the
departmental level i.e. the individuals in the department will be treated as one unit and comparisons
treating the department as the unit of analysis.
As our research question address issues that more away from the individuals to dyads, groups,
organization and even nations, the unit of analysis also similarly shifts from individuals to dyads, groups,
organization and nations. The characteristics of these “levels of analysis” is that the lower levels subsumed
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within the higher levels. Thus if we want to study cultural differences among nations, we will have to
collect from different countries and study the underlying patterns of cultural in each country.
Individuals do not have the same characteristics as groups and groups do not have the same
characteristics as individuals. There are variations in the perceptions, attitudes & behavior of peoples in
different cultures. Hence the nature of the information gathered as well as the level at which data are
aggregated for analysis are integral to decision made in the choice of the unit of analysis.
It is necessary to decide on the unit of analysis even as we formulate the research question, since the data
collection methods, sample size and even the variables include in the framework may sometimes be
determined or guided by the level at which data are aggregated for analysis.
6. TIME HORIZON (a limit): (Cross-Sectional Vs. Longitudinal Studies)
I. Cross – Sectional Studies / One-short:
A study can be done in which data are gathered just once, over a period of days, weeks or months
in order to answer a research question, such studies are called one-shot or cross-sectional studies.
II. Longitudinal Studies:
In some cases, the researcher might want to study people or phenomena at more than one point
in time in order to answer the research question e.g. the researcher might want to study
employees behavior before and after a change in the top management to learn the effects of the
change. Here data are gathered at two different points in time, the study is not cross-sectional or
of the one-shot kind, but is carried longitudinally across a period of time. Such studies, as when
data on the dependent variable are gathered at two or more points in time to answer the research
question, are called longitudinal studies.
40
nd
RESESACH DESIGN:
(Source: Donald R. Cooper & C. William Emory)
Research Design
Research Process Research Design
(To develop) It involves on the actual study
i.e.
Testing of Hypothesis - How to deal with the location

for the study
- How to select sample
Conceptual Framework - How to collect the data
- How to analyze the data
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN:
A number of different design approaches exist, but unfortunately, no simple classification system
defines all the variations that must be considered. We can classify research design using at least eight
different perspectives.
1. Degree of problem crystallization
A study may be viewed as exploratory or formal. Exploratory studies tend toward loose structures with
the objections of discovering future research tasks.
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41
nd

Zaki Notes Final Term, Sir Gohar Rehman

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Sir, Gohar Rehman Lecture Notes

Research Process RP = f (TF+HD)

The difference between Research Process & Research Design

Various steps in research process

1. Identification of the broad problem area

 Current/existing problem prevailing in organization e.g. gender discrimination

Data is mainly of two types:

3. Problem statement/problem formulation/research question/problem identification

Meaning of problem in the context of research

 JOHRI Window Paradigm/Identification of research problem

 Steps involved in identifying the research problem

4. Conceptual/Theoretical Framework (sometime it is also called related literature or

Probability Non Probability

Sampling techniques are of two types:

(a) Simple Random Sampling

(b) Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling is also known as proportional random sampling. This is a

(c) Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic random sampling can be likened to an arithmetic progression wherein the

3. You subjects will be patients 3, 8, 13, 18, 23, and so on.

(d) Cluster Random Sampling

This probability sampling technique involves a combination of two or more sampling

2. Non Probability Sampling

Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a

In any form of research, true random sampling is always difficult to achieve.

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

(a) Convenience Sampling

(c) Quota Sampling

(d) Judgmental Sampling

(e) Snowball Sampling

When to Use Non-Probability Sampling

How to conduct Literature Survey

2. Extracting/Gathering the relevant information, either by going through necessary

ii. Turabian Manual of writer: 1996 (outdated)

iii. The Manual of APA: 2001

iv. MLA (Modern Language Association of America)

3. Writing up a literature review.

3. Problem statement/problem formulation/research question/problem identification

 Meaning of problem in the context of research

 JOHRI Window Paradigm/Identification of research problem

In this case there is no need to conduct research.

 Steps involved in identifying the research problem

- Meaning and definition of hypothesis

- Directional and non-directional Hypothesis

- Null and Alternative Hypothesis

- Steps involved in testing of Hypothesis

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF HYPOTHESIS:

It is a guess, supposition or tentative inference as to the existence of some fact, condition or

A hypothesis is an assumption or proposition whose testability is to be tested on the basis of the

Testing of a hypothesis is the important characteristics of the scientific method. It is a pre-requisite of

THE ROLE OF HYPOTHESIS IN LIBRARY SCIENCE RESEARCH

In research, a hypothesis serves several important functions.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE CONCEPTS/ JARGONS:

DIFFICULTIES IN THE FORMULATION / CONSTRUCTION OF HYPOTHESIS:

2. Lack of ability to make use of theoretical framework logically.

3. Lack of acquaintance with available research technique resulting in failure to be able to

STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS (FORMAT):

2. DIRECTIONAL & NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS:

“There is a relationship between age and job satisfaction”

3. NULL AND ALTERNATE HYPOTHESES:

STEPS INVOLVED IN TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

- A. Personally administered questionnaire

Guidelines / Principles for Questionnaire Design

A questionnaire is a pre-formulated written set of questions to which respondents record their