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4 FOREWORD
Andris Barblan
4 AVANT-PROPOS
Andris Barblan
23 AN EXPLANATORY GLOSSARY
Pierre Tabatoni, Académie des Sciences morales et politiques
29 GLOSSAIRE RAISONNÉ
Pierre Tabatoni, Académie des Sciences morales et politiques
4
FOREWORD
Andris Barblan
Following the seminar organised in Istanbul in EUA uses these various concepts in its institu-
2000 for its members, EUA invited the two tional review programme, which was launched
seminar facilitators to turn their presentations in 1994 with the help of the two mentioned
into articles. authors.
We are now pleased to provide EUA members Today, having evaluated more than 80 uni-
with a continuation of CRE-guide n°2 of June versities, essentially in Europe but also in
1998 on the “Principles of strategic manage- South America and South Africa, EUA has
ment in universities“ (this can be downloaded become a main actor for quality manage-
in English on the EUA’s website, and the ment on the European university scene. As
French version can also be obtained from the such, it is represented on ENQA’s Steering
EUA Geneva office). This Thema n°2 replaces Committee (European Network of Quality
the survey of management practices in Agencies). Together with its members, it also
European universities that should have been develops the strategies and policies for
published at that time. In addition to the change that will enable universities across
articles by Pierre Tabatoni and John Davies, Europe to adapt to the challenges of the
revised in collaboration with Andris Barblan, a European Area of Higher Education, to be
glossary of the main expressions of strategic set up by 2010.
management is included in both languages.
AVANT-PROPOS
Andris Barblan
The complete strategist’s advice: if you want to make a sculpture of an elephant out of a block of gran-
ite, start cutting little parts away and then remove, fast, anything that does not look like an elephant.
Strategic planning is different from Norms are principles for collective action, shap-
strategic management. ing personal behaviour and group relations.
Normative management is a pleonasm, as any
Planning as a set of possible choices for action significant change necessarily implies develop-
is, by itself, an organised process of collective ing new collective norms, new visions and new
change embracing aims, norms, resources, cri- practices. The dynamics of cultural processes
teria of choice, structures, organisational, insti- (values turning into norms, models and word
tutional and personal relations – all elements patterns) sustain any managerial move.
which are at the core of any managerial
process. Long-term planning is supposed to In management literature, strategy and iden-
determine objectives for the future, while allo- tity are often perceived as the two sides of the
cating responsibilities and resources to reach same coin. However, in fast changing environ-
them. It is becoming more difficult, however, ments, strategic issues can imply and induce
to achieve distant goals in innovative and changed identities. Leadership then requires
complex environments, although the potential critical minds, fresh vision, courage, and the
for planning exists when strands of stability capacity to convince. Such a critical approach
within that context can be presumed. On that can be enhanced when institutions participate
basis, with some vision, long-term planning in networks, which allow for comparisons
can use scenarios, i.e., prospective states of the between different sets of inspiration and prac-
future, that can be deducted from current tice, thus pointing to revised needs, new con-
trends. straints and new models of change, if the
organisation’s potential is to be realised.
However, strategic management is more spe-
cific. It aims at leading, driving and helping In organisations considered as learning
people, those inside the organisation and systems, strategic management
those outside (also involved in its develop- becomes the educating process of
ment), to focus on the organisation's identity change agents, the institutional actors.
and image, to question its worth in a new
environment, to fix its longer term growth, The actor can be anyone in the organisation,
while using its present capacity and fostering or its related environment, whose behaviour
its “potential” for development. can significantly influence change in the organ-
isation and its milieu. For instance, for a univer-
Indeed, this implies proper planning, as it calls sity, the main actors are the students, faculty
for a choice among major objectives, the and staff, network members, public and private
achievement of which requires sets of specific regulators, as well as the media. In a learning
means. But, more than planning, management organisation, their education requires informa-
stresses dynamic and critical processes, those tion, communication, motivation through
of leadership, which can bypass present strate- focused exchange and open debates.
gies and design new ones. In other words,
strategic management prepares people to pro- Educating the person as an agent of
ject themselves into the future, i.e., to face change requires well-structured
new situations in the near future, at the cost strategic information systems.
of risk and uncertainty, when dealing with
changes in structures, models of action, roles, The data collected should provide relevant
relations and positions. material available at the right time to support
6
the right change. Such data (i.e. well- and any interpretation which might lead to
designed information) should structure strongly divergent positions should be
signals, even weak signals, which impress seriously debated, explained in writing and
the organisation with a sense of change in commented by the people in charge.
process. How to magnify and transform such
signals into data is a managerial information Too often, obscure or outmoded policies are
task. just ignored, to avoid either the effort of
updating or redefinition, or internal strife or
Data can monitor change in the environ- potential conflicts with external regulators. It
ment, or in the strategies applied in other usually means that some of the more power-
institutions used as benchmarks. But, more ful and determined sub-groups in the organi-
importantly, data should reflect the practice sation are de facto imposing their own norms
of the actors themselves, inside the organisa- and objectives as if they were those of the
tion or in its direct environment. It is clear whole institution. Alternatively, it leaves the
today that a lot of significant information can way open for policies imposed from the
be drawn from staff experience inside the outside by public authorities, the unions,
organisation. It is difficult, however, for man- resource providers or even by public opinion.
agement to convince employees not only to Doesn’t this ring a bell in universities?
expose their experience, but also to analyse it
so that it can contribute to a database of use- Yet, the worst situation for an institution is a
ful information for the organisation. policy (statement of identity, expression of
norms, etc.) which has no credibility; either
Information must be structured so that it is because it has been expressed too vaguely, or
easily communicated, while providing useful because it is simply ignored or interpreted as
data to the enquirer. Inside the organisation, fluctuating with circumstances. In such a
it must be available to anyone who is con- case, most people, especially the managers,
cerned with specific elements of information: try to understand which is the real policy of
this means setting up open systems which are the organisation and what this agenda really
difficult to organise, but essential. Such a task means for them.
represents a managerial challenge, especially
when strong competition for positions exists It is often said that it is not possible, nor
inside the institution or, on the contrary, opportune, to explain all policies: some
when the administration, interested in rou- should be kept confidential, secret, in order
tines, prefers to retain information rather than to minimize potential opposition, while being
to find time to disseminate it properly, thus implemented by a few people “in the know”.
risking the cultural fragmentation of the But secrecy is difficult when implementation
organisation. requires a wide distribution of information
and an open exchange of experience.
Policies and strategies Moreover, secrecy does not permit decen-
tralised initiatives – it provides privilege to the
1. Policies deal with identity, with missions happy few, leaving the other actors with a
(what Max Weber calls axiologic rationality), strong feeling of arbitrary behaviour, if not of
with organisational climate. At this level of mistrust.
generality, they are usually expressed in broad
terms, even symbolic ones. But such wording In fact, the formulation and implementation
must have meaning for the people involved, of strategies in the organisation are the test of
as these policies define norms of behaviour the validity of institutional policies. When no
and serve as fundamental references in case strategic drive proves effective, there is an
of serious conflicts between projects – or obvious need for change in policies.
between people – within the institution. They
play the role of a constitution in a State. 2. Strategies describe types of changes and
ways of transformation; they tell us what to
Inside and outside the organisation, these do in order to implement policies (instru-
norms represent institutional commitments mental rationality, or efficiency ). That is
7
why they need to be expressed in operational also useful – or even vital – to reconsider more
terms: recalling objectives, they enunciate objectively the organisation’s aims and opera-
those activities selected to reach those objec- tions, its performance criteria or its public
tives, the type of changes induced by such image. The outsiders could be external mem-
activities, the means which can be used – or bers of the administrative board, regular and
kept untouched – to develop them, the alloca- influential in the governing process, as well as
tion of individual sub-missions, resources and consultants or members of networks cooperat-
authority, the evaluation criteria for specific ing with the institution. The organisation’s
projects, the procedures to implement evalua- information system should be able to register
tion and those to take account of conclusions this data even if it proves difficult to gather
and recommendations. because of its informality, usually reflecting
various actors’ needs and motivation.
In other words, understanding the interaction
between actors and strategies is at the core Moreover, the management of evaluation
of any managerial process, and of the exercise implies a proper follow-up of the recommen-
of leadership. dations made, i.e., getting people’s support for
change when they are shown the advantage
3. Evaluation is thus the key to any policy and of action adjustment. Wisdom consists here in
strategy, because it questions constantly the showing that a non-change attitude, after the
aims of the organisation, the institutional allo- evaluation has pointed to areas of weakness,
cation of resources, the leadership and opera- could lead to external adaptation pressures,
tional capacities, i.e., the norms, communica- and that immobility can only undermine pre-
tion development, the criteria for quality, their sent positions, making it all the more difficult
implementation and their critical re-evaluation. to adjust later.
At the level of the whole organisation, it is
called institutional evaluation and deals with The balance between rationalisation,
the basic orientation and norms of the institu- innovation and preservation
tion.
Often, managers are tempted to give priority
Functional evaluation of the departments, of to rationalisation, on the basis of efficiency
specific activities or of the use of specific meth- criteria – usually a reduction of costs that
ods is a necessary complement to institutional leaves structures and roles as little affected as
evaluation but, too often, as it is easier to possible. Indeed, when change is the key,
achieve and exploit, functional evaluation innovation cannot be developed without
displaces or replaces institutional evaluation. some rationalisation in order to provide trans-
Strategic management must make institutional fer mobility in resource allocation as well as
evaluation possible and even desirable for the new models of action. Thus, rationalisation
majority of actors, thus offering a frame of usually leads to reorganising organisational
reference to functional evaluations that structures and to developing new functions
develop a critical approach to policies. while, however, keeping to the basics of the
existing system.
Managing evaluation, as a collective process
of change, in order to educate and motivate A classical way of developing innovation is to
people for change, is thus at the core of strate- design experimental structures away from
gic managerial capacity. This includes the abil- mainstream activities in the organisation;
ity to engage people in the evaluation process, areas of transformation are set up at the mar-
as a critical understanding of what they do and gin with their specific norms and evaluation
why they do it. As a side benefit, this may help criteria. This allows for focusing, in mainstream
other members of the organisation to under- activities, on rationalisation and efficiency, thus
stand the managers' tasks and difficulties. allowing for some questioning of current prac-
tice. But, at some stage, innovation will need
An internally-organised evaluation is essential to be transferred from the periphery to the
to help institutional actors to question their core resources for increased structural change.
goals and practices. An outsider’s viewpoint is This should lead to a difficult act of balancing
8
between rationalisation and innovation. bad, and institutional leaders should be ready
Too often, the drive for rationalisation and to manage them as components of true
innovation, which professionally and even strategic change, with high professional and
culturally proves rewarding for managers, cultural impact. This is an increasingly impor-
underestimates the damage it can impose tant dimension of management for change.
on situations that should be preserved in the In more classical terms, this represents the
longer term interest of the organisation. dialectical dimension of governance.
Ignoring the need for preservation can often Many contradictions occur at the same level,
endanger the institution or reduce its assets i.e., within the same general framework of
by wasting the professional and technical relations and criteria for action. The tradi-
experience of staff, thus jeopardising quality, tional managerial solution has been to seek
norms of cooperation, processes and commu- compromise (by dividing stakes, risks and
nication or, more broadly, the organisational means), thus inducing short-term favourable
climate of the institution, i.e., its cultural consequences. In the longer term, however,
norms. It is an illustration of badly managed compromise could lead to inertia as it is built
change. Cultural organisations (universities in on acquired status and pre-existing strategies.
particular) – which are made up of traditions, For most leaders, this is seen as a stable solu-
individual motivations, weak leadership, frag- tion, a step which will introduce leverage to
mented and difficult communication proce- structure future development. For others,
dures, as well as individual initiatives – are however, compromise is but a temporary and
particularly at risk. tactical move, a stage conceived as part of a
longer term perspective. Such managers can
Rationalisation, innovation and preservation envisage a changed future requiring renewed
make up an interdependent system with its negotiations to decide on shared goals,
own feedback loops. Designing and operat- action criteria and redistribution of resources.
ing an appropriate balance within this system
is at the core of strategic management, and On-going tensions will probably become the
therefore of leadership. It cannot be an a rule when contradictions develop at different
priori policy, but should flow from the imple- levels of institutional strategy. Indeed, in such
mentation of change, while leaders remain a case, the organisation deals with situations
aware of the danger of ignoring preservation. of paradox rather than of contradiction.
Paradoxes are confronting situations, posi-
Contradictions and paradoxes in tions, languages or models, referring to differ-
strategic management ent rationales. A compromise is therefore
difficult to design and implement in such a
In a fast changing environment, an organisa- situation, as the frame of reference is not the
tion is often torn apart between different same.
objectives, which are not necessarily coher-
ent, especially in terms of their succession in Paradoxical management leaders should
time; an organisation working on projects, allow diverging situations to develop side by
each with its own specificities, efficiency and side, as an incentive towards the finding of
quality criteria, types of personnel and management processes that differ according
resources, requires management to allow for to the level recognised to specific goals and
initiative from the people involved to foster means inside the institution. While accepting
fast adjustment to unforeseen change. contrasting situations leading to possible con-
flicts, the organisation should re-design and
Such an approach can reveal, sometimes in a adopt new models for action. In such a case,
dramatic way, the organisation’s contradic- conflict brings about strategic innovation and
tions between the objectives of its staff requires transformed leadership practices as
members, their attitudes, their potential for well as new cooperative networks.
change, their constraints or their manage-
ment operations. These contradictions can In such a paradoxical context, managers
induce unexpected consequences, good or should play on those tensions and
9
especially with the new generation of easy mics of communication will change the con-
access day-to-day tools, such as wireless tele- cept and practice of State and Law, i.e., the
phones or satellite-televisions, which inte- citizens' experience of democracy.
grate sound, image and numeric data.
2. In cultural terms, this affects society’s lan-
Indeed, by fostering communication and per- guage, values and significations, norms, mod-
sonal interaction (through information els of action, i.e., its communication, learning
exchange, debate or networking), the Inter- and teaching systems, its esthetics and leisure
net challenge strikes at the heart of social criteria. The concept itself of culture, which in
dynamics. The electronic revolution calls for Europe has been traditionally linked with
major changes in the way people establish “enlightened” values and leadership or class
and conduct interpersonal relations, rely criteria, could become more attuned with the
upon, confirm and contest their collective “expressed opinions” of a broader part of the
norms of behaviour. However, its real impact population, a trend already observed in the
on social norms will depend on its cultural arts and media performances. This is charac-
specificity, i.e., on the values it implies and on teristic of today’s mass societies.
their structuring role within the institution,
not to speak of the prevailing rules protecting Innovation is difficult for cultural institutions,
the individual actors in the system. which are supposed to preserve their funda-
mental role, the collective development of
It directly influences individuals’ new methods of critical thinking, by keeping con-
aspirations, motivations, reference tact with the ideas of prominent thinkers and
models and, therefore, their political, with the heritage of culture. The rapid
economic and cultural organisation. decrease, now palpable, in the “reading”
habits of society, even among students,
1. In political terms, this affects society’s challenges the self-discipline and reflection
organising functions such as authority, leader- induced by writing and reading as the basis
ship, regulation and control, or collective for our civilisation. Mass culture, as evidenced
consensus. It is clear that public administra- in TV broadcasts, tends to value all opinions
tion processes, sooner than expected, will be in the same way, thus helping viewers to
under strong pressure to change, because of acquaint better with their neighbours’ exist-
new modes of interaction between political ence and needs. For Dominique Wolton,
power and administration, on the one side, social democracy tends now to shape cultural
and more demanding citizens, on the other. development. European universities should
not stay aloof from this evolution of culture
Power has, historically, combined “communi- but, on the contrary, they should reaffirm the
cation” with “distance”. With the develop- basic missions of higher education, also in
ment of new interactive networks, people are terms of culture, as required by the Magna
now able to gather information indepen- Charta of Bologna. Yet another paradoxical
dently of the political powers' official wisdom. challenge for our institutions!
The desire for direct and efficient interaction
with public administration and leadership The cultural systems (in communication,
should be much enhanced, because the role education, leisure and sports, literature, per-
of traditional mediators (political agents, forming arts and fine arts) will use new
representatives of authority, establishment information technology heavily and widely.
groups, including the media) will be chal- The language they use is already and fre-
lenged by the new ease and capacity with quently "permeated" by technical terms,
which many people will participate in the which mirror rapid and widespread technical
activities of real or virtual communities based change. The level, nature and need for cul-
on exchange of individual views and on coor- tural development is modified, discussions
dinated collective action. and exchanges of views will grow in impor-
tance while reflecting socialisation and
More generally, as the German philosopher group action through fleeting interests and
Jürgen Habermas has suggested, the dyna- personal emotions.
11
3. In economic and managerial terms, this also it would appear, in education. The infor-
affects the production of goods and services, mation society will certainly enhance this evo-
the markets for their exchange, the organisa- lution in social development.
tion and use of information systems as well as
the modalities of human resource develop- According to Pierre Bonnelli, the chairman of
ment, in other words it influences society’s SEMA, a powerful Anglo-French group of
“investment in people” and in their learning information services, these are still latent
activities, both being strategic processes in a needs, although they are calling for fulfil-
knowledge society. The aim for the organisa- ment. The present convergence between new
tion is for structures and personal behaviour to needs and new techniques is revolutionary
spread innovation by adapting quickly to new and should change the strategic evolution of
constraints and opportunities, if possible at an our societies. New marketing methods,
acceptable cost. Achieving such a goal should thanks to the power of information systems,
be at the core of governance strategies. permit targeting personal profiles.
Organisations will need to focus more and
Setting up a new strategic information system more on the client’s customised needs, unless
in the organisation could question the cul- unforeseen cultural factors block this trend.
tural norms of the institution, its structures
and resourcing policies and, of course, its Universities will soon meet, and in fact have
leadership. This is already the case in the started to face, those new latent needs, as
development of “electronic commerce” and expressed by the changing mentalities, norms
of network strategies for customised trade. and attitudes of their students, a new behav-
iour that will be hastened and reinforced by
Powerful agents of change, such as the the formidable growth of communication
new technical and managerial systems techniques. In fact, university students, with
of information, will probably influence an increasing proportion of adults, now
social change in fast expanding areas consider themselves as “users” of academic
and at fast growing rates. services to answer their cultural, professional,
if not their personal needs.
Because the electronic revolution coincides
and combines itself, in time and space, with In other words, being deeply immersed in all
important cultural changes in society, the the currents of social change, students no
personal and social needs of citizens, their longer consider themselves as members of a
sense of human dignity, equality or their separate academic community, the medieval
exercise of liberty, are now at stake. universitas. This is a major challenge. The
generalisation of evaluation methods should,
The new norms stress personal autonomy, in this sense, work towards developing some
i.e., the need to “express” one’s own opin- form of cultural lingua franca, making values
ions and needs; one’s desire to communicate, and attitudes explicit among faculty and stu-
to be heard, to be listened to; one’s wish for dents – at least as far as the universities'
information and the discussion of one’s own objectives, means and activities are con-
specific problems; in other words, the “right” cerned. Evaluation comes out as one of the
to be informed and “respected”. Thus, citi- main tools of university governance and
zens expect from society more equality in strategic management.
terms of personal recognition and individual
concerns, more personalised attention to Universities cannot ignore such overwhelm-
their problems and efforts: “We are all equals ing trends in communication and social
and formality is an obstacle to free exchanges norms, nor can they delay their inclusion
of views and to innovative practices”. into strategic management and thinking.
Learning, leisure, entertainment, game play- This represents a vast domain of compara-
ing, formal reasoning and mere expression tive and coordinated scientific research, that
of opinions are becoming increasingly com- should induce concerted action on a
bined, or just mixed, in work, speech and, European scale.
12
PREAMBLE Much attention in the current developments activities deemed necessary for constructive
and debate on strategic planning and quality change, the so-called virtuous circle.
assurance has focused on technical issues and Universities should conceive of themselves as
the design of various rational instruments of “learning organisations”, not in a conven-
institutional transformation. However, the inter- tional pedagogic sense, but in the sense of
action of actors in the policy formation and self-evaluation and ongoing monitoring, lead-
implementation processes is at the core of any ing to continuing enhancement of an institu-
successful reform, but bound up with tensions tion’s capacity to respond to, and lead, a
which derive from differences in intellectual turbulent environment. This clearly calls for
opinion on the best way forward, as well as some university-wide strategic awareness or
from vested interests and fear of the unknown. intelligence which does not destroy or inhibit
Strategic management (including the quality the creativity of the academic heartland, but
process) is thus permeated with contradictions enhances its vitality.
and paradoxes. Institutional leaders therefore
have come to appreciate that such contradic- In the light of the above, this paper attempts
tions have to be lived with, that strategic to analyse characteristics of cultures in univer-
development, far from being a linear process, sities, and the extent to which particular
is highly interactive, and that tensions have to types of culture support strategic and quality
be positively and creatively managed. initiatives. It then goes on to explore issues in
the transformation of cultures and the various
Central to this issue is the question of the approaches open to institutional leaders in
effective assembly, management and circula- this process, exploring in operational detail
tion of knowledge about the performance some of the tensions and paradoxes discussed
and direction of the university. Any quality by P. Tabatoni. This is inevitably bound up
assurance system within a strategic context with a discussion of leadership authority, style
should incorporate means by which the uni- and instruments of change (especially at rec-
versity learns about itself, then undertakes tor’s level), and supporting structures.1
EXISTING CULTURES IN The existing organisational culture in many much more operating autonomy and free-
UNIVERSITIES universities may not be at all conducive to the dom. This yields four categories of institu-
sustainability of organisational learning, both tional culture: bureaucratic (loose on policy;
in terms of enhancing knowledge acquisition tight on regulation); collegial (loose on pol-
across the institution, and in terms of using it icy; loose on regulation); corporate (tight on
constructively for organisational change. The both policy and regulation); and entrepre-
literature on organisational cultures in univer- neurial (tight on policy; loose on regulation).
sities emphasises how complex a phenome- The first paradox or contradiction we may
non this is. McNay (1995), building on previ- identify is that, whilst a particular university
ous studies, classifies university cultures along may display an emphasis on one of the
two interrelated dimensions. The first is that above, inevitably all four dimensions will be
of the structure and character of policy for- present to a certain degree, in a specific part
mation which may be tightly determined by of the university (so that a business school
senior leadership at university level, or, alter- may be very entrepreneurial, whilst other
natively, rather loose. The second is that of faculties are not), or for a specific function
the nature of operational activity, which may (financial management clearly has to be
be tightly regulated at one end of the spec- bureaucratic in many respects given the
trum by a host of rules and conventions demands of external public accountability).
(state or institutional) or rather loose at the The institutional leader has thus to be able to
other end, which clearly gives leaders and manage strategically in different cultural set-
academics in the lower parts of the university tings, particularly within the institution, where
1 This paper builds on evidence collected by the author as academic director of the CRE(EUA)-IMHE rectors’ Management Seminar over some 28
seminars, and as team leader, member or secretary of many institutional evaluations in Europe and Australasia under the aegis of CRE(EUA),
IMHE and ACA and for various national governments and universities as well as for the Salzburg Seminar Universities project.
13
the collegial mode often dominates as part of measures. Arrival at commonly accepted
the academic heartland of the university. interpretation of terms and reality may be
problematic owing to the different agendas,
Leaders attempting to introduce strategic or interests and behaviours of the various actors.
quality initiatives usually encounter difficulties There may also be lengthy delays in the feed-
linked especially to cultures with a heavy back, particularly for impact measures, which
collegial emphasis, eg.: render short-term adjustments hazardous
when contexts alter; such delays are problem-
1. A tendency to avoid problems. This may atical for consensus building.
be explained by the individualistic cultures
which generally respect individual academic 5. A barrier exists between academic and
sovereignty for teaching and research; more- administrative staff, which is not simply hier-
over, the development of highly specialist archical, but may reflect fundamental differ-
areas of knowledge may also limit challenge ences in values and operating styles, all the
or learning from other perspectives, and more so as the two groups draw on different
induce reward structures based on the indi- knowledge bases. Each version of so-called
vidual rather than the group. The reluctance “reality” is only partial. Filtering out of data
to confront difficult issues may be linked to occurs on both sides – and differentially – so
sheer cowardice! In a strategic management that the debate on quality and evaluation
setting, the practical consequences of avoid- issues may take place from quite different
ance are defensiveness, isolationism, non- standpoints. However, the tendency points to
accountability and fragmented information, some managerial discipline being imposed on
which makes quality-oriented processes a hitherto highly collegial culture, as a result
problematical to install. of the changing role of rectors, vice-rectors
and deans. In fact, these senior officers are
2. When quality assurance is initiated as a for- often caught in a personal paradox: are they
mal process, it is normally a top-down activ- administrators or academics? Especially in the
ity, fuelled by external accountability or finan- case of deans, are they part of senior manage-
cial reduction, requiring crisis management. ment, (with what is implied in terms of collec-
Traditions of low corporate identity will create tive responsibility for strategic decisions) or
tension and defensiveness that are reflected part, not to say leaders, of a devolved collegial
in non-compliance with quality processes. structure? They may find extreme difficulty in
This translates into a reluctance to admit coping with the demands and role expecta-
errors and to be self-critical, information then tions of the rectorate, on the one hand, and of
being passed upwards in a substantially their faculty colleagues on the other.
unfiltered manner.
6. Different disciplines also display different
3. The fact that many universities are public operating assumptions, beliefs and modes of
and tied to state higher education bureaucra- behaviour, which clearly influence the way of
cies could also lead to prevalence of the rule- understanding issues, approaches to decision-
book and maintenance-oriented procedures. making, and means of intervening in com-
This may be encouraged by fragmented plex issues.
information flows designed for external
accountability purposes, as well as by limited 7. Furthermore, many rectors and university
planning horizons, or a separation between leaders have had at their disposal an ambigu-
planning and evaluative processes – all of ous set of instruments of organisational
which do not help sustain quality processes change, and this clearly affects the possibility
in the sense outlined by Tabatoni. of implementing desired quality strategies.
We shall return to this later.
4. It is also common to find barriers to the
sustainability of a quality culture in the feed- One might thus conclude that, by and large,
back/evaluative process itself. This process is existing institutional cultures are not con-
often ambiguous (apart from some simple ducive to the sustainability of systematic
performance indicators) in terms of objective strategic and quality activities, in particular
14
when they appear natural and inevitable, and greater concentration on strategic, university-
can be defended as part of academic freedom wide thinking (usually prompted by external
against arbitrary executive action, as an constraints): serious discussion may develop
incentive to individual creativity within the on the extent of devolved authority needed
academic community. However, operating to realise strategic purposes in ways best
cultures in universities are shifting from a suited to the devolved unit (faculty) and its
heavy emphasis towards the bureaucratic and external constituencies; that evolution often
collegial aspects to an entrepreneurial and leads to use of resource incentives and
corporate orientation. This should result in a devolved budgeting.
EMERGING CULTURES 1. A “learning organisation” being naturally 5. Hence, the creation of consciously
CONDUCIVE TO adaptive, self-reflexive, and self-critical at designed feedback loops is important to turn
STRATEGIC, QUALITY- strategic and operational levels, a “learning experiments and initiatives into learning,
RELATED ENDEAVOURS university” should display a strong ability to spreading information on good practice
identify, confront and resolve problems; it throughout the institution, and providing
means recognising its weaknesses, collectively short turn-around time for the use of evalua-
and singly, and acting accordingly; it implies tion results. Cross-university/cross discipline
also to use internal competitiveness and com- linkages are not, however, so common in
parisons transparently and constructively, as many universities, where rigid demarcations
well as a readiness to account for perfor- between faculties still represent a major con-
mance. Such features are not obvious in straint to multi-disciplinary approaches – not
EUA quality reviews: therefore, institutions to speak of simply learning about other facul-
reviewed have not often developed staff ties! Therefore, building what James calls a
appraisal and development processes. “collective IQ” is not always evident.
MATURATION OF Pierre Tabatoni pleads for a greater sophisti- institution’s sophistication. Does it mainly
STRATEGIC, cation in strategic thinking and management, respond to change needs in an ad hoc dis-
QUALITY-ORIENTED using inter alia openness and transparency, jointed manner, with little attempt to develop
INSTITUTIONAL CULTURES credibility, collective education and innova- robust policy and procedural frameworks, or
tion. Developing such elements for strategic does it carefully attempt to design stable
management and quality assurance requires a instruments to guide collective behaviour,
relatively slow process of maturation if univer- thus building on experience of good prac-
sities are to cope with the many tensions for tice? In the latter case, the tensions outlined
change inside and outside. Maturity is not an by Tabatoni have been built on and used cre-
instantaneous process, and its evolution may atively: in the former, the tensions will tend to
be discerned as follows: paralyse lateral learning and restrict construc-
tive innovation.
1. First, interpersonal and intergroup under-
standing should evolve both within universi- The dimensions of maturity outlined above
ties and between university personnel and may be portrayed diagrammatically, as in Figure
external stakeholders. The 1998 CRE study 2 (see on p.16): its four different quadrants
analysing the dialogue of universities with reflect different approaches to the question.
their regional stakeholders pointed to five • Quadrant A: Low on importance/volume,
stages in the development of effective and and low on systematisation.
mature working relationships (see Figure 1, • Quadrant B: Low on importance/volume,
p.16) that cannot be short-circuited. The and high on systematisation.
process is both intuitive and interactive. The • Quadrant C: High on importance/volume,
same considerations apply in creating mature and low on systematisation.
relationships internally. The contention here is • Quadrant D: High on importance/volume,
that tensions and contradictions often reflect and high on systematisation.
misunderstanding or lack of information as
well as genuinely held beliefs. A sense of the These categories are broad generalisations,
evolution of dialogue towards trust and and, whilst at institutional level, one type may
respect of the other is an intrinsic part of the largely predominate, elements of all four may
dialectic to which Tabatoni refers. be recognised somewhere in the university,
given the nature of the institution as an
2. The evolution towards maturity in strategic organisation, and the cultural idiosyncrasies
and quality domains is partly related to the of different subject disciplines.
degree of importance given to activities in
both fields. A low level of activity does not Four strategic questions arise for the institu-
lead to much visibility or sense of priority, tional leader when considering this typology:
thus downgrading the sense of urgency
needed to learn on these issues. (a) Which category best describes the current
position of the institution?
3. Of equal importance in the maturation of (b) Are the leader and the various interest
strategic and quality cultures is the degree of groups in the institution satisfied with this
systematisation adopted by the university in position, or should there be movement to
its approaches to new challenges, i.e., the another, more desirable, quadrant?
16
FIGURE 1
MATURITY SPECTRUM Ability of participants
FOR INTER-GROUP to confront problems,
EFFECTIVENESS criticise openly and con-
Ability of partici- Ability of partici- structively the elements
pants to identify pants to analyse all and respective roles
and describe all elements in terms
Ability of partici- relevant elements of effectiveness
pants to under- in interaction
stand terminology
and expectations
FIGURE 2
INSTITUTIONAL Degree of systematisation in internal processes
MATURITY IN RESPECT
OF STRATEGIC AND Low Ad hoc High
QUALITY PROCESSES
Excessive
bureaucratisation?
A B
Degree of impor-
tance of strategic
and quality processes
and the volume of
process activity
C D
High
17
(c) If the latter, to which quadrant should the tion, and, as long as the external imperatives
institution move? can be reasonably accommodated, a move-
(d) How should the movement be stimulated, ment from A to B, and then maybe to D, is
managed and achieved? probably optimal. Quadrant C should be
avoided, if possible, since the combination of
These four questions are clearly at the hub of frenetic activity with uncoordinated growth
cultural transformation. In general, we may simply leads to so-called “organised anarchy”.
reasonably say that Quadrant A is probably Moreover, it is rather difficult to move from
the weakest in terms of strategic and quality C to D, assuming that the latter is a desired
culture, whereas Quadrant D is the strongest. position, since the ad hoc nature of effort in
C may well have become endemic and
However, for many institutions, in southern beyond control in the institution. In other
and central/eastern Europe in particular, words, Quadrant C could prove to be a dead
Quadrant A often represents the current loca- end.
TOWARDS A STRATEGIC To enrich a quality culture within universities, (a) requiring universities directly to operate
AND QUALITY-ORIENTED the question posed is “how to move a univer- or conform to externally designed quality
CULTURE sity to a more desired position in the matrix”, processes for assessing teaching and
where quality has a higher priority, and where research, a culture of compliance;
strategy is better systematised.
(b) requiring universities to develop internal
External factors processes which are intended to satisfy
broad external criteria and benchmarks,
Various environmental factors, i.e., frame- a culture of introspection;
work conditions in which institutions oper-
ate, have played an important role in chang- (c) requiring universities to set standards for
ing attitude to strategy and quality in most accreditation purposes, a culture of
systems and universities. They refer to the normalisation;
needs of government departments (educa-
tion, finance, industry and trade), state (d) requiring universities to have an institu-
higher education agencies (planning, fund- tional strategy and transparent quality
ing or quality), rectors’ conferences or peer processes, a culture of quality management;
groups of institutions or subject specialisms,
industrial or commercial stakeholders (inter- (e) requiring linkages between quality reviews
ested in the nature, quality and price of and resource allocation, directly or indi-
services), individual consumer groups (stu- rectly, a culture of retroactive strategies;
dents), research funding bodies (public
councils, academies and foundations), and (f) benchmarking university performance in
international agencies. Each university is such domains as teaching, research, cost
subject to various combinations of such effectiveness, value for money, resource
external requirements, depending on its aca- base, student satisfaction, income
demic profile, mix of activities and particular generation, a culture of transparency.
context, and the relative weight of these
external demands is clearly an important Viewed as a spectrum, these various “cultures”
factor for the institution’s possible response. range from point (a), enslaving obedience, to
For universities subject to all the above, the point (f), informed service.
reconciliation and accommodation of differ-
ences requires internal management skill of All too often, universities replicate internally
a high order, and considerable sensitivity to their approaches to external demands. Then,
external agendas. the internal culture is driven by outside
needs, an understandable development given
Social demand may nourish the development the threats which external evaluation may
of diverse quality-oriented cultures, for very well pose. Such a trend becomes partic-
instance, by ularly obvious when quality officers, internal
18
reviews, quality committees, or directors of (a) holding up a mirror so that the institution
quality abound. To meet the requirements set and its parts are able to see themselves for
by some external industrial stakeholders, for what they really are, rather than cling to
instance, the university could adopt generally obsolete identity myths;
recognised commercial or public sector Total
Quality regimes, such as ISO 9000, at the risk (b) providing to people at all levels within the
of disagreeing with the university’s mission institution insights about existing issues,
and vision, thus evoking new sources of as well as possibilities and perspectives of
tension inside the institution. change;
There is clearly a wide psychological spec- (c) providing a vehicle for the provision of
trum of responses by universities to the above structured advice in relation to defined
… from a highly defensive closed, even rigid, issues and opportunities;
stance ready to repel perceived invaders (in
which the admission of failure is not high on (d) providing education in the ways and
institutional agendas) to a welcoming stance means of institutional improvement.
in which the university, trusting in its own
capacities, will be frank, tolerant and open, It might therefore be said that effective
and will use external initiative as a means of quality processes are, in fact, exercises in the
stimulating internal change. supportive destabilisation of the status quo,
with a view to constructive transformation.
However, whatever type of external frame- The process builds on uncertainty regarding
work appertains, many universities would the validity of status quo arrangements, thus
not have adopted, or moved towards a stimulating an assessment of institutional
strategy and quality culture, without an strengths and weaknesses as far as mission,
external stimulus of some kind. The forces strategy, processes, role, structure and
of traditional academe, whilst clearly resources are concerned; this internal and
quality-oriented, especially at lower levels creative capability to be critical often refers
in terms of scientific relevance, have often to similar phenomena in other institutions:
not permitted a strategically oriented qual- such comparisons allow for improvement.
ity culture with its own mechanisms, at Changes in behaviour and attitude are the
institutional level. desired end-products of the exercise.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES To develop sound quality cultures which thus remaining sensitive to the micropolitical
move their institutions broadly in the direc- map of the university. Some university groups
tion of Quadrant D (High Priority/System- may well respond to rational approaches,
atic), senior managers may adopt several others to normative educative approaches,
distinctive leadership strategies. Though and others to the exercise of more power-
conceptually distinct, in terms of underlying related political approaches. Considerable
leadership style, they are nonetheless linked flexibility and judgement of the strategies’
in practice, since university leaders will usually appropriateness is thus required from
combine them for effective implementation, university.
19
The educative approach is in essence a con- widespread publication of results arising are
tinuous procedure, highly flexible to the an important tactic to destabilise the status
needs of particular groups when assistance is quo, and may certainly be an exercise of
required. Therefore, considerable calls are power. This little group of instruments can
likely to be made on expert support from uni- put considerable pressure on particular
versity quality offices, from quality specialists groups within the institution, developing
at faculty level, all people able to identify and quality awareness in the area concerned, and
diagnose likely problem areas at an early helping others to realise that they are not
stage, and to provide support, remediation immune from such pressure.
and follow-up. The constructive partnership
between rector’s office, strategic planning (c) Resulting from such a targeted use of
office, quality office, staff development reviews, a link with funding can also be estab-
department and deans is thus a key factor in lished either within or alongside the normal
the evolution of a quality culture. budgetary process. Funds may be awarded
or withdrawn, evoking formidable incentives
3. There will inevitably be occasions when to quality awareness and, progressively, to a
the rational and educative approaches above strategic culture. That represents “shock tactic”
may need to be supplemented by a third, in a different guise. Aggressive follow-up of
the political or power-coercive approach. change induced by a review exercise is likely
The assumption here is that, in times of to have the same effect.
organisational stress and high conflict, the
density of institutional micro-politics is likely (d) To make obvious the need for change,
to increase substantially. Even in relatively rectors may wish to engage external review-
quiet times, there will always be people who ers coming from the stakeholders’ commu-
do not respond positively to rational or nity, especially if the academic unit concerned
educative approaches. Thus, acquiescence or relies on such outside partner for business or
compliance with university strategy may need credibility (e.g., a health authority, company,
to be achieved through other means. This is or government department).
often quite difficult in various institutional or
national settings where the formal instru- (e) In terms of the formulation, legitimisation
ments of authority available to the rector are and acceptance of a quality strategy in the
not adequate when facing substantial opposi- first place, rectors may well exert their power
tion from colleagues. To enlarge on rational in bartering loss and advantages among
and educative approaches, however, political various university groups, thus developing
approaches may encompass a number of dif- coalitions of university interest groups who
ferent possibilities if power is to be exerted. can deliver a majority verdict for a policy; this
needs clear steering techniques (appointment
(a) Rectors and senior leaders may well wish of committee chairs and members; influence
to sustain change by referring to sources of on agenda setting; provision of documenta-
executive legitimacy, the university law or tion etc.).
charter; or to the authority delegated by the
Ministry, Senate, University Council; or to (f) The selection or nomination of allies to key
their personal job descriptions. Credibility positions in the strategy quality process is an
often arises from a rectoral election, especially instrument certainly open to rectors who, in
if it can rely on strong management struc- some systems, can influence the choice of a
tures. However, this needs to be supplement- vice-rector for strategy or quality, of the direc-
ed by personal competence, credibility and tor for the quality office, or even of the deans.
reputation, as expressed by trust and prestige This can help influence and condition subse-
(personal and scientific). quent behaviour by academic colleagues in
the area concerned.
(b) The targeted use of reviews and perfor-
mance indicators on those parts of the uni- (g) An especially important area of concern
versity deemed to be in need of improve- should be the composition and operation of
ment, investment or remediation, and the the rectorate or senior management group
21
itself. Here, the important elements would be in a turbulent environment where effective
for members to share values on the quality policy-making (in relation to the original
agendas relevant to the university, to develop crisis) tends to move through four stages:
frequent contact and dialogue throughout
the university (for instance, when deans are • an ambiguous stage (typified by a clarifi-
part of the institutional management teams). cation of the dimensions of the problem
One would expect that one member of the and the parameters of likely solutions, and
rectorate has prime responsibility for quality by an identification of policy actors in a
matters as a whole, but all senior managers climate of high tension and uncertainty);
should feel responsible for quality within their • a political stage (typified by a sorting out
portfolios – be it teaching and learning, of viable policy options, by the selection
research, postgraduate or continuing of incentives and bargains, by informality,
education. and by a solid information base);
• a legitimisation phase (typified by the
It might be argued that these devices are not testing of solutions against criteria, by
necessarily power-coercive approaches per se. political acceptability leading to commit-
Nonetheless, they are tools often used to force ment, and by formal collegial approval
rather than encourage movement in a specific processes);
part of the university. As such, their inclusion • a bureaucratisation stage completing
in political instruments is justified. the maturation process and correspond-
ing to implementation.
We have already alluded to the importance
of the dynamics of policy formation in under- One is not insinuating in the above that rec-
standing the nature of paradoxes, utilising tors should become unbridled disciples of
the existence of tensions to foster change. Machiavelli in the development of a particular
Therefore, the skill of the leader in recognis- type of culture. Rather, in view of the micro-
ing and exploiting ambiguity is crucial. politics of the academe, there is a need for
Analysis shows that a policy portfolio needs political as well as intellectual leadership of a
to encompass strategic directions (size, shape high order. That is why institutional leaders
and scope of the university) as well as sup- should develop a balanced portfolio of
porting “bread and butter” policies (for cur- approaches – rational, formative and political
riculum, research, personnel, finance, busi- – in order to move the institution to a posi-
ness generation etc.) if it is to reinforce trust tion which is both one of high priority and an
in the process of transformation, particularly appropriate systematisation.
CONCLUSION The stimulation of university cultures support- concerning innovative and creative research,
ive of strategic quality endeavours is far from teaching and community service, the institu-
easy, but is probably a precondition of effective tion requires a quality-related culture that
quality operations. Such stimulation usually avoids rigidity, and harnesses the enthusiasm
needs a kick-start from externally inspired ini- and sense of ownership of the academe. In this
tiatives, at least if a university-wide approach is respect, the selection by university leaders of
to be achieved. However, given the nature of appropriate approaches to cultural transforma-
the academic community, its beliefs and values tion is clearly critical.
22
REFERENCES Argyris, C. and Schön, D. (1978). “Organisational Learning: a Theory of Action”. Perspective.
Addison-Wesley.
Barnett, R. (2000). The University in an Age of Super-Complexity. Society for Research into Higher
Education. Open University Press.
Becher, A. and Trowler, P. R. (2001). Academic Tribes and Territories. Society for Research into Higher
Education. Open University Press.
Davies, J. L. (1985). “Personnel Policies at a Time of Financial Reduction: the Case of the State
University of New York (SUNY) at Buffalo”. Higher Education Management Vol. 9, No. 2. OECD.
Davies, J. L. (1985). Policy Formation in Universities: the Management Challenge. Lockwood, G. and
Davies, J. L. Nelson.
Davies, J. L. (1998). The Dialogue of Universities with their Regional Stakeholders: Comparisons
Between Different Regions of Europe. 11th General Assembly, Berlin. CRE (now EUA).
Duderstadt, J. (2000). A University for the Twenty-First Century. University of Michigan Press.
Duke, C. (1992). The Learning University: Towards a Paradigm. Society for Research into Higher
Education. Open University Press.
Eckel, P., Green M. and Hill, B. (2001). On Change: Riding the Waves of Change : Insights from
Transforming Institutions. American Council on Education.
James, R. (2000). “Quality Assurance and the Growing Puzzle of Managing Organisational
Knowledge”. Higher Education Management Vol. 12, No. 3. OECD.
McNay, I. (1995). “From Collegial Academy to Academic Enterprise: The Changing Cultures of
University” in Schuller, T. (Ed.) The Changing University. Society for Research into Higher Education.
Open University Press.
Middlehurst et al (2000). The Business of Borderless Education. Higher Education Funding Council
for England, Committee of Vice Chancellors and Principals (now Universities UK).
Wächter, B. (Ed) (1998). Vision 20-10: European University Leaders’ Perspectives on the Future. 11th
General Assembly, Berlin. CRE (now EUA).
23
AN EXPLANATORY GLOSSARY
Pierre Tabatoni, Académie des Sciences morales et politiques
MANAGEMENT AND The management of a body is a way of The aim of any management activity is to steer
ADMINISTRATION conducting collective action on the part of the development of a body in certain direc-
those responsible for it. While “govern- tions, to co-ordinate its different initiatives to
ment” and “leadership” are also employed, the same end, and to ensure that its adminis-
these terms tend to express the structures trative activities deliver the appropriate sup-
of command and control, whereas port, logistic, evaluation and control services.
“management“ describes the processes by It is essential that management and adminis-
which collective action is stimulated with a tration, which are highly interdependent, are
view to change. coherently devised and implemented.
POLICY AND STRATEGIES As part of the function of management, the ment of an institution. Strategies reflect policy
ultimate aim of policies and strategies is to from an operational standpoint, defining a set
guide the activities and operation of a univer- of aims and associated means. They fix priori-
sity with respect to the transformations in its ties and balances to be respected across differ-
environment which are observed, foreseeable ent objectives. They determine precise goals,
or liable to result from its own innovations. whose achievement can be measured and per-
These bearings or objectives apply to its activi- formances evaluated. And, finally, they specify
ties, structures, methods and operational their time frame, allocate responsibilities and
regulations, as well as its resources, relations resources, organise structures and ways of
and public image. They concern the entire uni- working and set up evaluation exercises. A
versity when they are defined and acted on by policy may thus give rise to several different
its central bodies, or each of its decentralised strategies, all of which are compatible with its
units (faculties, departments, institutes or general thrust.
research centres, and services) whenever they
possess some developmental autonomy. Policy and strategy thus engender quality cri-
teria for evaluation of activities. This evalua-
Policy is formulated in terms of general princi- tion makes it possible to see how objectives
ples regarding what to do (or not do) and and goals are implemented and to analyse
how: it comprises rules and common stan- obstacles and positive factors, and may some-
dards which condition the long-term develop- times lead to their reappraisal.
IDENTITY, The identity of a university seeks to communi- ally assume a more virtual form, in which it
INSTITUTIONAL POLICIES cate the essential aspects of its different tasks, the would become hard to circumscribe precisely
AND THE “VIRTUAL” specific nature of its objectives and methods, and their activities, and structural and organisa-
UNIVERSITY its public image. Although symbolic, identity is tional rules, indeed their very being.
sufficiently precise to influence subsequent strate- Ultimately, the identity of an institution would
gic decisions and give rise to arbitration regard- be expressed mainly by rules of conduct
ing new institutional policies. The latter express, enabling the operation of networks, norms,
in terms of action principles, the concrete the shared perception of a collective interest –
embodiment of this identity. They also define the and, where possible, common policies and
quality criteria that are the basis of institutional communication within and between networks
evaluation. By this is meant the appraisal of the – rather than through strong action and
capacity of the university to formulate and fur- decision-making structures, regulations and
ther general policies for change, which affect the control mechanisms. It is to be expected that
long-term development of the entire institution. elements of this “virtual” nature will become
an increasingly marked feature of the organisa-
With the development of numerous and varied tion of universities and the university system.
networking activities both internally and with
external partners, and as part of the future When a university simply turns to experts to
information society, universities might gradu- evaluate what it does, it implicitly adopts the
24
policies and strategies of the bodies or profes- effect of strengthening centres of excellence
sional milieux that these experts have chosen at the expense of sectors the least able to
as their model. Indeed, its institutional policy adapt and improve the quality of their activi-
may be to adopt a model which the experts ties. In the last resort, this leads to internal
recommend as good. However, this decision tension.
has to be clear and explicit. And the various
experts consulted who, in most cases, eval- Naturally, these institutional policies must be
uate specific activities (such as organisation, adapted to the development of the environ-
finance, particular training programmes, dif- ment or, in other words, to changes which
ferent kinds of research and staff policies), still have occurred or are foreseeable in restric-
have to adopt coherent points of view among tions, in the perception of new opportunities,
themselves. or in appreciating the capacity for change
within an institution, so that it may better
The absence of formulated institutional poli- fulfil its responsibilities.
cies certainly does not mean that there are
none whatever. Often they are implicit, corre- In our societies, in which environmental
sponding to the policies of certain bodies or changes are numerous, rapid and interdepen-
influential persons who make use of the dent, future developments are not easily
potential of the institution for the benefit of predictable. As a result, institutional policies
their own particular strategies. As far as the are aimed above all at preparing an institu-
development of the institution is concerned, tion for change, at ensuring their own flexible
the result may be good or bad, depending on adaptability and ability to grasp innovative
the quality of those strategies, as well as their opportunities. They primarily concern the
capacity to influence for the good those institution’s organisation, its standards and
bodies and agencies that are least influential. attitudes, and its leadership relies on strategic
But often this mode of management has the management methods.
STRATEGIC To lead, in the strict sense of the term, is to effectiveness of internal and external com-
MANAGEMENT AND bring to bear a particular line of action munication and the quality of discussions,
COACHING through organisational, resourceful and super- rather than plans, structures and regulations
visory means aimed at achieving objectives which are part of the administration of activi-
laid down by the management bodies. But in a ties and persons.
body as varied and fragmented as a university,
the different management units (boards, man- Coaching therefore entails methods of
agers, etc.) strive to engage in coaching, by collective orientation which are devised and
means of a participatory management sys- carried out with a constant eye to possible
tem in which discussion makes for agreement, divergences from the aims, the very validity
in line with experience, on the nature of the of the latter and the suitability of the means.
developmental problems to be resolved, as There is simultaneous concern also for pro-
well as on appropriate strategic methods, and moting the quality of activities through prop-
groups of objectives, goals and means which agation of a quality culture, the nurturing of
arise from them. responsibility among the greatest possible
number of “actors”, encouragement of initia-
The real vectors of strategic practice are, then, tive and innovation and the spread of good
the behavioural norms, the richness and practice.
COLLECTIVE LEARNING To adopt now the most current expression, not straightforward. The information compris-
WITH REGARD TO coaching practices at the heart of strategic man- ing it is still specialist, in the domain of
CHANGE agement seek to strengthen the nature of a uni- experts, and is linked to the play of power and
versity as a “learning organisation”. This term influence or, in other words, to the highly
refers to an organisation capable of establishing compartmentalised strategies of the different
a collective memory vis-à-vis its innovations, and parties possessing it. Neither is it made up
of learning to change on the basis of its own solely of firmly recorded and clearly structured
experience or that of partners or competitors. data that are easily transferable. In fact, it is
The expression “collective learning with only fully accessible in the complex context of
regard to change” may also be coined. experience, expertise, “know-how” and, above
all, the practice of collective action.
Clearly, a university is by definition a learning
organisation. All its members, teaching staff There are other forms of knowledge than
and students or partners are part of a broad scientific or academic expertise. They include
community of specialists in their disciplines or experience of teaching innovations, working
professional expertise who are ceaselessly methods in co-operation and exchange net-
reshaping their knowledge and exchanging works, the development of relations, methods
experience via their publications and meetings. of organisation and management, etc.
Furthermore, communication is not neutral,
However, the move from knowledge possessed but a participatory exchange in which subjec-
by individuals to that of a collective entity is tive, cultural and even social factors associated
26
with those involved contribute to the very and financial fields or in personnel administra-
nature of the information and to the mean- tion. Broadly accessible databases can be
ings and representations with which it is built up, at least if there is a suitable commu-
invested. The German philosopher, Jürgen nication policy.
Habermas refers to “action conducive to
communication”. The circulation of knowl- On the other hand, in less standardised sec-
edge is thus a complex process the effective- tors, the specialisation and fragmentation of
ness of which depends on a real organisa- information on the very conduct of occupa-
tional culture. tions are often much stronger. The exchange
and propagation of information are harder to
In a period when progress in information pro- achieve. Universities are in this category of
cessing both implies and makes it technically “non-industrial” small-scale culture in which,
possible to work in networks and when infor- other than in publications and formal teach-
mation must be widely available for all con- ing, non-formal knowledge is transmitted
cerned, experience demonstrates the difficul- among the small number of persons, teach-
ties involved in establishing it on an integral ers, researchers or students who are involved
and integrated basis. It is easier for informa- in the execution of a project or teaching
tion related to standardised clearly identified session. Strategic management methods
activity in technical, scientific, commercial must strive to reduce these difficulties.
Here, however, another paradox has to be which make for greater adaptation, includ-
overcome, since structures have to be well ing changes in the structures themselves.
established in order to be useful as opera-
tional and communications networks. Furthermore, there always exist informal struc-
They are often strengthened by an asso- tures which may be more flexible or, on the
ciated culture and by working norms and contrary, more rigid, and work within networks
relations compatible with them. But, in a often results in the setting up of a matrix-style
structural framework, different cultures organisation, in which individual “actors” may
are conceivable, with modes of operation be related to different structures, depending on
and relations between those concerned the activities for which they are responsible.
RATIONALISATION, The methods of strategic management seek Conserving or preserving is also frequently an
INNOVATION, to oblige the different individuals and agen- essential requirement in change. Intense and
PRESERVATION cies involved in university strategies to appro- rapid rationalisation through cost reduction
priately combine the three components of may certainly prompt compensatory innova-
any strategy for change, namely strategies for tions. Indeed, this is one of the expected
rationalisation, strategies for innovation and reactions in policies for reduced financial sup-
strategies for conservation. port which often accompany basic reforms.
But when the quality of services does not
Rationalising means implementing defined suffer, it may be because the contractual
objectives with optimal efficiency. Reduction or conditional modes of funding have been
of unitary costs is the most classical form they increased, with specific costs in terms of
take, at least when it is possible to define new academic independence.
and more productive methods, or to expand
the scale of operations with existing means In short, rationalisation, innovation and conser-
(for example, a greater number of students, vation are linked in paradoxical interdependent
or a reduction in the teacher/student ratio). relations. Only a clear, coherent and conse-
A policy of rationalisation is always necessary quential institutional policy in strategic man-
when changes seem inevitable, since it agement practice can lead to a dynamic equi-
releases resources which may be earmarked librium between the three dimensions of
for innovation. However, efficiency cannot be change. The exercise is all the more difficult in
measured solely in terms of cost since quality that the consequences of processes of rationali-
is at stake. sation and innovation on the preservation of
certain characteristics may be difficult to envis-
Innovation in the nature of the service sup- age or foresee, and hard to control too in their
plied, or in the processes which enable it to cumulative development. Moreover, in phases
be so, is frequently the means to rationalise of important and rapid change, there is a fre-
an activity, making it more efficient and quent tendency to underestimate their long-
enhancing its quality, but at a higher devel- lasting effects on the attitudes, norms and
opment cost. However, it often entails new modes of operation necessary to preserve the
responsibilities related to conception, and values, know-how, relations and a public
then development. Therefore, there is always image, which are part of the potential for
a measure of arbitration between rationalisa- development. From this standpoint, strategic
tion and innovation, and these strategies are management must be constantly on the alert
rarely dissociated. and ready to redirect its goals and means.
STRATEGIC By definition, participatory, strategic manage- tion is thus to reduce differences and find a
MANAGEMENT MODELS ment relies considerably on jointly conducted solution in the general interest. At the outset,
processes, with a view to resolving the the essential phase is for leaders to make
inevitable conflicts associated with change. apparent, understand, and if possible admit,
The term “consensus strategy” can be used the need for change, to identify clearly its
when the diversity of interests and points of forms and to make credible, for the most
view does not threaten the identity of institu- influential at least, the idea that this change is
tions. The aim of the joint effort and negotia- possible and will be profitable. This is the way
28
STRONG AND SIMPLE The need for strong simple strategies capable the expression of a new vision, is a collection
STRATEGIES of mobilising and committing the most active of new principles and highly significant action
interested parties around new principles of col- criteria. All must be as simple and clearly
lective action: this is the true test of leadership. expressed as possible, in order to be easily
communicated and, also, to release initiatives
The choice of a method of strategic manage- and give rise to new norms. In this sense, any
ment is always specific to each case. But in strategy is cultural and normative, drawing
all cases, policies and strategies have to be admittedly on certain existent norms which
defined and conducted. Whatever the com- permit its inception, but carrying new norms
plexity of the situation, a strategy, which is within it.
29
GLOSSAIRE RAISONNÉ
Pierre Tabatoni, Académie des Sciences morales et politiques
MANAGEMENT ET Le management d’un organisme est un Toute activité de management a pour but
ADMINISTRATION mode de conduite de l’action collective par d’orienter le développement d’un organisme
les responsables. On parle aussi de gouver- dans certaines directions, de coordonner les
nement, de direction, mais ces termes diverses activités dans ce but et de s’assurer
expriment plutôt les structures de commande- que les activités administratives fournissent
ment et de contrôle alors que le terme les services de soutien, de logistique, d’éva-
management décrit des processus d’anima- luation et de contrôle. Il est essentiel que
tion de l’action collective en vue du change- management et administration, qui sont
ment. fortement interdépendants, soient conçus et
mis en oeuvre de manière cohérente.
IDENTITÉ, POLITIQUES L’identité d’une université vise à communi- Avec le développement des activités en
INSTITUTIONNELLES, quer l’essentiel de ses missions, la spécificité de réseaux multiples et divers, aussi bien en son
UNIVERSITÉ VIRTUELLE ses objectifs et méthodes, son image publique. sein qu’avec des partenaires extérieurs, l'uni-
Elle est symbolique mais suffisamment précise versité, dans le cadre de la future société d’in-
pour orienter des choix stratégiques ultérieurs, formation, pourrait tendre vers une forme vir-
inspirer des arbitrages entre de nouvelles poli- tuelle où la localisation des activités, les règles
tiques de l’institution. Ces dernières expri- de structure et d’organisation, en bref les fron-
ment, en principes d’action, la signification tières de l’université deviendraient floues. A la
concrète de cette identité. Elles définissent limite, l’identité de l’institution s’exprimerait
ainsi les critères de qualité qui servent de base surtout par des règles de conduite permettant
à l’évaluation institutionnelle. On entend par le fonctionnement des réseaux, des normes, le
là l’appréciation de la capacité de l’université sens partagé d’un intérêt collectif, éventuelle-
de formuler et conduire des politiques géné- ment aussi par des politiques communes et
rales de changement, politiques qui affectent des communications intra ou inter-réseaux,
le développement à terme de l’institution dans plutôt que par de fortes structures d’activités
son ensemble. et de décisions ou par des réglementations et
30
contrôles. On peut s’attendre à ce que des être bon ou mauvais, selon la qualité des stra-
éléments de virtualité soient de plus en plus tégies particulières, et selon leur capacité
présents dans l’organisation des universités et d’influencer dans le bon sens les organes et
du système universitaire. acteurs les moins influents. Mais souvent ce
mode de management revient à renforcer des
Lorsque l’université s’en remet simplement à centres d’excellence au détriment des sec-
des experts pour évaluer ce qu’elle fait, elle teurs les moins aptes à s'adapter et à amélio-
adopte, implicitement, les politiques et les rer la qualité de leurs activités et il finit par
stratégies des organismes ou des milieux pro- être source de tensions internes.
fessionnels que ces experts ont pris pour
modèle. Sa politique institutionnelle peut être Bien entendu, ces politiques institutionnelles
alors l'adaptation d'un modèle qui a bonne doivent être adaptées à l’évolution de l’envi-
réputation, telle que la recommandent les ronnement, c’est-à-dire aux changements
experts. Encore faut-il que ce choix soit clair intervenus, ou prévisibles dans les contraintes,
et explicite et que les divers experts consultés, ou dans la perception d’opportunités nou-
qui évaluent le plus souvent des activités spé- velles, ou dans l’appréciation des capacités de
cifiques (organisation, finance, programmes changement de l’institution, toujours en vue
particuliers de formation, types de recherches, de mieux remplir ses missions.
politiques de personnels...), adoptent des
points de vue cohérents entre eux! Dans nos sociétés où les changements dans
l’environnement sont nombreux, rapides et
L’absence de politiques institutionnelles for- interdépendants, le futur n’est pas aisément
mulées ne signifie nullement qu’il n’y en ait prévisible. Les politiques institutionnelles
aucune. Souvent elles sont implicites et cor- visent alors surtout à préparer l’institution à
respondent aux politiques de certains des changer, à s’adapter en souplesse, à savoir
organes ou personnes influentes qui, de fait, saisir des occasions innovatrices. Elles
utilisent au profit de leurs stratégies particu- concernent surtout son organisation, ses
lières le potentiel de l’institution. Le résultat normes et mentalités, et son leadership relève
pour le développement de l’institution peut de méthodes de management stratégique.
MANAGEMENT C’est une forme particulière de management. communications, règles, procédures) sur un
STRATÉGIQUE Il est participatif, critique, prospectif, condui- ferme et évident engagement des responsa-
sant à des politiques institutionnelles qui bles dans des voies nouvelles, un engagement
visent essentiellement à accroître le potentiel qui s’insère dans des méthodes de leadership
de changement dans l’université: ce poten- appropriées (animation de l’action collective).
tiel dépend des compétences, des normes de Il favorise l’initiative décentralisée, l’innovation,
comportement des acteurs, de l’organisation l’implication personnelle mais aussi la coopéra-
et des méthodes de management, du réseau tion, l’échange d’information, le travail en
des relations et de leur qualité. réseaux, avec le souci constant de la qualité et
la plus large diffusion des méthodes d’évalua-
Il s’applique à des situations complexes où tion et des normes de qualité.
opèrent de nombreux acteurs disposant
d’une forte autonomie, où l’incertitude de Une université et le système universitaire sont
l’information et l’incertitude sur les évolutions des organisations complexes. Mais elles com-
est importante, où, par conséquent, la prévisi- portent également, de manière plus ou moins
bilité est limitée et où l’évaluation des résul- extensive, des situations plus standardisées,
tats rencontre de sérieuses difficultés. dont il est possible d’apprécier les évolutions
tendancielles et qui doivent être planifiées,
Aussi le management stratégique s’efforce-t-il programmées et organisées de manière
d’instaurer et d’entretenir une capacité classique.
d’adaptation, un apprentissage collectif du
changement à tous les niveaux de décision. Le management stratégique doit pouvoir
Il repose sur des méthodes d’organisation gérer, en les combinant, ces deux types de
(normes de comportement, structures, situation.
31
Il n’existe pas de modèle standard du mana- dées, effectuer des opérations selon les règles,
gement stratégique. Chaque université a sa etc. Le management bureaucratique peut
forme de gouvernement, ses structures, ses répondre à certaines situations mais les
traditions, son expérience, ses problèmes à impulsions pour le changement risquent alors
résoudre, ses personnes, ses moyens, sa capa- de provenir de l’extérieur (réformes et régle-
cité de manager et en particulier sa pratique mentations externes, contraintes sur les
de leadership. C’est son style de management moyens, concurrence, mouvements centri-
propre. fuges des personnels et des ressources ou
arrivée de personnels influents nouveaux ...).
Une direction forte, centralisée, mais dont
l’autorité et le savoir-faire sont bien acceptés, Le degré de participation et d’initiative des
avec des personnels motivés pour la qualité, membres à la formulation et la réalisation des
et une bonne communication, peut exercer politiques est également spécifique; les tradi-
un management innovateur mais qui a ses tions et le leadership y jouent un rôle clef.
limites. Il existe aussi des modes de direction
bureaucratique qui comportent peu de leader- Malgré cette spécificité, on peut considérer
ship, où le management consiste surtout à qu’il existe des principes généraux de mana-
administrer, surveiller les coûts, bien pro- gement stratégique: ils sont l’objet de ce
grammer la mise en oeuvre des actions déci- document.
PILOTAGE DU Diriger, au sens strict, c’est exercer une orien- tions externes et internes, la qualité des dis-
CHANGEMENT tation par des moyens d’organisation, d’ani- cussions qui sont les véritables vecteurs de la
COLLECTIF mation et de contrôle, qui visent à réaliser des pratique stratégique plutôt que les plans, les
objectifs assignés par les organes de direction. structures et la réglementation, qui relèvent
Mais dans un organisme aussi divers et frag- des fonctions d’administration des activités
menté qu’une université, ces organes de direc- et des personnes.
tion (conseils, dirigeants..) s’efforcent plutôt de
piloter le changement (coaching) grâce à un Le pilotage pratique donc des méthodes
système de management participatif où les d’orientation collective conçues et réalisées
discussions permettent de s’entendre, en fonc- avec le souci constant d’apprécier les écarts
tion de l’expérience, sur la nature des pro- par rapports aux objectifs, ainsi que la validité
blèmes de développement à résoudre, sur des même de ces objectifs et l’adéquation des
méthodes stratégiques pour y parvenir, sur les moyens; il s'agit de promouvoir la qualité des
ensembles d’objectifs, de buts, de moyens qui activités par la diffusion d’une culture de
en découlent. qualité, la responsabilisation du plus grand
nombre d’acteurs, l’incitation à l’initiative et à
Ce sont alors les normes de comportement, l’innovation, et la diffusion des bonnes
la richesse et l’efficacité des communica- pratiques.
APPRENTISSAGE Pour reprendre l’expression aujourd’hui partenaires, inclus eux-mêmes dans une large
COLLECTIF DU usuelle, les pratiques de pilotage du change- communauté de spécialistes de leurs disci-
CHANGEMENT ment, qui sont la base même du manage- plines ou d’expertise professionnelle, ne ces-
ment stratégique, visent à renforcer le carac- sent de renouveler leurs connaissances et
tère d’«organisation apprenante» de d’échanger leurs expériences par les publica-
l’université. On appelle ainsi une organisation tions et les rencontres.
capable d’établir une mémoire collective de
ses innovations et d’apprendre à changer – à Mais il n’est pas aisé de passer de la connais-
partir de ses expériences ou de celle des par- sance des individus à celle d’une collectivité.
tenaires ou concurrents. On parle aussi d’ap- L’information reste spécialisée, experte, liée
prentissage collectif du changement. aux jeux de pouvoir, d’influence, en bref aux
stratégies des différents acteurs qui la détien-
Evidemment, une université est par définition nent, toutes forts cloisonnées. Elle n’est pas
une organisation apprenante puisque ses non plus uniquement constituée de connais-
membres, corps enseignant et étudiants ou sances bien enregistrées et modélisées, qu’il
32
est facile de transférer. En fait, elle n’est plei- être largement disponible pour tous les
nement accessible que dans le contexte com- acteurs, l’expérience de l’entreprise démontre
plexe de l’expérience, de l’expertise, du les difficultés à mettre en place une informa-
«savoir-faire», et surtout de la pratique de tion intégrale et intégrée. La réalisation est
l’action collective. plus facile pour l’information qui concerne
des activités standardisées, bien identifiées,
Il existe d’autres connaissances que les exper- dans les domaines techniques, scientifiques,
tises scientifiques: expérience d’innovations commerciaux, financiers ou d’administration
pédagogiques, méthodes de travail dans des des personnels. On peut alors constituer des
réseaux de coopération et d’échange, bases de données largement accessibles, si du
développement des relations, méthodes moins il y une politique de communication
d’organisation et de gestion, etc..). En outre adéquate.
la communication n’est pas neutre; elle est un
échange participatif, où les facteurs subjectifs, En revanche, dans les secteurs moins standar-
culturels, sociaux même, affectant les parte- disés, la spécialisation et la fragmentation de
naires, contribuent à la nature même de l’information sur la pratique même des métiers
l’information, aux significations et représen- y sont souvent plus fortes; son échange et sa
tations qui lui sont associées. Le philosophe diffusion sont plus difficiles à réaliser. Etant de
allemand J. Habermas parle, on le sait, d’«agir culture artisanale, les universités relèvent de ce
communicationnel». De ce fait, la circulation type d'organisation où, en dehors des publica-
des connaissances est un processus complexe tions et des enseignements, la connaissance
dont l’efficacité dépend d’une véritable cul- non formelle se transmet entre le petit
ture organisationnelle. nombre de personnes – enseignants, cher-
cheurs, étudiants – impliquées dans la réalisa-
A l’heure où les progrès de l’informatique tion d’un projet ou d’un cours. Les méthodes
impliquent et permettent techniquement de de management stratégique doivent s’efforcer
travailler en réseau, et où l’information doit de réduire ces obstacles.
COMMENT AMÉLIORER • assurer de bonnes communications entre faibles, qui peuvent aider à comprendre
L’APPRENTISSAGE les membre de l'institution, et en particu- que des changements importants sont
ORGANISATIONNEL? lier recenser soigneusement leurs pra- susceptibles de se développer à l’avenir et
tiques innovatrices, les diffuser, engager qu’il faut être vigilant sur leur évolution.
leur discussion critique en vue de les Ils sont peu évidents et on ne peut les
transposer et, éventuellement, de modifier repérer et les interpréter qu’avec une cul-
les politiques institutionnelles en cours; ture stratégique et prospective. Les véri-
tables stratégies de changement sont
• favoriser des normes de comportement et généralement fondées sur ces signaux et
une organisation institutionnelles qui inci- se traduisent par des orientations nou-
tent ses membres à expérimenter des velles, nécessairement risquées, qui, dans
solutions nouvelles et à analyser systémati- le contexte actuel, peuvent sembler aber-
quement d’autres expériences qui sem- rantes, impossibles à mettre en oeuvre. Ce
blent pertinentes; sont des signaux conduisant à des paris.
nante. C’est un sérieux défi pour le mana- bien établies. Elles sont souvent renforcées
gement, un des paradoxes à résoudre de par une culture associant des normes de
façon dynamique. travail et de relations compatibles avec
elles. Mais, dans tout cadre structurel, dif-
• établir des structures, des modes d’orga- férentes cultures sont concevables, avec
nisation, et donc de communication, aussi des modes de fonctionnement et des rela-
flexibles que possible, c’est-à-dire rapide- tions entre acteurs qui permettent plus
ment adaptables à des situations nou- d’adaptation, y compris une évolution des
velles; faciliter les activités expérimentales. structures elles-mêmes.
Ainsi l'adaptation des structures et de l’or-
ganisation devient elle-même un proces- En outre, il existe toujours des structures
sus de changement, en même temps informelles qui peuvent être plus souples ou
qu'une manière collective d’apprendre au contraire plus rigides, et le travail en
comment changer. Mais c’est un autre réseaux aboutit souvent à la mise en place
paradoxe à résoudre car, pour être utiles d’une organisation matricielle, où un acteur
comme réseaux de communication et développe des allégeances institutionnelles
d’opérations, les structures doivent être selon les diverses activités qu’il assure.
MODÈLES DE Etant par définition participatif, le manage- gique, qui est essentielle à sa pratique, les lea-
MANAGEMENT ment stratégique a largement recours à des ders peuvent devoir introduire rapidement
STRATÉGIQUE processus de concertation en vue de résoudre des politiques nouvelles, fortes, et qui don-
les conflits inévitables associés au changement. nent le ton aux inspirations nouvelles pour
On parle de stratégie consensuelle lorsque la l’action qu’ils entendent promouvoir. C’est le
diversité des intérêts et des points de vue ne cas, par exemple, des réformes profondes
met pas en cause l’identité de l’institution. La d’organisation, de programmes, de recrute-
concertation et la négociation ont donc pour ment, de financement, souvent facilitées par
objet de réduire les différences et de trouver un changement de leadership au sommet ou
une solution d'intérêt général. La phase essen- par des contraintes stratégiques nouvelles,
tielle au départ est pour les leaders de faire qui impliquent une réaction rapide et pro-
apparaître, comprendre et, si possible, fonde – par exemple, en cas de réduction
admettre, la nécessité d’un changement, d’en soudaine et importante de crédits. Des chocs
discerner les formes, et de rendre crédible, sont alors nécessaires qui diffusent rapide-
pour les plus influents au moins, l’idée que ce ment au moins l’idée de nouveaux scénarios
changement est possible et sera fructueux. stratégiques et modifient les anticipations, les
C’est le moyen d’établir un climat de confiance perspectives de positionnement des uns par
sans lequel le coût, culturel et organisationnel, rapport aux autres, ce qui d’ailleurs est
du changement peut être prohibitif. accompagné de réorganisation, de redistribu-
tion de responsabilités et de ressources.
Le modèle adaptatif. La complexité et l’in-
certitude quant aux problèmes et aux solu- Stratégies paradoxales. Nous avons déjà
tions qui règnent dans les pratiques straté- parlé de situations paradoxales en 74 et 75.
giques; la nécessité d’apprendre en commun On ne recherche pas le compromis au départ.
par l’expérience; l’intervention de multiples Ce sont même les contradictions qui provo-
processus interdépendants; les divergences quent le choc, nécessaire au nouveau scéna-
de valeurs, de motivations, d’intérêt, d’in- rio paradoxal. Cette manière d’opérer sup-
fluence entre les acteurs; le fait que les statuts pose un leadership vigoureux et efficace. Les
universitaires comportent souvent l’élection leaders, bien qu’ils soumettent leur vision
des élus, sont tous des facteurs qui donnent nouvelle à de larges débats, ne tentent pas de
prime à une logique adaptative; il s'agit de régler les contradictions par la concertation
lancer des changements partiels, acceptables au départ, de crainte d’affaiblir, dans des
et prometteurs, qui en entraînent d’autres, compromis initiaux, les principes nouveaux
dans le cadre d’une inspiration générale du d’action qu’ils souhaitent voir mis en oeuvre.
changement qui se définit au coup par coup. Au contraire, ils les révèlent clairement dans
les procédures initiales et ils comptent sur les
La fonction de leadership consiste donc à la débats ultérieurs et sur les procédures qui
fois à diffuser cette inspiration générale de devront résoudre ces incohérences pour
l’action et à préparer par des négociations engager une dynamique de changement col-
l’acceptation des solutions, souvent de com- lectif. Il est clair que ce type de stratégie n’est
promis, qui permettent de la traduire concrè- réalisable que dans des circonstances où la
tement en stratégies particulières, puis de nécessité du changement ne peut être long-
favoriser le transfert des idées et pratiques temps contestée ou ignorée, que dans les ins-
nouvelles d’un secteur à l’autre. En vue d’as- titutions où les leaders ont l’autorité, la capa-
surer la meilleure crédibilité du changement cité et l’influence nécessaires pour rendre au
et des inspirations nouvelles, les leaders pren- moins crédibles, sinon immédiatement accep-
nent ainsi le temps de choisir les innovations tables, les idées nouvelles.
qui ont les meilleurs chances d’être accep-
tées, d’être réalisables et transférables. On On peut donc parler de stratégie paradoxale,
parle de stratégies adaptatives, tout à fait comme moyen de faire apparaître une vision
conformes aux hypothèses de rationalité nouvelle, une signification et donc une inspi-
limitée, «bounded rationality», de H. Simons. ration nouvelles. C’est par le management
stratégique que ces paradoxes devront être
Le modèle volontariste. Cependant, pour gérés afin d'élaborer par l’action collective
assurer la crédibilité du management straté- une nouvelle pratique stratégique.
35
DES STRATÉGIES Nécessité de stratégies simples, fortes, capables vision autre, est un ensemble de principes
SIMPLES ET FORTES de rallier et d’engager les protagonistes les nouveaux, se référant à des critères d’action
plus actifs autour de principes nouveaux significatifs. Ils doivent être aussi simples et
d’action collective: c’est le test du leadership. clairement exprimés que possible, afin de
pouvoir être aisément communiqués et aussi
Le choix d’une méthode de management afin de libérer les initiatives et de susciter des
stratégique est toujours un cas d’espèce mais, normes inédites. En ce sens, toute stratégie
de toute manière, il s’agit de définir et de est culturelle, normative, s’appuyant certes
conduire des politiques et des stratégies. sur des règles existantes qui permettent de
Quelle que soit la complexité de la situation, l’engager, mais aussi porteuse de nouvelles
une stratégie, qui est l’expression d’une normes.
36
WHAT IS EUA ? The European University Association, as the representative organisation of both European universi-
ties and national rectors’ conferences, is the main voice of the higher education community in
Europe. Its membership includes 609 individual members, 34 collective members and 7 affiliate
members in 45 countries throughout Europe.
EUA’s mission is to promote the development of a coherent system of European higher education
and research, through active support and guidance to its members, to enhance their contributions
to society and the quality of their core activities.
EUA focuses its policies and services to members on the creation of a European area for higher
education and research. More specifically, EUA’s objectives are to develop consensus on
• a European higher education and research identity based on shared values;
• the compatibility of European higher education structures through commonly accepted norms;
• convergence of the European higher education and research areas to strengthen further the
sector’s attractiveness in Europe and beyond.
QU'EST-CE QUE L’EUA ? Organisation représentant à la fois les universités européennes et les conférences nationales de
recteurs, l’Association Européenne de l’Université est le principal porte-parole de la communauté
de l’enseignement supérieur en Europe. 609 membres individuels, 34 membres collectifs et 7
membres affiliés dans 45 pays d’Europe en constituent les forces vives.
L’EUA a pour mission de favoriser la mise en place d’un système cohérent d’enseignement supé-
rieur et de recherche en Europe en orientant ses membres vers une amélioration de la qualité de
leurs activités fondamentales, soutenant ainsi activement leur apport à la société.
L’EUA articule sa politique et ses services autour de la construction d’un espace européen de l’ensei-
gnement supérieur et de la recherche. Plus spécifiquement, elle vise à rassembler ses membres sur:
• une identité européenne de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche qui se fonde sur des
valeurs partagées;
• la compatibilité des structures de l’enseignement supérieur européen à travers des normes
acceptées en commun;
• la convergence en un espace européen des systèmes d’enseignement supérieur et de recherche
pour renforcer l’attrait des institutions en Europe et dans le reste du monde.