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abnormal Any pore pressure which differs from normal pore pressure. It
pressure may be either higher than normal pore pressure (super-normal)
or lower than normal pore pressure (subnormal). See
overpressure and underpressure.
absolute The permeability of a rock measured when only one fluid phase
permeability is present in the rock. Usually measured in millidarcies or
darcies. See permeability. Compare effective permeability and
relative permeability.
°K = °C + 273.16
°R = °F + 459.69
(2) The process by which radiation loses some or all of its energy
to any material through which it passes. See also photoelectric
absorption.
acre-ft. acre-foot.
acoustic travel (1) The total time required for a specific acoustic wave to travel
time from one point to another.
acoustic wave An elastic wave, seismic wave. A sound wave in which the
disturbance propagated through a medium is an elastic
deformation of the medium. The wave train which results from
the emission of an acoustic pulse by a well logging device is
detected by one or more detectors mounted on the sonde and
various aspects of it are measured (see acoustic log). The wave
train is a composite of various modes of energy transfer. The
first arrival usually results from compressional waves traveling
in the formation; the inverse of its velocity is measured by sonic
tools. A second arrival is sometimes identified as shear waves
traveling in the formation. The velocity of the compressional
waves traveling through the mud is frequency dependent and has
relatively high frequency content. On the other hand, surface
waves of relatively low frequency travel along the borehole wall
at lower velocities and are usually called tube waves or pseudo-
Stoneley waves. See also wave train.
air drilling A method of rotary drilling that uses compressed air as its
circulation medium. This method of removing cuttings from the
wellbore is as efficient or more efficient than the traditional
methods using water or drilling mud. In addition. the rate of
penetration is increased considerably when air drilling is used. A
principal problem in air drilling is the penetration of formations
containing water, since the entry of water into the system
reduces its efficiency.
alpha particle A particle identical to the helium nucleus which has been ejected
from the nucleus of an atom as a form of radiation. When the
alpha particle slows down it picks up two electrons, becoming an
atom of helium. The penetrating power of an alpha particle is
low; a thin sheet of paper will stop most alpha particles. The
readjustment which takes place within the parent nucleus results
in gamma radiation.
American API. Founded in 1920, this national oil trade organization is the
Petroleum leading standardizing organization on oil-field drilling and
Institute producing equipment. It maintains departments of transportation,
refining, and marketing in Washington, D.C., and a department
of production in Dallas.
AM spacing The notation used to refer to the distance between the current
electrode (A) and the potential-measuring electrode (M) of the
normal device.
amplified curve A curve recorded on a more sensitive scale; e.g., the amplified
short normal curve.
anhydrite The common name for the naturally occurring calcium sulfate.
Anhydrite is calcium sulfate (CaSO4 ) existing in the
orthorhombic crystalline form. The anhydrite crystal cannot
become a gypsum crystal (monoclinic form) in a single
hydration step. Anhydrite must first become dissociated in
solution before it can crystallize as gypsum (or recrystallize as
anhydrite). Compare gypsum.
annulus (1) That space between a drill pipe and the formations through
which the drilling fluid (mud) returns to the surface.
(2) The space between tubing and casing or between casing and
formation.
When Rxo > Ro the annulus will be more conductive than the
flushed zone (Rxo) or the uninvaded oil-bearing zone (Rt). When
Rxo < Ro, the resistivity of the annulus will be intermediate
between that of the flushed zone (Rxo) and the uninvaded oil-
bearing zone (Rt).
anticline A subsurface fold structure in which beds dip in opposite
directions from a common ridge or axis. A fold that is concave
downwards. See illustration in fold.
AO spacing This notation refers to the distance between the current electrode
(A) and a point (O) midway between the potential-measuring
electrodes (M and N) of the lateral device. On the reciprocal
sonde, it is the distance between the M electrode and a point (O)
midway between the current electrodes (A and B).
API log grid The API log grid is the standard format used by all logging
companies for recording well-logging measurements in the
petroleum industry. This log grid has one track on the left side of
the depth column and two on the right. The tracks are 2.5 inches
wide and the depth column is 0.75 inches wide. The tracks may
be divided into linear scale or logarithmic scale. See scale for
illustration.
API test pits Calibration pits, located at the API nuclear log calibration
facility at the University of Houston, used for the calibration or
standardization of gamma-ray logging responses and neutron
logging responses into API units.
API unit A unit of counting rate used for scaling gamma-ray logs and
neutron logs.
artesian water Ground water that has sufficient hydraulic pressure to rise above
its aquifer. This water might or might not have sufficient
hydraulic pressureto rise above its aquifer. This water might or
might not have sufficient pressure to rise to or above the surface
of the ground.
artificial lift Any method used to raise oil to the surface through a well, after
reservoir pressure has declined to the point at which the well no
longer produces by means of natural energy. Sucker-rod pumps,
hydraulic pumps, submersible pumps, and gas lift are the most
common methods of artificial lift.
atmospheric The pressure exerted over the surface of the earth by the weight
pressure of the atmosphere. At sea level, this pressure is approximately
14.7 psia.
atomic weight Atomic mass. The relative weight of an atom on the basis that
carbon is 12. For a pure isotope, the atomic weight rounded off
to the nearest integer equal to the total number of neutrons and
protons in the atomic nucleus.
ball sealers Balls made of nylon, hard rubber, or both, and used to shut off
perforations through which excessive fluid is lost.
barrel Petroleum barrel. A unit of measure for crude oil and oil
products equal to 42 U.S. gallons.
base-line shift (1) Generally refers to a naturally occurring shift of the base line
of any specific curve; e.g., the SP curve. Usually the base line
referred to is the shale base line, but could be the sand base line
or other base line.
bedrock A general term for the rock, usually solid, that underlies soil or
other unconsolidated, superficial material.
bed thickness (1) True bed thickness is the thickness of the stratigraphic unit
measured along a line normal to the direction of extension of the
unit. True thickness can be derived from information determined
by the dipmeter.
bit A cutting device attached to the bottom end of the drill pipe. Its
function is to perform the actual boring or drilling of the rock
formations.
blowout preventer BOP. (1) A safety device for closing the wellhead, which has
rubber rams which can be closed down on the logging cable in
the event the well begins to blow out. Blowout preventers may
be connected in series for improved control. See illustration at
lubricator. See also riser, stuffing box, hydraulic packing head,
and flow tube.
(2) Equipment installed at the wellhead at surface level on land
rigs and on the seafloor of floating offshore rigs to prevent the
escape of pressurized fluids either in the annular space between
the casing and drill pipe or in an open hole during drilling and
completion operations. See also rams.
boiling point The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid becomes
equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding
atmosphere. The boiling point of water is 212°F or 100°C at
atmospheric pressure (14.7 psig).
bond (1) The state of one material adhering or being joined to another
material (as cement to formation). See cement bond.
borehole A well log of the interval transit lime: i.e., the time required for a
compensated compression wave to travel one foot in the formation (generally
sonic log in microseconds per foot); the reciprocal of the compressional
velocity. The borehole compensated sonic sonde carries two sets
of transducers, one with its transmitter above its receiver pair
and one with its transmitter below. The transmitters are pulsed
alternately, and the alternate measurements are averaged.
Spurious effects caused by borehole-size changes, and sonde tilt,
which would affect a measurement with a single set of
transducers, are thereby substantially reduced.
borehole effect The spurious influence on a well-logging measurement due to
the influence of the borehole environment; e.g., diameter, shape,
rugosity of the wall of the borehole, type of borehole fluid, and
presence of mud cake.
borehole volume Volume of the hole resulting from the integrated volume
calculated from the hole size recorded on a caliper log.
bound water (1) Water which has become adsorbed to the surfaces of solid
particles or grains. Under natural conditions, this water is
viscous like and immobile but might not have lost its electrolytic
properties. See also adsorption and water wet.
brackish water Water that contains relatively low concentrations of any soluble
salts. Brackish water is saltier than fresh.
break circulation To start the mud pump to restore circulation of the mud column.
Because stagnant drilling fiuid gels during the period of no
circulation, a high pump pressure is usually required to break
circulation.
British thermal BTU. The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
unit 1 lb of water 1°F at or near its point of maximum density
(equivalent to 252 calories).
bubble flow A flow regime in which relatively uniform bubbles of gas or oil,
approximately homogeneously distributed, flow upward through
oil or water at a constant rate. The relative velocity is governed
mainly by the difference between the densities of the lighter and
heavier phases, and the viscosity of the heavier phase.
bubble point The temperature and pressure at which part of a liquid begins to
convert to gas. For example, if a certain volume of liquid is held
at constant pressure, but its temperature is increased, a point is
reached at which bubbles of gas begin to form in the liquid. This
is the bubble point. Similarly, if a certain volume of liquid is
held at a constant temperature but the pressure is reduced, the
point at which gas begins to form is the bubble point. Compare
dew point.
bubble-point The pressure at which gas first begins to come out of solution at
pressure constant temperature.
bulk density It is the value of the density of rock as it occurs in nature. In well
logging, it is the density of the rock with the pore volume filled
with fiuid. Natural density. The equation commonly used to
compute porosity from well log derived bulk density is:
bulk volume The quantity of formation water present in a unit volume of rock.
water The product of water saturation and porosity.
bull plug A threaded nipple with a rounded, closed end with O-ring seals.
Commonly used to plug off the bottom end of downhole logging
instruments from borehole fluids. Some logging tools, which can
be used jointly in tandem, require a bull plug for a seal when
used independently.
Bureau of Land BLM. The Bureau of Land Management was established July 16,
Management 1946, by the consolidation of the General Land Office (created
in 1812) and the Grazing Service (formed in 1934).
cable hanger A device used at the rotary table to support the weight of the
survey cable (usually during fishing operations). The device
clamps firmly on the cable and supports cable weight on a cross-
bar which rests on the rotary table. This removes all tension from
the survey cable between the rotary table and hoist unit.
cable tool drilling A drilling method in which the hole is drilled by dropping a
sharply pointed bit on the bottom of the hole. The bit is attached
to a cable and the cable is picked up and dropped, repeatedly, to
deepen or drill the hole.
calibration The process wherein the zero and sensitivity of the measuring
circuit is adjusted to meaningful units so that the recorded
measurements will be accurate with respect to an industry
standard.
caliper log A well log which is a record of hole diameter. Hole caliper
logging tools sometimes have 1, 2, 3, 4 or 6 arms. Some caliper
logging tools use acoustic methods of determining hole
dimensions.
calorie The amount of heat energy necessary to raise the temperature of
1 gram of water 1°C. Compare British thermal unit.
cap rock Impermeable rock overlying an oil or gas reservoir that tends to
prevent the upward migration of fluids form the reservoir.
capture cross (1) The nuclear capture cross section for neutrons is the effective
section area within which a neutron passes in order to be captured by an
atomic nucleus. It is a probabilistic value dependent on the
nature and energy of the particle as well as the nature of the
capturing nucleus. Nuclear capture cross section is often
measured in barns (1 barn = 10–24 cm2).
capture unit c.u., 10–3 cm–1. A unit of measure of macroscopic capture cross
section. Same as sigma unit.
The carbon-oxygen log can be put to nearly the same uses as the
pulsed neutron capture logs, but has proved to be useful under
some conditions where pulsed neutron capture logs have shown
decreased effectiveness; e.g., in rocks where formation water
cannot easily be distinguished from oil because of the lack of
sufficient contrast in their neutron capture cross sections.
Carbon/Oxygen Log is a Dresser Atlas trademark.
casing Steel pipe cemented in place in an oil or gas well as the drilling
progresses or when the well is completed. The casing serves
several purposes:
casing collar log A record of casing collar responses with depth as measured by a
casing collar locator. Usually is an intergral part of all well logs
run in the cased borehole. The casing collar log provides a means
for depth control for other measurements and responses which
cannot in themselves be accurately correlated with the formation
behind casing.
casinghead The top of the first string of casing set in a well. Usually a heavy,
flanged steel fitting which provides a means to attach various
fittings or assemblies.
casing point The depth in a well at which casing is set, generally the depth at
which the casing shoe rests.
casing pressure Annular pressure between the casing and the well's tubing.
casing shoe A short, heavy, hollow, cylindrical steel section with a rounded
bottom that is placed on the end of the casing string to serve as a
reinforcing shoe and to aid in cutting off minor projections from
the borehole wall as the casing is being lowered. Also called a
guide shoe.
(3) To fix the casing firmly in the hole with cement, which is
pumped through the drill pipe to the bottom of the casing and up
into the annular space between the casing and the walls of the
borehole. After the cement sets (hardens) it is drilled out of the
casing. The casing can be perforated to allow reservoir fluids to
enter the well.
cement evaluation CET. A cased hole cement evaluation log that displays data
log processed from ultrasonic transducers in such a way that
channels in the cement sheath can be detected. The quality of the
cement is given in eight radial segments, and the orientation of a
channel can be determined from a recording of the well deviation
and the relative bearing of the first transducer. An acoustic
caliper measurement is provided from eight radii measurements.
Compare cement bond log. CET is a Schlumberger mark.
cementation The process of precipitation or growth of a binding material
around grains or fragments of rocks. In clastic rocks,
cementation is necessary before the rock framework can become
consolidated. Chemically the cementing material may be the
same as, or different from, the host rock.
cementation The porosity exponent (m) in Archie's formation resistivity
factor factor-porosity relationship.
cement bond log Used to determine the presence of cement behind casing and the
quality of cement bond to casing or formation wall. Usually an
acoustic log.
cement casing To fill the annulus between the casing and formation with
cement to support the casing, improve zonal isolation, or to
prevent migration of fluids between permeable zones.
centralizer A device which positions the logging tool in the center or near
center of the well bore. aligned with the wellbore axis. Compare
decentralize, eccentering arm and standoff.
check shot survey A check shot survey determines formation seismic wave
velocities over specified depth intervals. Travel times from a
surface energy source to a downhole geophone located at
different depths are measured. Distance between successive
geophone locations, d. divided by the difference in travel time to
the geophones at the successive locations, Δt, is the average
formation velocity between the geophone locations; v = d/Δt
chemical Any of many processes in the oil industry that involve the use of
treatment a chemical to affect an operation. Some chemical treatments are:
acidizing, crude-oil demulsification, corrosion inhibition.
paraffin removal, scale removal, drilling-fluid control, refinery
and plant processes, cleaning and pumping operations,
waterflood injection, and water purification.
chlorine log A log based on the counting rate of capture gamma rays
produced by capture of thermal neutrons by chlorine in the
formation. By limiting the count to a certain energy range, the
tool is made more sensitive to chlorine and relatively less
sensitive to formation porosity. The interpretation of such curves
yields a calculated water saturation. The chlorine log's primary
application is in cased holes.
choke An orifice or bean, with a small-diameter bore, installed at the
wellhead in a line to restrict and control the rate of production.
circulate To pass from one point throughout a system and back to the
starting point. Drilling fluid circulates from the suction pit
through the drill pipe to the bottom of the well and returns
through the annulus between pipe and formation.
circulate out The movement of drilling fluid from the bottom of the hole to
the surface (without drilling) for one or more of the following
reasons: to reduce levels of produced and/or liberated gas from
the drilling fluid, to obtain a rock cuttings sample from a
formation just penetrated, to check for high or excessive levels
of hydrocarbons from formations just penetrated by drilling.
circulation The forced flow of drilling fluid out of the mud pit into a drill
hole, down the drill pipe or tubing and up the annulus to return to
the surface.
collar (1) A coupling device with internal threads used to join two
pieces of threaded pipe of the same size.
(2) Drill collar. A thick walled steel pipe used to stabilize the
bottom-hole drilling assembly. The drill collars are used to
provide the weight required to drill the hole. The collars are
usually under compression while the drill pipe is always under
tension.
compatible scales The interpretation of well logs often requires a direct comparison
of one logging response with another, performed at the same
time or at a different time. In order to facilitate this comparison.
the same grid type and equal scale sensitivities must be used.
Overlay techniques particularly require the use of compatible
scales.
compensated log A well log made with a tool designed to correct for unwanted
effects associated with the borehole. The compensated density
log uses the signal from a secondary detector to correct for the
effect of mud cake and small irregularities in the borehole wall.
The borehole compensated sonic log uses a special arrangement
of the transducers to correct tor irregularities in borehole size and
sonde tilt.
compensated A well log made with a mandrel type neutron logging tool
neutron log having two neutron detectors. The neutron porosity is derived
from the ratio of the counting rates of the two detectors. Use of
the count-rate ratio greatly minimizes borehole effects. This tool
can be run in liquid-filled holes, both cased and uncased, but is
not usually recommended for use in gas-filled holes. See dual
spaced neutron.
Compensated CSD, a Welex trademark. This tool combines the features of the
Spectral Density compensated density tool, which measures density by compton
scattering cross section of gamma rays, and the lithology effect
by measuring the low gamma-ray energies associated with the
photoelectric absorption cross-section. This lithology recognition
is further enhanced by borehole compensation of the
photoelectric gamma response.
completion fluid A special drilling mud used when a well is being completed. It is
selected not only for its ability to control formation pressure, but
also for its properties that minimize formation damage.
completion tool Any tool or combination of tools designed to complete a well for
production; i.e., perforating gun, packersetting tool, etc.
composite log Several well logs of the same or similar types, usually from
different logging runs, which have been spliced together to form
a single continuous record from the shallowest to the deepest log
reading. Composite logs are valuable for correlation and
documentation purposes.
compressibility The volumetric change in a unit volume ot fluid (usually) when
the pressure on that volume is changed.
conductor pipe A short string of large-diameter casing used to keep the well
bore open and to provide a means to direct the upflowing drilling
mud from the well bore to the mud pit.
cone (1) The rolling mechanism supporting the cutting edge of a drill
bit.
connate water Water entrapped in the interstices of the rock (either sedimentary
or extrusive igneous) at the time the rock was deposited. It may
be derived either from ocean water or land water. Often used
incorrectly to denote formation water or interstitial water. The
composition of the original water may have been altered during
the compaction process by entrapment of ions, extrusion of
water, diffusion, osmosis, etc.
contact log A generic term referring to the log produced by any logging tool
which uses pad or skid devices to make direct electrical contact
with the formation wall.
continuous phase The liquid in which solids are suspended or droplets of another
liquid are dispersed. Sometimes called the external phase. In a
water-in-oil emulsion, oil is the continuous phase. Compare
internal phase.
contour map A map that has lines marked to indicate points or areas that are
the same elevation above or below sea level. often used to depict
subsurface features.
core barrel (1) A hollow projectile used for obtaining sidewall cores. See
sidewall core and sidewall coring tool.
core bit A special drill bit for cutting and removing a plug-shaped rock
sample from the bottom of the well bore. The core bit is attached
to the bottom of the drill pipe core barrel.
core sample A solid column of rock, usually from two to four inches in
diameter, taken from the bottom of a well bore as a sample of an
underground formation.
core slicer A wireline open-hole device having two diamond edged saw
blades with converging orientation and vertical travel over
several feet when in position. The design allows a wedge-shaped
slice of formation to be cut from the side of a smooth borehole
for evaluation at the surface.
(2) The matching of different well-log curves and other well data
either in the same well or in different wells.
correlation length The length of the formation interval over which a depth-related
correlation is made in order to determine the depth wise
displacement between curves on which the same geological
events have been logged. The correlation length is an important
parameter in the computation of dipmeter measurements.
Dipmeter log correlations are made in order to evaluate the
displacements between the correlation curves; these
displacements are used in turn in the calculation of the formation
dip.
coupling A collar. A short pipe fitting with both ends threaded on the
inside circumference used for joining two lengths of line pipe or
casing or tubing.
critical point The temperature and pressure at which the properties of a liquid
and its vapor become indistinguishable.
critical saturation The value of saturation of the specific liquid (or gas) phase at
which the liquid (or gas) will first begin to flow as the saturation
is increased. The ability to flow is related to the continuity of the
phase. A discontinuous phase will not flow under normal
producing conditions.
critical The highest temperature at which a fluid can exist as a liquid or
temperature vapor. Above this temperature the fluid is a gas and, regardless
of the amount of pressure applied, cannot be liquefied.
critical water The highest water saturation a rock can maintain while
saturation producing hydrocarbons before water will begin to flow.
crooked hole A wellbore that has deviated from the vertical. It usually occurs
where there is a section of alternating hard and soft strata steeply
inclined from the horizontal.
crossflow A condition of fluid flow, in some part of the well bore, from
one permeable zone to another at lower pressure.
crown block A stationary pully system located at the top of the derrick used
for raising and lowering the string of drilling tools. The sheaves
and supporting members to which the lines of the traveling block
and hook are attached.
cushion (1) A column of water or drilling fluid placed inside drill pipe or
tubing to prevent it from being crushed by the hydrostatic
pressure of the fluid in the annulus of the wellbore. Usually the
pipe or tubing is full of liquid, but in certain operations it is
necessary to run the pipe or tubing nearly empty to maintain less
pressure inside the pipe than in the annulus. In such cases. a
cushion may be needed to prevent collapse of the pipe.
cuttings Fragments of rock which are a result of the cutting action of the
drill bit on the formation. These cuttings are transported to the
surface by the drilling fluid.
Cyber Log Computed log analysis systems designed for use at the well site.
Systems Cyber Log Systems is a mark of Schlumberger.
cycle skip, cycle In acoustic transit time or sonic logging. When the amplitude of
skipping the first arrival form (cycle of the acoustic wave train is large
enough to be detected by the near receiver of a receiver pair) but
not large enough to be detected by the far receiver, then one or
more cycles will be skipped until a later cycle arrives which has
energy above the detection level. This situation is called "cycle
skipping." Its onset is characterized by a sharp deflection on the
transit time curve corresponding to one or more added cycles of
time between receivers. "Short cycle skipping," where the near
receiver is triggered a cycle too late can also occur, resulting in
an abnormally short travel time.
cyclonite A powerful, high explosive material (cyclo-
trimethylenetrinitramine) used as the main charge in shaped
charges. Also called RDX.
Darcy's equation Sometimes referred to as Darcy's law. A relationship for the fluid
flow rate q through a porous medium:
dead oil (1) An oil that has undergone a lowering of pressure such that
there is no longer any gas in solution. Compare live oil.
(2) A residual oil measured at 60°F and 14.7 psia after all gas has
been removed by differential liberation at reservoir temperature.
dead time In radioactivity logging. The length of time the system requires
to recover from counting an event, in order to count a successive
event. Events occurring during dead time are not counted.
Usually measured in microseconds.
deep investigation The measurement of formation properties far enough from the
well bore that the effects of the invaded zone become minimal.
deep propagation A well log that provides the resistivity and dielectric constant of
log the formation. The deep propagation tool (DPT) radiates
electromagnetic energy into the formation surrounding the
wellbore. Measurements of the attenuation and velocity of this
electromagnetic wave provide values to determine the resistivity
and dielectric constant of the formation. The tool operates at a
frequency in the tens of megahertz range and measures signal
level and relative phase at four receivers. Compare
electromagnetic propagation tool.
Delaware An anomalous effect on guard log and early laterolog curves first
gradient observed in the Delaware Basin. It can be recognized as an
erroneous high-resistivity gradient in conductive beds when
these beds are overlaid by thick high resitivity formations.
delay panel A memorizer panel. An electrical device which stores signals
measured by the sonde so that all measured signals can be
recorded with the same depth reference. See memorizer.
density Mass per unit volume (often expressed as specific gravity). Well-
logging units are g/cm3, often written g/cc.
density log A well log that records formation density. The logging tool
consists of a gamma-ray source (e.g., Cs137) and a detector
shielded from the source so that it records backscattered gamma
rays from the formation.The backscattering depends on the
electron density of the formation, which is roughly proportional
to the bulk density. The source and detector usually are mounted
on a skid which is pressed against the borehole wall. The
compensated density logging tool includes a secondary detector
which responds more to the mud cake and small, borehole
irregularities. The response of the second detector is used to
correct the measurements of the primary detector. The density
log applies primarily to uncased holes. Sometimes called a
gamma-gamma log. See also Compton scattering, Z/A effect,
and compensated formation density log. Compare nuclear
cement log.
departure In true vertical depth calculations from directional surveys.
Departure is the horizontal displacement in an east or west
direction from the wellhead of a location or station in the
borehole at which directional survey measurements were taken.
Compare latitude.
departure curves Graphs which show the influence of various conditions on the
basic measurement. Such curves, for example, show the effects
of temperature, hole diameter, mud resistivity, bed thickness,
adjacent bed resistivity, etc. Sometimes the effects are
correctable.
depth column A depth track. A narrow column near the center of the well log
in which the depths within the well are recorded. Usually depths
are recorded at l00 foot (meter) intervals and sometimes 50-foot
(meter) intervals. See API log grid.
depth-control log A well log run in cased holes for the purpose of providing
correlation with open-hole logs in order to establish depth
control for certain completion operations. Usually the depth-
control log is made with a radioactivity logging tool in
conjunction with a casing collar locator. The correlation log may
be a gamma-ray log and/or neutron log, or in some cases a
pulsed neutron capture log.
depth of invasion The radial depth from the well bore to which mud filtrate has
invaded porous and permeable rock. Usually measured in inches.
See also diameter of invasion and invaded zone.
depth of Radius of investigation. The radial distance from the measure
investigation point on a downhole tool to a point usually within the formation
where the predominant tool-measured response may be
considered to be centered. Varies from one type of device to
another because of design and techniques of compensation and
focusing. May also change from formation to formation because
of changes in formation properties.
derrick floor DF. The drilling rig floor. sometimes used as depth datum.
detail log A borehole log recorded on larger depth scale than correlation
scale of 1 or 2 inches per 100 feet. Specifically, a log recorded at
a depth scale of 5 inches of record length per 100 feet of
formation logged (sometimes 1 foot per 200 feet). See scale.
detector A sensor used for the detection of some form of energy. Usually
this term is used to refer to the device used in nuclear logging
tools to detect neutrons and gamma rays. See scintillation
counter and Geiger-Mueller counter.
detonate To explode in an extremely violent chemical reaction See high
explosives. Compare low explosives.
deviated hole A borehole which has been intentionally drilled at an angle from
vertical by special downhole drilling tools to guide the drill
assembly in the desired direction. Deviated holes are drilled to
reach a part of a formation or reservoir which cannot be drilled
by a straight or vertical hole because of environmental, political,
or economic reasons.
deviation angle The inclination of the wellbore from the vertical. The angle of
deviation, angle of drift, or drift angle is the angle in degrees that
shows the variation of the borehole from the vertical as revealed
by a deviation survey or directional survey.
deviation survey An operation made to determine the angle from which a hole
drilled by the bit deviated from the vertical during drilling. There
are two basic deviation survey, or drift survey, instruments: one
reveals the angle of deviation only, the other indicates both the
angle and direction of deviation.
DF Derrick floor.
differential The difference between two fluid pressures. For example, the
pressure difference between the pressure in a reservoir and in a wellbore
drilled into the reservoir.
differential- A condition in which the drill stem becomes stuck against the
pressure sticking wall of the wellbore because part of the drill stem (usually the
drill collars) has become embedded in the mud cake. Necessary
conditions for differential-pressure sticking (or wall sticking) are
a permeable permeable formation, a pressure differential across a
nearly impermeable mud cake, and drill stem.
diffuse layer In liquid. The position of a charge on the outer surface of a solid
is rigidly fixed. Adsorbed to this surface may be an essentially
immobile layer of oppositely charged ions from the liquid. This
is called the Stern layer. Further in the solution is a layer of
charge in which the ions having the same charge as the immobile
layer outnumber the ions having the opposite charge. This is the
diffuse layer. Beyond this layer is a region of neutral charge
where anions and cations exist as neutral pairs. Only ions in the
diffuse region and neutral region are free to move under the
influence of fluid motion.
dip The angle that a structural surface (e.g., a bedding or fault plane)
makes with the horizontal, measured perpendicular to the strike
of the structure. Observe dip patterns on idealized log in
illustration. Also see illustration of dip at strike.
dip log See dipmeter log.
(3) A log showing the formation dips calculated from the above,
such as a tadpole plot or stick plot. See illustration of dip
patterns at dip.
directional Slant hole drilling. The technique of intentional. controlled
drilling drilling at an angle from the vertical by deflecting the drill bit.
Although wellbores are normally drilled vertically, it is
sometimes necessary or advantageous to drill at an angle from
the vertical. Controlled directional drilling makes it possible to
reach subsurface areas laterally remote from the point where the
bit enters the earth. It involves the use of turbodrill, whipstocks,
or other deflecting tools.
discovery well The first oil or gas well drilled in a new field. The well that
reveals the presence of a petroleum-bearing reservoir.
Subsequent wells are development wells.
disequilibrium In radioactivity logging for uranium. After a long period of
disintegration, if the radioactive parent and its daughter isotopes
remain undisturbed, equilibrium will be attained between the
production and decay of the respective radioactive materials.
Since U-238 does not emit gamma rays, the gamma-ray activity
recorded is due to the quantity of daughter isotopes. When U-
238 is in equilibrium with its daughter isotopes, the amount of
daughter isotopes detected is an index to the amount of U-238
present. Disequilibrium results when anything has occurred to
disturb the relative quantities of radioactive materials (selective
leaching, escape of radon gas, etc.).
displacement (1) The distance between the logging tool measure points for
various parameters measured by a combination logging tool.
Also, the correction necessary to record all parameters at the
same depth reference.
disposal well A well into which salt water is pumped, usually part of a
saltwater disposal system.
ditch gas Is that portion of the hydrocarbons removed from the mud at the
flowline by any type of mechanical means.
downhole ground Cable armor or a long electrode often attached to the logging
cable some distance (perhaps 100 feet) above an electrical
logging sonde, or hung just below the casing, used as the
reference electrode instead of an electrode at the surface. Used in
the case of bad SP interference from electrical surface facilities
or telluric currents. See differential SP.
down time (1) The length of time it takes for drilling mud to travel from a
location on the surface to the bottom end of the drill stem
(assembly of drill pipe, etc.) during a drilling operation. It is a
function of the inside diameter and length of drill pipe and the
output of the mud pump.
(2) The distance between the static level and the pumping level
of the liquid in the annulus of a pumping well.
drill collar A heavy, thick-walled pipe, usually steel, used between the drill
pipe and the bit in the drill stem to weight the bit in order to
improve its performance.
driller One who operates a drilling rig. The person who is in charge of
drilling operations and who supervises the drilling crew.
drilling break An increase in the penetration rate of the drill bit caused by a
change in the formation, often indicative of penetration into a
porous zone.
drilling exponent The drilling exponent (d), the exponent corrected for mud
density (dc), and the exponent corrected for mud density and bit
wear (dcs) are used to detect undercompacted shaly formations
and associated high-pressure zones.
(1) d = uncorrected drilling exponent
drill pipe Heavy, thick-walled, seamless steel pipe used in rotary drilling
to turn the drill bit and to provide a conduit for the drilling mud.
Joints of drill pipe are about 30 feet long.
Drill Pipe Electric A resistivity well log which is obtained from a logging
Log instrument which has a self-contained recording mechanism. The
log consists of a SP and short and long normal curves. The tool
is lowered through the drill pipe, and the flexible electrode
assembly is pumped through a port in the bit. The log is recorded
by a tape recorder within the tool during the process of
withdrawing pipe from the hole. The tape is played back to
obtain the log. Drill Pipe Electric Log is a trademark of Welex.
drill stem The drill stem is comprised of the drill pipe, drill collars,
bottomhole assembly, and drill bit. The drilling fluid is pumped
down this pipe at a desired pressure and then jetted out the bit.
The drill stem imparts certain characteristics on the dynamics of
the drilling operation.
drill-stem test DST. A procedure for testing a formation through drill pipe.
Often defined as a temporary completion of a well to determine
the fluid content of a reservoir and its ability to produce.
Formation fluid is recovered in the drill pipe through temporary
relief of backpressure imposed on the formation. Hydrostatic,
flowing and shut-in pressures are recorded versus time.
drill string The column, or string, of drill pipe, not including the drill collar
or kelly. Often, however, the term is loosely applied to include
both the drill pipe and drill collars.
dry gas Natural gas from the well free of liquid hydrocarbons. Gas that
has been treated to remove all liquids.
dry hole Any well that does not produce oil or gas in commercial
quantities. A dry hole may flow water, gas, or even oil, but not
enough to justify production.
dry rock Rocks beneath the earth's surface that do not have meteoric or
juvenile water supplied to them by an aquifer or any other
source.
dual completion A single well that produces from two separate zones at the same
time. Production from each zone is segregated by running two
tubing strings with packers inside the single string of production
casing; or one tubing string with a packer may be run through
one zone while the other is produced through the annulus.
dual guard log A formation resistivity log made from a system consisting of
both very deep and shallow investigative guard log schemes. The
tool records, in combination, deep and shallow guard log curves
and a gamma ray and/or SP curve. The dual guard-FoRxo is a
simultaneously recorded dual guard log and FoRxo. See also
guard log and FoRxo log.
dual induction log DIL. An induction log consisting of two induction curves
representing electrical conductivity measurements taken at
different depths of investigation. Usually run in conjunction with
a focused resistivity device with a shallow depth of investigation,
such as a shallow laterolog or guard log. See also induction log.
DIL is a mark of Schlumberger.
dual laterolog DLL. A formation resistivity log made from a system consisting
of both very deep and shallow investigative laterolog schemes.
The tool records. in combination, deep and shallow laterolog
curves and a gamma ray and/or SP curve. The dual laterolog-Rxo,
is a simultaneously recorded dual laterolog which also includes
flushed zone resistivity information derived from a micro-
Spherically Focused Logging device. See also laterolog. DLL is
a mark of Schlumberger.
dual-spaced See compensated density log.
density log
dual-spaced TDL. A log made with a pulsed neutron tool utilizing two
thermal decay log radiation detectors. See Thermal Multigate Decay Log.
dual-spaced DSN. A well log made with a tool having two thermal neutron
neutron log detectors. The neutron porosity is derived from the ratio of the
counting rates of the two detectors. Use of the count-rate ratio
greatly minimizes borehole effects. This tool can be run in
liquid-filled holes, both cased and uncased, but is not usually
recommended for use in gas-filled holes.
dual porosity DNL. The dual porosity compensated neutron tool has two
CNL thermal and two epithermal neutron detectors for separate
porosity measurements. The epithermal measurement can also be
made in air- or gas-filled holes. Also see compensated neutron
log. See Dual Porosity CNL Tool diagram.
dual-spacing See compensated formation density log.
formation density
log
Dual-Spacing TDT. A well log produced by a thermal decay time tool utilizing
Thermal Decay two radiation detectors. TDT is a mark of Schlumberger. See
Time Log Thermal Decay Time Log.
elastic properties Those properties that serve to describe the ability of a material
of rocks to withstand stress without undergoing permanent deformation.
All solid substances, including rocks, follow Hooke's law, that
is, the proportionality relation between strain (or deformation)
and stress (or force per unit area). The stress-strain ratio in
simple linear compression or expansion is Young's modulus of
elasticity (E),
where F/A is the force per unit area or stress, and ΔL/L is the
strain or elongation or shortening per unit length under the
application of expansion or compression.
electrical survey A generic term used to refer to the specific resistivity well log
which usually consists of short normal, long normal, lateral, and
SP curves. Often used incorrectly to refer to borehole electric
logs of other types. Compare electric log.
Between l932 and the late 1940s, before the API standards were
adopted, the electrical survey could have consisted of the
following curves and spacings for various geographic locations.
electrical zero The electrical zero is the recorded output of the electronic
measure circuit when no signal is being measured. Any
imbalance or false response is cancelled in the calibration
process so that the output corresponds to the zero measured
input. The result is an electrical zero.
electric log A generic term used to mean electric well log or electrical well
log, without specific reference to type. Compare electrical
survey.
electromagnetic EPT. The EPT is a device that measures the propagation time
propagation tool (TP1) and attenuation rate (A1) of a microwave frequency
electromagnetic wave that is propagated through the formation
near the borehole. These two measurements can be related to the
(composite) dielectric constant of the formation close to the
borehole. The EPT is a shallow investigation device that has a
depth of investigation of 1 to 4 in., depending on the formation
conductivity. As a result, the EPT responds primarily to the
flushed or invaded zone of the formation. The utility of the EPT
arises from two basic facts. First, the dielectric constant of earth
formations is dominated by the amount of water contained in the
rock pores. That results from the fact that the dielectric constant
of water is an order of magnitude greater than that of the other
constituents of reservoir rocks; namely, oil, gas, and the rock
matrix. Second, at microwave frequencies, the dielectric
constant of water saturated rocks is relatively independent of
water salinity, except in ranges corresponding to very high salt
concentrations. Those two facts imply that the dielectric
constant inferred from the EPT measurements is effectively a
salinity independent datum capable of distinguishing between
water and oil in the zone of investigation. Also, these
measurements can be used to derive values for formation
porosity and water saturation that are essentially salinity
independent. EPT is a mark of Schlumberger.
electromagnetic The inspection tool is composed basically of a sonde with two
thickness log coils. The upper (transmitter) coil generates an electromagnetic
field in the borehole, casing. and formation. For all practical
purposes only the field passing through the casing in front of the
coils, and through the medium behind the casing between the
coils, creates an electromotive force into the lower (receiver)
coil. This electromotive force is out of phase with the
transmitted signal. This difference in phase is recorded and is
proportional to the average thickness of the casing in front of
both coils. Changes in average casing thickness can generally be
attributed to corrosion or other damage. Interpretation is greatly
enhanced by having a base log, run early in the life of the
casing, for comparison with subsequent logs.
electromotive emf. (1) The force that drives electrons and thus produces an
force electric current.
electron volt eV. A unit of energy equal to the kinetic energy acquired by an
electron passing through a potential difference of 1 volt. Equal
to 1.6 × 10–12 erg.
elevators A heavy, hinged clamp attached to the hook and traveling block
by bail-like arms and used for lifting drill pipe, casing, and
tubing and lowering them into the hole. In hoisting a joint of
drill pipe, the elevators are latched onto the pipe just below the
tool joint (coupling) which prevents the pipe from slipping
through the elevators. Also used to support the upper sheave
wheel, over which survey cable moves, during the well-logging
operation
empty hole A cased or uncased borehole filled only with air or gas.
evaporite A sedimentary rock (as gypsum or salt) that originates from the
evaporation of seawater in enclosed basins.
excavation effect A decrease in the neutron log apparent porosity reading below
that expected on the basis of the hydrogen indices of the
formation component. Excavation effect results from the
presence of a second formation fluid with a hydrogen index
lower than that of the water. Thus, for example, in the presence
of gas saturation:
exchange cation A positive ion that exists in the lattice or on a broken edge of
some clay minerals which has the property of being easily
replaced by another cation from a water solution that comes in
contact with the clay. The most common exchange cations in
clay materials are Ca++, Mg++, H+, K+, NH4+, and Na+.
expendable gun A perforating gun that consists of a metal strip upon which are
mounted shaped charges in special capsules. After firing,
nothing remains of the gun but debris. See gun perforating.
exploratory well Well drilled to find the limits of a hydrocarbon-bearing
formation only partly developed.
extrusive A term applied to those igneous rocks that have cooled and
solidified after reaching the earth's surface.
F Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA
felsic A mnemonic term derived from "fe" for feldspar, "l" for lenads
or feldspathoids, and "s" for silica. The term is applied to light-
colored rocks containing an abundance of one or all of these
constituents. Also applied to the minerals themselves. The chief
felsic minerals are quartz, feldspars, feldspathoids, and
muscovite. Compare mafic.
field print A preliminary print of the well log presented in the field at the
completion of the survey operation.
field tape A magnetic tape on which well-log data were recorded during
the logging operation.
filter loss The amount of tluid that can be delivered through a permeable
filter medium after being subjected to a differential pressure for a
specified time.
filtration loss The escape of the liquid part of a drilling mud into permeable
formations.
final print A print generally supplied as the permanent well-log record. This
is a composite log (if the current survey is the last of a series)
which has been printed on high quality reproduction paper after
final entry of all pertinent log heading information, addition of
calibration tails, and necessary drafting.
first curve The self potential curve, SP. See further discussion under
electrical survey and SP.
first reading FR (1) The depth of the first useable reading or value recorded
on a curve at the onset of the survey.
(2) Usually the depth in the hole of the deepest reading for any
given curve normally recorded in the bottom-to-top direction.
See also pick-up.
fish (1) A foreign object (such as tool or pipe) lost in the borehole
which obstructs routine functions performed in the well. Usually
must be removed or by-passed.
fishing bell The cable end of the housing enclosing the connectors at the
downhole end of the survey cable. The housing has a neck or
reduced diameter at the cable end which is designed to enter an
overshot and be caught securely during fishing operations.
fishing neck Cable end of the fishing bell.
float collar A special coupling device. inserted one or two joints above the
bottom of the casing string, that contains a check valve to permit
fluid to pass downward but not upward through the casing. The
float collar prevents drilling mud from entering the casing while
it is being lowered, allowjng the casing to float during its descent
and also decreasing the load on the derrick. The float collar also
prevents a backflow of cement during the cementing operation.
floating pad A term used to refer to the pad of any contact logging tool that
does not make sufficiently good contact with the formation wall
to record quality information. For example. dipmeter pads in
oval shaped holes and microlaterolog pads in slant holes where
the weight of the tool might pull the pad away from the borehole
wall.
float shoe A short, heavy, cylindrical steel section with a rounded bottom,
attached to the bottom of the casing string. It contains a check
valve and functions similarly to the float collar but also serves as
a guide shoe for the casing.
flood To drive oil from a reservoir into a well by injecting water under
pressure into the reservoir formation. See water flood.
flowing well A well that produces oil or gas by its own reservoir pressure
rather than by use of artificial means (as pumps).
flowline Large-diameter pipe which conducts mud coming out of the hole
from the annulus to the shale shaker and mud tanks.
flow tube The lower end of the hydraulic packing head (control head) of a
lubricator. Grease or other viscous material is injected into flow
tubes (containing seals, etc.) providing additional seal and
lubrication. Flow tubes can be stacked for additional pressure
control through step-down pressure reduction.
fluid level A misnomer. Often used incorrectly to refer to liquid level in the
open or cased borehole.
fluid loss The loss of the liquid part of the drilling mud into a formation,
often minimized or prevented by the blending of additives with
the mud.
fluid travel log FTL. A record of borehole fluid flow rate. See radioactive-tracer
log. Compare flowmeter.
fluid wave A compressional wave in the liquid column. The wave form
arrival which has been transmitted to the receiver directly
through the liquid column within the well bore.
flushed zone The zone at a relatively short radial distance from the borehole,
immediately behind mud cake, which is considered to be flushed
by mud filtrate (i.e., is considered to have all mobile formation
fluids displaced from it). See also invaded zone.
formation dip The angle at which a formation bed inclines away from the
horizontal. See dip. See illustration at strike.
formation factor A log in which the formation resistivity factor curve derived
log from a resistivity or porosity estimating device is shown as a
function of depth. Usually recorded on a logarithmic grid.
formation signal The signal related to the formation. with the logging tool at a
given depth in the borehole, as opposed to signals generated
from the tool itself (e.g., diode error, sonde error) or coming
from borehole fluids.
formation tester A wireline tool used for recovering fluid samples from the
formation and recording hydrostatic, flowing, and shut-in
pressures versus time.
formation volume The ratio of the volume of gas or liquid with its dissolved gas at
factor reservoir conditions of tempcrature and pressure to its volume at
standard conditions.
FoRxo Log A focused resistivity log recorded from a pad which contains a
small button electrode surrounded by a guarding electrode and
which is forced against the side of the bore hole. The current
from the button electrode is forced to flow out into the first few
inches of the formation, which would be the Rxo zone in a
permeable formation. FoRxo is a Welex trademark.
fossil fuel A deposit of organic material containing stored solar energy that
can be used as fuel. The most important are coal, natural gas, and
petroleum.
Fracture Finder An acoustic well log used in the location of fractures. Usually
log the log consists of one or more curves in which the amplitudes of
the compression and/or shear wave forms are shown across a
formation segment. Fractures may produce attenuation of both
compressional and shear waves, if the fractures are properly
oriented. Fracture Finder is a Welex trademark.
fracture gradient Is the pressure per unit depth required to fracture or cause the
rock of the formation to separate. See also hydraulic fracturing.
fracture log See Fracture Finder log, an acoustic method. Other types of
fracture logs employ resistivity measurements to show possible
fractures.
fracture porosity Porosity resulting from the presence of openings produced by the
breaking or shattering of brittle rocks.
free fluid index FFI. The percent of the bulk volume occupied by fluids which
are free to flow, as recorded on the nuclear magnetism log. Gas
gives a low FFI.
free interstitial Mobile interstitial water. Compare bound water.
water
free pipe Pipe or casing in a well bore which is free to vibrate or respond
to stress. Casing or tubing which is free of the restraint of a
cement sheath or formation materials.
free point The deepest depth in the well bore that stuck casing or drill pipe
is free and can be salvaged.
fresh mud A relative, though inaccurate, term which describes the condition
where the make-up water for the drilling mud is fresher than the
water in the formations to be drilled.
fresh water Very low in dissolved salts. Sometimes used comparatively with
respect to normal sea water (which has 35,000 parts of dissolved
salts per million). Sometimes used comparing mud filtrate with
formation water.
funnel viscosity Viscosity as measured by the Marsh funnel, based on the number
of seconds it takes for 1,000 cm3 of drilling fluid to flow through
the funnel.
G Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA
gamma-ray index GRI. A clayiness index determined from the difference between
the radioactivity level of the zone of interest and that of clean
rock compared to the difference between the radioactivity level
in clay shale and that in the clean rock.
gamma-ray Gamma rays interact with matter in three different ways: see
interactions with photoelectric absorption, Compton scattering, and pair
matter production.
(1) In sediments the log mainly reflects clay content because clay
contains the radioisotopes of potassium, uranium, and thorium.
Potassium feldspars, volcanic ash, granite wash, and some salt
deposits containing potassium (potash for example) may also
give significant gamma-ray readings. The log often functions as
a substitute for the SP for correlation purposes in nonconductive
borehole fluids in open holes, for thick carbonate intervals, and
to correlate cased-hole logs with open-hole logs.
gas cap A free-gas phase overlying an oil zone and occurring within the
same reservoir as the oil. See reservoir.
gas-cut mud Drilling mud aerated or charged with gas from formations
downhole. Because a large amount of gas in mud lowers its
density, gas-cut mud often must be treated to lessen the chance
of blowout.
gas drive The use of the energy that arises from gas compressed in a
reservoir to move crude oil to a well bore. Gas drive is also used
in a form of secondary recovery, in which gas is injected into
input wells to sweep remaining oil to a producing well.
gas hydrate A combination of natural gas and water under pressure which
forms solid crystals at temperatures above the freezing point of
water. These solids are an expanded form of ice (gas molecules
trapped inside) and look like dirty ice.
gas in solution (1) Gas dissolved in water or crude oil.
(2) Gas dissolved in crude oil decreases the specific gravity and
viscosity of the oil in a reservoir. Dissolved-gas energy is freed
by the expansion of the gas released from solution as the
pressure drops along the gradient from the reservoir, through the
well. and to the tank As gas expands, it moves along the pressure
gradient carrying or driving oil along with it.
gas lift The process of raising or lifting fluid from a well by injecting
gas down the well through tubing or through the tubing-casing
annulus. Injected gas aerates the fluid to make it exert less
pressure than formation pressure; consequently, the higher
formation pressure forces the fluid out of the wellbore. Gas may
be injected continuously or intermittently, depending on the
producing characteristics of the well and the arrangement of the
gas-lift equipment.
gas-oil contact The lowest depth (deepest depth in a well) opposite a formation
at which virtually 100% gas can be produced. This depth is at the
top of the gas-oil transition zone.
gas-oil ratio GOR. A measure of the volume of gas produced with oil,
expressed in cubic feet per barrel or cubic meters per metric ton.
gas tracer A radioactive isotope (e.g., I131 in a methyl iodide carrier) used to
follow gas flow in a well bore and determine a velocity flow
profile.
gauge hole A borehole with a diameter the same size as the drill bit.
gauge ring Gage ring. A nonrecording device run into cased boreholes in
order to determine minimum inside diameter of the casing before
running tools that might be easily damaged or become stuck
because of the close tolerances involved.
Geolograph A trade name for a patented device used on a drilling rig which
records automatically the depth and rate of penetration during
each consecutive 24-hour period.
geology The science that relates to the study of the structure, origin,
history, and development of the earth as revealed in the study of
rocks, formations, and fossils
where the C's and G's refer to the zones of differing conductivity,
and N is the total number of such zones.
geopressure (1) Pressure pertaining to the earth, ground, or crust of the earth.
A specific pressure regime, as geothermal pertains to a specific
temperature regime.
geopressure The change in pore pressure observed per unit change in depth.
gradient If the pore pressures are normal, then the geopressure gradient
pertains to the normal pressure gradient (on the Gulf Coast about
0.465 psi/foot depth).
geostatic Of or pertaining to overburden or the aggregate of overlying rock
column and fluid.
geostatic load Overburden. The combined load of the overlying rock column
and the fluids contained within the pores of the rock from the
depth of the stratum of interest to the surface.
geostatic pressure That pressure exerted by the weight of the entire geostatic load.
geothermal The rate of increase of temperature in the earth with depth. The
gradient gradient near the surface of the earth varies from place to place
depending on the heat flow in the region and on the thermal
conductivity of the rock. Caused by the continuous flow of heat
outward through the crust of the earth.
GL Ground level.
glands Used in a stuffing box and hydraulic packing head. Rubber seals
that can be squeezed down over logging cable to form a pressure
seal in the event pressure develops at the surface. Cable can be
moved in closed down glands if the cable is lubricated by fluid
or injected grease. If glands should cut out, the blowout
preventer can be closed and glands replaced. Compare rams.
gooseneck A curved device that fits over the fishing bell. Used during the
process of lifting heavy downhole tools from a horizontal
position to a vertical position. The logging cable or bridle fits
into the curvature of the device thus minimizing localized stress
and flexure on survey line and conductors.
graben A block of the earth's crust that has slid downward between two
faults; the opposite of a horst. See illustration in fault.
grain density The density of a unit volume of a mineral or other rock matter at
zero porosity. The density of the rock framework. Sometimes
called matrix density. Usual units are g/cm3.
grand slam A combination of logs or a computation procedure for
calculating the depth of invasion and the resistivity of both
invaded and uncontaminated zones, based on a dual induction-
laterolog and a proximity log or microlaterolog.
gravel pack A mass of very fine gravel placed around a slotted liner in a well.
gravel pack log The gravel pack logging tool is a neutron-type device that
evaluates the condition of the gravel pack. Count rates from two
detectors are used to compute porosity. The count rates from
both detectors are presented with the cased-hole porosity and
compared to the porosity measured in the open hole if open-hole
measurements are available. The log provides a quantitative
analysis of the areas in the pack that need to be replaced before
the well is placed on production.
gravity (1) The force of attraction between bodies of finite mass. Usually
expressed in milligals.
ground line (1) With SP and resistivity logging. It is the conductor line, to
which is attached a portable surface electrode, which is extended
to some remote location from the rig and logging unit to provide
electrical ground connection.
ground safety line A ground strap used for perforation safety. See ground line Part
(2).
guarded electrode The short center electrode of a guard tool. The electrode on
which most measurements are based.
guard electrode (1) One of the long electrodes above and below the short center
electrode, or guarded electrode, of a guard tool.
guard log A well log of formation resistivity which involves the use of a
guard tool.
guard tool The guard tool behaves similarly to one elongated current
electrode from which current flows radially in all directions to a
distant current-return electrode. In practice, the current-emitting
electrode is separated into three parts by insulation so that the
center part, which is made short, can be treated as a discrete
electrode without alteration of the current-flow pattern. The
current from the center electrode, which serves as both a current
and measure electrode, flows in a thin horizontal layer at an
angle of 90° to the tool because of its central location in the
configuration.
gun perforating The wireline procedure involving the use of a gun in introducing
holes through steel casing into a formation so that fluids can
flow from the formation into the casing. The gun can be
selectively positioned opposite the formation and has the
capability of firing bullets or shaped charges.
gusher An oil well which has come in with such great pressure that the
oil jets out of the well like a geyser. In reality, a gusher is a
blowout and is extremely wasteful of reservoir fluids and drive
energy. In the early days of the oil industry, gushers were
common, and many times were the only indications that a large
reservoir of oil and gas had been found.
head (1) The connector end of the fishing bell. Located at the
downhole end of the survey cable. The head consists of insulated
electrical connectors or pins and a threaded connector which will
attach to various downhole instruments.
heading The form attached to the top of a well log which supplies and
documents all vital information and supplementary data
regarding the well, the survey, and the wellbore conditions.
heaving shale Shale which becomes dislodged by bit, drill pipe, or jet action.
Also shale which becomes hydrated during the drilling process
and falls into the well bore. Heaving shale quite often leaves
cavities and ledges. Heaving shale is not necessarily related to
overpressure. Compare plastic shale.
horst A block of the earth's crust that has been raised between two
faults. The opposite of a graben. See illustration in fault.
hostile Hostile wellbore environment. Any well bore that meets one of
environment the following criteria:
hot wire analyzer A device used to detect hydrocarbon gases returned to the
surface by the drilling mud. Basically a Wheatstone bridge, two
arms of which are kept at a high temperature. Hydrocarbon gases
become oxidized as they pass over one arm, which increases its
temperature, changes its resistance, and unbalances the bridge.
The hot wire analyzer response is sometimes plotted as a strip
log.
F = 0.62φ–2.15
where F = formation resistivity factor, and φ = porosity.
hybrid scale A resistivity scale used with laterologs and guard logs which
compresses high resistivity values. Below midscale. the scale is
linear with resistivity. Above midscale, the scale is scaled in
resistivity units. but is linear with conductivity (reciprocal of
resistivity). The hybrid scale presentation has been replaced by
the logarithmic scale on modern laterologs and guard logs.
hydraulic Ratio of flow velocity to driving force for viscous flow under
conductivity saturated conditions of a specific liquid in a porous medium.
hydrocarbon Fraction of the pore volume filled with hydrocarbons (oil or gas).
saturation
hydrodynamic Fluid pressure directed laterally along the bed from a higher to a
pressure lower pressure head. Compare hydrostatic pressure.
hydrogen index The ratio of the number of hydrogen atoms per unit volume of a
material to that number in pure water at 75°F. Neutron logging
response depends mainly on the hydrogen index.
hydrostatic head The pressure exerted by a body of water at rest. The hydrostatic
head of fresh water is 0.433 psi per foot of height. Those of other
liquids may be determined by comparing their gravities with the
gravity of water. See pressure gradient.
hydrostatic level That level, which for a given point in an aquifer, passes through
the top of a column of water that can be supported by the
hydrostatic pressure of the water at that point.
hydrostatic load The weight of formation fluid filling the pores of the rock and in
communication with the water table at the well site, or sea
surface. Usually the fluid is considered to be formation water.
Ideal gas A gas which obeys the general gas law perfectly (PV = NRT).
The term implies (1) atomic-sized gas particles, (2) the
molecules are in random motion and obey Newton's laws of
motion, (3) the total number of molecules is large, (4) the
volume of the molecules is a negligibly small fraction of the
volume occupied by the gas, (5) no appreciable forces act on the
molecules except during a collision, and (6) collisions are elastic
and are of negligible duration.
induced spectral An activation log wherein the formations have been bombarded
gamma-ray log by high-energy neutrons. Specific atoms upon irradiation
transform into isotopes which emit gamma rays exhibiting
specific energy levels within the energy spectrum. Identification
of the energy levels of the induced gamma radiation is a means
of identifying the original atoms in place in the formation. The
quantity of material containing the original atoms is deduced
from the amount of gamma radiation at specific energy levels.
Downhole instruments may use encapsulated sources, which
emit neutrons continuously as the tool is moved along the
formation wall, or neutron generators, which emit neutrons in
cyclic pulses with measurements made between pulses. The type
of source used depends on the substances searched for. Compare
spectral gamma-ray log. Also see neutron activation.
Induction- IEL. A log made by combining an induction logging device and
Electrolog a short normal or laterolog device. Induction-Electrolog is a
Dresser Atlas trademark.
induction log A log recorded in uncased boreholes which involves the use of
electromagnetic induction principles for the measurement of
formation conductivity or resistivity. The induction logging tool
has advantages for use in nonconductive borehole fluids (air. oil
gas) where other electrical resistivity logging tools cannot be
easily used or should not be used. The induction log is widely
used in electrically conductive drilling muds where it works well
provided the formations are not too resistive and borehole effects
are known and not too great (i.e., mud not too saline and hole
diameter not too large).
inelastic collision A collision in which the total kinetic energy of the colliding
particles is not the same after the collision as before the collision.
For example. in the case of a fast moving neutron colliding with
a nucleus of an element, the nucleus becomes excited and excess
energy is reduced by emitting a gamma ray that is characteristic
of the element. Compare elastic collision.
injection well A well into which fluids have been pumped, and from which
fluids have been injected into an underground stratum to increase
or maintain reservoir pressure.
insular globules A nonwetting phase exists in the form of insular globules when it
is found as discrete, isolated spheroids suspended in the wetting
phase.
intermediate The string of casing set in a well after the surface casing in order
casing string to keep the hole from caving. Sometimes the blowout preventers
are attached to it. The string is sometimes called protection
casing.
internal phase The fluid droplets or solids that are dispersed throughout another
liquid in an emulsion. Compare continuous phase.
interval transit The travel time of a compressional wave (usually) over a unit
time distance, hence proportional to the reciprocal of compression
wave velocity. Measured in the sonic log, usually in
microseconds per foot.
intervalometer A device used for setting the amount of delay (distance along a
formation) before a signal in storage is played back. See
memorizer.
intrinsic thermal (1) The thermal-neutron decay time intrinsic to a particular
decay time material or medium. defined by (1/vΣabs)where v is neutron
velocity and Σabs is the macroscopic capture cross section of the
medium.
intrusive Having been forced while in a fluid state into or between other
rocks, but solidifying before reaching the surface. Said of
plutonic igneous rocks and contrasted with extrusive.
invaded zone The portion of formation surrounding a well bore into which
drilling fluid has penetrated. displacing some of the formation
fluids. This invasion takes place in porous, permeable zones
when the pressure of the mud is greater than that of the
formation fluids. A mud filter cake builds on the formation wall,
limiting further invasion into the formation by mud filtrate.
Directly behind the mud cake is a flushed zone from which
almost all of the formation water and most of the hydrocarbons
have been displaced by filtrate. The invasion process alters the
distribution of saturations and other properties and,
consequently, alters the values which are recorded on logs. The
depth of invasion is the equivalent depth in an idealized model
rather than the maximum depth reached by filtrate. In oil-bearing
zones, the filtrate may push a bank of formation water ahead of it
to produce what is referred to as an annulus.
invasion diameter See diameter of invasion.
joule A unit for all forms of energy or work. The joule is equal to
107 ergs which is on the order of 1 watt-second. It is
approximately equal to 0.738 foot-pound of 0.239 calorie.
junk Any kind of debris, extraneous to the formation, and that has
become detached from some part of equipment used in an
operation on a well and has become lodged or lost in some part
of the borehole or borehole wall. Junk may be a lost bit, pieces
of a bit, milled pieces of pipe, wrenches, or any relatively small
object that impedes drilling. It often obstructs casing, tubing. or
open hole and must be fished out. See also fish.
junk basket (1) A device made up on the bottom of the drill stem to cut a
core into the bottom of the hole on which junk rests. As the core
is cut, the junk enters a barrel in the tool and is held by metal
projections, or catchers. When the basket is brought back to the
surface, the junk is removed with the core.
juvenile water Water that is derived from the interior of the earth and has not
previously existed as atmospheric or surface water.
K Copyright © 1984-97 SPWLA, All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without
permission from SPWLA
KB Kelly bushing.
kelly bushing KB. The heavy bushing at the rotary table, through which the
kelly passes, which transmits the rotary motion of the rotary
table to the drill pipe. The top of the bushing is often taken as a
depth datum.
kelly hose Flexible steel-reinforced hose which carries mud between the
standpipe and the kelly. Permits the drill string to be moved
vertically while mud-pumping and drilling operations continue.
kill a well (1) To bring under control a well that is threatening to blow out.
KB Kelly bushing.
kelly bushing KB. The heavy bushing at the rotary table, through which the
kelly passes, which transmits the rotary motion of the rotary
table to the drill pipe. The top of the bushing is often taken as a
depth datum.
kelly hose Flexible steel-reinforced hose which carries mud between the
standpipe and the kelly. Permits the drill string to be moved
vertically while mud-pumping and drilling operations continue.
kill a well (1) To bring under control a well that is threatening to blow out.
lag time Up time. The time it takes for a sample of rock cut from a
formation by the drilling bit to be carried from its depth of origin
to a location on the surface, where it is collected. Lag time is
calculated by subtracting down time from the total time it takes
for a marker, introduced into the drilling mud at the surface, to
travel to the bottom of the borehole and back to the surface
where it can be detected or collected.
last reading LR. (1) Refers to the depth of the last useable reading or value
recorded on a curve at the completion of the survey.
(2) Usually the depth in the hole of the shallowest reading for
any given curve normally recorded in the bottom-to-top
direction. Often coincides with casing depth for open-hole
logging operations.
lateral curve An unsymmetrical resistivity curve recorded by a lateral device.
lava Fluid rock that issues from a volcano or a fissure in the earth's
surface. Also the same material solidified by cooling.
lay down pipe To pull drill pipe or tubing from the hole and place it in a
horizontal position on a pipe rack.
leak, leakage A condition which allows electrical current to bleed off or leak
out of the electrical circuit. The electrical current remaining in
the circuit is uncalibrated or does not otherwise meet design
specifications. Leaks can result fronm damage to insulation
coverings or, more frequently, from small amounts of moisture
which bridges insulating spacers at connecting pins.
(2) The area where production wells, stock tanks, separators, and
other production equipment are located.
least-squares fit An analytic function which approximates a set of data such that
the sum of the squares of the distances from the observed points
to the curve is a minimum. One must determine the functional
form of the fit (whether linear, quadratic, etc.) in order to define
the problem.
liberated gas Gas (from a formation) physically liberated into the drilling fluid
by the bit as it penetrates the formation.
limestone sonde Also called limestone device, which is now obsolete. Uses a
combination of electrodes in a symmetrical, double, short lateral
electrode configuration which gives a resistivity curve with
constant values opposite thick, highly resistive beds and which
shows sharp minima at the level of conductive beds.
liner hanger A slip device that attaches the liner to the casing.
(2) Rubber spiral line stripper or wheel type line stripper which
removes excess mud or oil from the line as it emerges from the
wellhead. Prevents excessive mud or oil in work areas.
liquefied natural LNG. A liquid composed chiefly of natural gas (i.e., mostly
gas methane). Natural gas is liquefied to make it easier to transport if
a pipeline is not feasible (as across a body of water). Not as
easily liquefied as liquefied petroleum gas, LNG must be put
under low temperature and high pressure to become liquefied.
liquid A state of matter in which the shape of the given mass depends
on the containing vessel, but the volume of the mass is
independent of the vessel. A liquid is practically incompressible
fluid.
lithology (1) The physical character and composition of the rock. Refers to
the different rock strata within the formations penetrated by the
borehole.
lithostatic load The weight of the overlying rock column without the fluids
contained in the pore volumes of the rock.
live oil Oil that contains dissolved gas. See also gas in solution.
Compare dead oil.
log (1) Well log. A record containing one or more curves related to
properties in the well bore or some property in the formations
surrounding the well bore.
logarithmic grid (1) A well-log grid scaled in logarithmic divisions. Usually used
with resistivity logs. The use of the logarithmic grid serves to
enhance resolution or magnify resistivity readings in the low-
resistivity range and eliminates the need for back-up
galvanometers and associated curves in the high-resistivity
range. Permits the use of overlay techniques in the solution of
some exponential relationships.
(2) On the API log grid, tracks 2 and 3 of the grid are divided
usually into 4 logarithmic cycles and the grid lines follow
logarithmic scales. See scale for illustration.
logging cable See survey cable.
log scale insert A section bearing scale information, well identification, and
other pertinent information. It is inserted in the log between
depth-scale changes, different runs, tool changes, etc.
long-spaced sonic Long-spaced sonic tools are used to provide shear wave analysis,
log formation travel time through casing, and more accurate acoustic
data in enlarged boreholes and in areas where formations are
altered by the drilling process. See sonic log.
long string The last string of casing set in a well. The string of casing which
is set through the producing zone. Production casing.
lose returns An occurrence which can happen during the drilling process in
which less drilling fluid returns to the surface than is pumped
into the hole. This indicates that some drilling fluid is lost into
porous rock, fractures, or sizable formation cavities.
low explosive Low explosives burn rapidly at various rates to form a gas. They
are self-sufficient and do not require the presence of air or
oxygen to sustain the reaction. The gas confined to limited space
is at elevated pressure and exerts considerable force. The rate of
burning is controlled by the size and shape of the explosive
grain. Burning is a surface phenomenon. Time and high
temperature are necessary for igniting low explosives. Used in
sidewall coring tools, wireline plug-setting tools, and bullet
perforators. Compare high explosive.
magma Molten rock material within the earth from which an igneous
rock results by cooling.
magmatic water Water which exists in or is derived from molten igneous rock or
magma.
Magnaflux A trade name for the equipment and processes used for detecting
cracks and other surface discontinuities in iron or steel. A
magnetic field is set up in the part to be inspected. and a powder
or paste of magnetic particles is applied. The particles arrange
themselves around discontinuities in the metal, revealing defects.
magnetic The acute angle between the direction of true north and magnetic
declination north determined at or for a specific geographic location.
make a trip To hoist the drill stem out of the wellbore to perform one of a
number of operations such as changing bits, attaching core
barrel, etc. and then to return the drill stem to the wellbore.
marine drilling Marine riser, drilling riser. A string of specially designed steel
riser pipe which extends from a drill ship or platform to the subsea
wellhead. Marine risers are used to provide a return fluid-flow
conductor between the well bore and the drill vessel and to guide
the drill string to the wellhead on the ocean floor. The riser is
made up of several sections including flexible joints and a
telescoping joint to absorb the vertical motion of the ship or
platform caused by wave action.
mark (1) A magnetic mark or metal shim on a survey cable. Usually
located every 100 feet for depth-control purposes.
marker bed A distinctive, easily identified rock stratum, especially one used
as a guide for drilling.
Marsh funnel A calibrated funnel used in field tests to determine the viscosity
of drilling mud.
master bushing The rotary bushing in the rotary table of a drilling rig, which
mates with the kelly bushing. The master bushing transmits the
torque of the rotary table to the kelly bushing during the drilling
process. The kelly bushing, in turn, rotates the kelly and drill
string.
matrix (1) The solid framework of rock which surrounds pore volume.
(2) In a rock in which certain grains are distinctly larger than the
others, the grains of smaller size comprise the matrix.
measured depth MD. Depth measured along the drilled hole. Reported in drilling
records, measured by well-logging cables, and shown on well
logs. This depth has not been corrected for hole deviation.
Compare true vertical depth.
measurements- MWD. A wireless system for making downhole measurements
while-drilling of azimuth, inclination, and tool facing from sensors mounted
inside of a nonmagnetic drill collar located near the drill bit.
Formation properties can be measured, such as: natural
radioactivity, resistivity, and temperature. These measurements
are sent to the surface by means of pressure pulses induced in the
drilling mud by a mud-pulse transmitter, or stored downhole and
brought to the surface when the bit and MWD collar are brought
out of the hole.
mechanical zero The reading of a galvanometer at rest, or the reading of any other
recording system when no signal is input. With no potential
applied, this is a zero reference for galvanometer deflections.
metric system A decimal system of weights and measures based on the meter as
the unit of length. the gram as the unit of weight, the cubic meter
as the unit of volume, the liter as the unit of capacity. and the
square meter as the unit of area.
mho per meter 1000 mmho per nmeter. A unit of electrical conductivity. The
conductivity of a cubic meter of material which offers a
resistance of one ohm between opposite faces. Reciprocal of
ohm-meter.
Micro- MSG. An acoustic log showing the wave train in the intensity
Seismogram modulated-time mode. Micro-Seismogram is a Welex trademark.
millivolt box A source for calibrated emf which usually is applied to offset
unwanted signals during logging or calibration procedures. See
manual shift and electropolarization potential.
mineral The crust of the earth contains only eight elements (oxygen,
composition of silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and
rocks magnesium) with concentrations greater than l% by weight.
Minerals are compounds of these elements. each mineral having
a specified crystalline structure. The most abundant minerals
represent only five types of chemical compounds: silicates,
carbonates, sulfates, halides, and oxides. Of these minerals, the
silicates are more abundant than all the rest combined,
comprising 95% of the rest.
mist flow A producing flow condition in a well bore in which gas and oil
flow at very high velocities. The oil film on the pipe wall
becomes very thin and most of the oil is transported in the form
of very small droplets nearly homogeneously dispersed in the
gas. Therefore, the two phases move at essentiallv the same
velocity.
modified Schmidt A plot of dipmeter information on polar chart paper where 0° dip
diagram is represented on the circumference and 90° at the center. Dips
close to structural form a group near the circumference. The
center of this group represents the structural dip. Compare
Schmidt diagram.
molecule The smallest part of a substance that can exist on its own. It
usually consists of a group of atoms that are either different (e.g.,
water, H2O, consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one of
oxygen) or that are alike (e.g., hydrogen, H2 in which each
molecule is made up of two atoms of hydrogen).
molecular weight The sum of the atomic weights in a molecule. For example, the
molecular weight of water, H2O, is l8 because the atomic weight
of each of the hydrogen atoms is 1 and the atomic weight of
oxygen is 16.
mole percent The ratio of the number of moles of one substance to the total
number of moles in a mixture of substances, all multiplied by l00
(to put the number on a percentage basis).
movable oil plot MOP. A computed log, based on several logging operations.
prepared for the purpose of determining the presence and
quantity of movable hydrocarbon (usually oil) at difterent parts
of a formation. For example:
(1) The first curve of the log will be said to represent the pore
volume of the rock framework. It must be determined by a
technique in which derived porosity is least influenced by the
type of fluid occupying pore volume (sometimes a single
porosity curve; i.e., sonic; sometimes computed from several
porosity curves).
(2) The second curve will represent the pore volume occupied by
the water in the flushed zone (i.e., the product of water saturation
in the flushed zone and porosity from the first curve). Focused
microresistivity tools are usually used to determine flushed-zone
water saturation (e.g., microlaterolog, FoRxo, etc.).
mud cake Filter cake. The residue deposited on the borehole wall as the
mud loses filtrate into porous, permeable formations. The mud
cake generally has very low permeability and hence tends to
retard further loss of fluid to the formation. See invaded zone.
mud density The density of the drilling mud usually measured in pounds per
U.S. gallon or pounds per cubic foot.
mud filtrate The effluent of the continuous (external) phase liquid of drilling
mud which penetrates porous and permeable rock, leaving a mud
cake on the drilled face of the rock.
mud pit Excavation or tank near the rig into which drilling mud is
circulated. Mud pumps withdraw the mud from one end of the
pit as the circulated mud (bearing rock chips from the borehole)
flows in at the other end. As the mud moves to the suction line,
the cuttings drop out leaving the mud "clean" and ready for
another trip to the bottom of the borehole.
multiphase flow A flow regime in which gas, oil, and water are all flowing.
multiple An arrangement for producing a well in which one wellbore
completion penetrates two or more petroleum-bearing reservoirs that lie one
over the other. The tubing strings are suspended side by side in
the production casing string. each a different length and each
packed off to prevent the commingling of different reservoir
fluids. Each reservoir is then produced through its own tubing
string.
natural gamma The natural gamma spectrometry (NGS) tool uses five-window
ray spectrometry spectroscopy to resolve total natural gamma ray spectra into the
log three most common components of naturally occurring
radiation – potassium, thorium, and uranium. NGS is a mark of
Schlumberger.
methane 80.0%
ethane 7.0%
propane 6.0%
isobutane 1.5%
butane 2.5%
pentane plus 3.0%
net hydrocarbon Hydrocarbon porosity feet after applying appropriate cutoffs. See
porosity feet hydrocarbon porosity feet.
net overburden That part of the overburden (geostatic load) which is supported
by grain to-grain contact of the rock. Net overburden usually is
less than (total) overburden because of two reasons:
(1) Pore pressure within the bed of interest supports the weight
of the column of formation fluid above it. If the pore pressure is
higher than normal, then it supports part of the lithostatic load.
net pay Within the limitations of given cutoffs for porosity, water
saturation, etc., it is that portion of reservoir rock which will
produce commercial quantities of hydrocarbon.
neutron activation All stable isotopes are capable of capturing thermal neutrons. In
well logging, neutron bombardment of a formation and the
subsequent capture of thermal neutrons causes excitation of
certain elements. Following the capture of a thermal neutron by a
stable isotope, the compound nucleus de-excites by the prompt
emission of one or more gamma-ray protons. If the resulting
product nucleus is a radioisotope its later decay to a stable state
can be detected and the energy level of emitted gamma rays is
characteristic of the specific element. The analysis of the
energies of the decay gamma rays is neutron activation analysis.
Neutron Lifetime NLL. The Neutron Lifetime logging technique employs a pulsed
Log neutron source which is periodically actuated to produce short
bursts of neutrons and is quiescent between bursts. During the
interval between bursts, the neutrons (as well as the various
types of radiation which always result from neutron interactions)
die away. Their average lifetime can be measured by measuring
the length of time required for the neutron population at a
particular instant to die away to half value. The radiation
intensity is measured in each of two preselected intervals and, by
intercomparing these measurements, determine thc rate of
neutron die-away. This measured rate has been shown both by
theory and experiment to be a measure of the thermal-neutron
capture cross section of the medium in which the neutrons are
captured. The thermal-neutron capture cross section per unit of
volume of formation material is referred to as Σ. It is related to
L, termed the lifetime of neutrons in a material, by the equation
noise logging Audio logging. A logging process for measuring the amplitude
of background noise in the wellbore environment, for specific
frequencies in the audible range, at selected stations in the hole.
Moving fluids, liquids or gases, generate characteristic sounds
having frequency spectra and amplitudes which can be
interpreted. The signal amplitude is proportional to the amount
of work performed by the fluids in motion and to the location of
the tool with respect to the level from which noise emanates. Can
be useful in ascertaining fluid-movements behind tubing or
casing.
normalize (1) To adjust two log curves (or any other pairs of data) for
environmental differences in order that one value may be
compared with others.
nuclear flow log A record of borehole-fluid flow rate. See radioactive tracer log
and fluid travel log. Compare flowmeter.
nuclear log A well log of some parameter in the well bore environment
derived from techniques utilizing nuclear reactions taking place
in the downhole logging tool and/or in the formation. Nuclear
logs usually are well logs obtained by using radiation sources in
the logging tool.
nuclear A free fluid log. A well log that is dependent on the alignment of
magnetism log the magnetic moment of protons (hydrogen nuclei) with an
impressed magnetic field. Protons tend to align themselves with
the magnetic field; and when it is removed, they precess in the
earth's magnetic field and gradually return to their original state.
Proton precession in free fluid produces a radio frequency signal.
The amplitude of this radio frequency signal is measured in the
nuclear magnetism log as the free fluid index. The rate of decay
of the precession signal depends on interactions with
neighboring atoms and hence on the nature of the molecule of
which the proton is a part. The signal from the borehole fluid
decays very rapidly when disseminated iron is present
(artificially introduced, or from steel worn from drill pipe and
bits). By slightly delaying the time of measuring, the hole signal
is minimized. Fluids bound to surfaces (as water adsorbed to
clays and silts) and dead oil do not give appreciable response.
Thus, the free fluid index indicates the free fluid (the hydrogen
in free-fluid hydrocarbons and water). Gas gives a low signal
because of its low hydrogen content.
offset well (1) A well drilled on the next location to the original well. The
distance from the first well to the offset well depends upon
spacing regulations and whether the original well produces oil or
gas.
offshore drilling Drilling for oil in an ocean or large lake. A drilling unit for
offshore operations may be a mobile floating vessel with a ship
or barge hull, a semisubmersible or submersible base, a self-
propelled or towed structure with jacking legs (jack-up drilling
rig), or a permanent structure used as a production platform
when drilling is completed. In general, wildcat wells are drilled
from mobile floating vessels (as semisubmersible rigs and drill
ships) or from jack-ups. while development wells are drilled
from platforms.
Ohm's law E = IR, where E is the potential in volts produced by the flow of
current (I) in amperes through a length of material exhibiting
resistance (R) in ohms.
oil-base mud An emulsified drilling mud in which the continuous phase is oil
and the discontinuous aqueous phase occupies less than ten
percent of the volume. Electrically nonconductive. Compare
invert oil emulsion, oil emulsion, and water-base mud.
oil emulsion Refers to a fluid mixture, usually drilling mud, in which the
continuous phase (external phase) is water and the discontinuous
phase (internal phase) is oil. Electrically conductive. Compare
oil-base mud and invert oil emulsion.
oil in place The amount of crude oil that is estimated to exist in a reservoir
and which has not been produced.
oil mud A drilling mud in which oil is the continuous phase.
oil patch A term referring broadly to the oil field and the activities of oil
and gas exploration and production.
oil shale The term applied to several kinds of organic and bituminous
shales, most of which consist of varying mixtures of organic
matter with marlstones, shale, and clay. The organic matter is
chiefly in the form of a mineraloid, called kerogen. Oil shales are
widely distributed throughout the world and become of
economic interest because of the large amounts of oil which can
be obtained from them. See kerogen.
oil wet Oleophilic. A condition in which oil wets the rock surfaces.
Often described by the angle of contact of an oil droplet on the
solid surface. The lower the angle (measured inside the oil
phase) the greater the adhesion and the greater the degree of
wettability for oil. If the nonwetting aqueous phase should be
forced to move, it would advance over the adhesive layer of the
oil.
overlay (1) To place one recorded curve over another. See also
normalize.
(2) A well log in which one curve has been drafted or recorded
over another and the relationship between the curves can be
observed. The position of one curve with respect to the other and
the amount of separation between the two curves provides
specific information with regard to rock properties, lithology,
mineralogy, and fluid saturations.
Any pore pressure greater than normal pore pressure can result
from a number of conditions, some of which are listed below:
pair production The conversion of a photon (gamma ray), which has more than
twice the rest mass energy of an electron (about 0.51 MeV per
electron), into an electron and a positron when the incident
photon passes through the strong electric field surrounding an
atomic nucleus and vanishes. This is an example of creation of
matter (the electron pair, one negative and one positive) from
energy (the photon) according to Einstein's law: E = mc2.
Relatively unimportant in density logging because of the high
threshold energy (greater than 1.02 MeV) required for the
incident gamma ray. Important in the detection of gamma rays in
the ionization chamber and Geiger-Mueller counter. One of the
three interactions of gamma rays with matter. Compare
photoelectric effect and Compton scattering.
parts per million ppm. Refers to concentration by weight for both solute and
solution. Parts per million (wt./wt.) differs from mg/liter
(wt./vol.) when the specific gravity of the solution differs from
that of pure water at standard conditions.
patch panel A surface panel which serves as a junction board between the
survey panels and various survey lines. The patch panel allows
easy access to all cable and ground line conductors. Conductor
functions can be interchanged or checked rapidly for continuity,
insulation, or quality of signal brought to the surface. Also,
provides easy access to output of surface panels.
photon log A well log of scattered gamma rays differing from a density log
in that the tool is not pressed against the borehole wall and hence
is especially sensitive to changes in hole diameter or density of
the fluid in the borehole. It has been used for determining
changes in the density of fluids in the well bore and location of
cement in the casing-formation annulus.
pick-up (1) On a well log, it is the recorded point on a curve at which the
curve begins to vary in response to variations in the wellbore
environment.
piercement dome A mass of material usually salt, that rises and penetrates rock
formations. See dome and salt dome.
Pipe Analysis Log PAL. A well log which combines magnetic-flux-leakage and
eddy-current measurements in such a manner as to locate defects
or flaws on the inner or outer wall of a casing, as well as to
provide a measurement which is indicative of the extent of such
defects.
pipe inspection See casing inspection log and Pipe Analysis Log.
log
(2) A sample. See sidewall core and core. See also core analysis.
plug and abandon P&A. To place a cement plug into a dry hole or noneconomic
well and abandon the well.
plugged back PBTD. A depth above the original total depth, to which the well
total depth bore has been cemented or plugged .
pluton In the strictest sense, a body of igneous rock which has formed
beneath the surface of the earth by consolidation from magma.
polar compound A compound (as water) with a molecule that behaves as a small
bar magnet with a positive charge on one end and a negative
charge on the other.
polar plot Plots on polar coordinate paper usually used to aid dipmeter
interpretation. Polar plots may take different forms; e.g.,
modified Schmidt plot, azimuth frequency diagrams, etc.
pore pressure Pressure exerted by fluids contained within the pores of rock.
See formation pressure.
porosity The ratio of void space to the bulk volume of rock containing
that void space. Porosity can be expressed as a fraction or
percentage of pore volume in a volume of rock.
(4) Total porosity is all void space in a rock and matrix whether
effective or noneffective. Total porosity includes that porosity in
isolated pores, adsorbed water on grain or particle surfaces, and
associated with clays. It does not include water of crystallization
wherein the water molecule becomes part of the crystal structure.
porosity exponent The exponent (m) of the porosity term in formation resistivity
factor-porosity relationship. (See Archie's formulas.) The
porosity exponent is influenced by those properties of the rigid
rock which influence the shape of the electrically conductive
solution occupying the pore volumes. Sometimes referred to as
cementation factor and shape factor.
porosity overlay A log of porosity values computed from different logs plotted on
top of each other.
pour point In the case of an oil (or any other liquid), it is a temperature 5°F
above that temperature at which the oil is solid. The lowest
temperature at which an oil will flow.
pressure The force per unit area that is exerted on a surface (as that
exerted against the inner wall of a container or piping system by
a fluid or that exerted on a wellhead by a column of gas in the
well). In the U.S., pressure is usually expressed in pounds per
square inch (psi).
pressure gauge An instrument for measuring fluid pressure that usually registers
the difference between atmospheric pressure and the pressure of
the fluid by indicating the effect of such pressures on a
measuring element (as a column of liquid, a Bourdon tube, a
weighted piston, a diaphragm, or other pressure-sensitive
device).
pressure transient A pressure transient test is a test during which the flow rate of a
testing and well is carefully controlled in order to obtain pressure transient
analysis data. Pressure transient analysis is the careful evaluation of
pressure variation as a function of time in order to determine
qualitatively those parameters which control fluid flow.
pressure, volume, An examination of reservoir fluids in a laboratory under various
and temperature pressures, volumes, and temperatures to determine the
(PVT) analysis characteristics and behavior of the fluid.
production log A well log run in a production or injection well. Small diameter
tools are used so that they can be lowered through tubing.
Services and devices include continuous flowmeter, packer
flowmeter, gradiomanometer, manometer, densimeter,
watercutmeter, thermometer, radioactive-tracer logs, temperature
logs, calipers, casing collar locator, fluid sampler, water entry
survey, etc.
protection casing A string of casing set to protect a section of the hole and to
permit drilling to continue to a greater depth. Intermediate
casing.
pulsed neutron Neutron Lifetime Log, Thermal Decay Time Log, or Thermal
capture log Multigate Decay Log.
pulsed neutron A term with broad application. Includes all logs made while
log using neutron bursts or pulses. This term quite often is used in
referring to neutron decay time logs such as the Thermal Decay
Time Log, Neutron Lifetime Log, and Thermal Multigate Decay
Log. A neutron generator, which emits neutrons in controlled
cyclic pulses, is the source of radiation. The term also applies to
other nuclear logs where cyclic neutron pulses must be used;
e.g., some induced spectral gamma-ray logs.
pulse-height An instrument used to indicate the number of occurrences of
analyzer counter-output pulses falling within each of one or more
specified amplitude (i.e., energy) ranges; used to obtain the
energy spectrum of gamma radiations. It is possible to separate
and count the pulses corresponding to one or more specific
energy ranges which serve as an indicator of some specific
radioactive isotope in the formation. See also spectral gamma-
ray logging, induced spectral gamma-ray logging, and channel.
rack pipe To stand pipe on the derrick floor when coming out of the hole.
radial flow The flow of fluids into a wellbore from the surrounding drainage
area. Also, could be descriptive of the flow from an injection
well to the surrounding area.
rate of ROP. The measured distance that the drill bit or other drilling
penetration tool penetrates subsurface formations in a unit length of time.
rathole (1) A hole in the rig floor 30 to 35 feet deep. Lined with casing
that projects above the floor into which the kelly is placed when
hoisting operations are in progress.
Rayleigh wave A surface acoustic wave (propagated along a flat surface; e.g., a
ground surface) in which the particle motion is elliptical and
retrograde with respect to the direction of propagation. Rayleigh
waves probably are induced by shear wave components and
result from differential velocities between the surface layer and
deeper layers within the medium.
reading A value taken from a recorded curve for a specific depth in the
well.
reciprocal sonde A sonde (and associated equipment) in which the current and
measure electrodes are interchanged according to a specific rule;
i.e., A electrode for M electrode and B electrode for N electrode
with no resulting change in logging measurements. An
unexplained exception may be the lateral curve in thick salt
sections.
reciprocator An electronic module designed for the reciprocation of
conductivity measurements into resistivity (e.g., induction
conductivity signals to resistivity).
recorder A device which records well-log data on film, chart, or tape. See
camera.
recovery (1) The amount of core recovered compared to the amount cut.
(2) The height of fluid in the drill pipe on a drill-stem test which
did not produce enough fluid to rise to tlme surface.
recovery factor The percentage of oil or gas in place in a reservoir that ultimately
can be withdrawn by primary and/or secondary techniques. The
percentage of the oil or gas in place (expressed in stock tank
barrels or in cubic feet) that will ultimately be recovered.
reference point (1) measure point. A mark or position on a tool to which all
measurements are related. A tool zero. See measure point.
reinjection The process of pumping produced water back into a porous and
permeable formation by means of an injection well.
relative bearing In dipmeter interpretation. Looking down the hole, it is the
clockwise azimuthal angle from the upper side of the tool to the
reference electrode number 1.
relief well A well drilled near and deflected into a well that is out of
control, making it possible to bring the wild well under control.
repeat section A log rerun over a short section of hole, generally 200 feet, to
enable comparison of similarity with the main survey to show
instrument stability and repeatability.
reservoir-drive The natural energy by which reservoir fluids are caused to flow
mechanism out of the reservoir rock and into a wellbore. Solution-gas drives
depend on the fact that, as the reservoir is produced, pressure is
reduced, allowing the gas to expand and provide the driving
energy. Water-drive reservoirs depend on water pressure to force
the hydrocarbons out of the reservoir and into the wellbore.
residual oil Oil remaining in the reservoir rock after the flushing or invasion
process, or at the end of a specific recovery process or escape
process.
resistance (1) The opposition to the flow of direct current. Equal to the
voltage drop (E) across the material in which the current is
flowing divided by the current (I) flowing through the material.
See Ohm's law and IR drop. Also, see impedance.
(1) Most resistivity logs derive their readings from 10 to 100 ft3
of material about the sonde. See electrical survey, laterolog, and
induction log.
returns The drilling fluid, cuttings, etc. which circulate up the hole to the
surface.
reversal An interval of characteristic distortion on a normal curve across
a resistive bed which has a thickness less than the AM spacing.
The distortion is in the form of a depression of resistivity
opposite the bed and two small symmetrical peaks located to
either side of the depression outside the bed boundaries. The two
peaks are separated by a distance equal to the AM spacing plus
the bed thickness. The resistivity value of the depression is lower
than the actual bed resistivity and, therefore, is deceptive.
rig floor The area immediately around the rotary table and extending to
each corner of the derrick or mast. The area immediately above
the substructure on which the drawworks, rotary table, etc. rest.
rig up To prepare equipment for an operation.
roentgen The basic unit of gamma ray exposure. One roentgen is the
exposure resulting from the generation of one electrostatic unit
(esu) of charge per 0.001293 g (1 cm3 at STP) of dry air. A fixed
exposure rate exists at every point in space surrounding a source
of fixed intensity.
roller-cone bit A drilling bit made of three cones, or cutters, that are mounted
on extremely rugged bearings. They are also called rock bits.
The surface of each cone is made up of rows of steel teeth or
rows of tungsten carbide inserts.
rope socket A metal component that clamps some of the cable armor strands
at the tool end of the cable. It seats inside of the cable connector
or fishing neck to support the weight of the tool. By the number
of armor strands used, it can be made the weak point or pull-out
point of the cable-to-tool mechanical connection. Sometimes
called cable clamp. See weak point.
rose diagram A polar plot or diagram in which radial distance indicates the
relative frequency of an observation at a certain azimuth. Used in
dipmeter interpretation. Compare azimuth frequency diagram.
rotary rig A derrick equipped with rotary drilling equipment; ie., drilling
engines, draw works, rotary table, mud pumps, and auxiliary
equipment. A modern drilling unit capable of drilling a borehole
with a bit attached to a rotating column of steel pipe.
rotary table The rotating steel platform on the derrick floor with an opening
in the center through which the drill pipe and casing must pass.
The table is rotated by power transmitted from the drilling
engines. In drilling, the kelly bushing fits into the master bushing
of the table. As the table rotates, the kelly is turned, rotating the
drill column and the drill bit.
roundtrip The action of pulling the drill pipe out of the hole and
subsequently running the pipe back into the hole to the same
depth. Roundtrips are made each time the drill bit is changed, for
example.
salt base mud (1) In well logging, an aqueous drilling mud which is more
saline than the formation water.
(2) Salts are quite often used in drilling fluids in order to reduce
formation damage. These salts usually are sodium chloride or
potassium chloride. In which case, to prevent formation damage,
the salinity of the salt base mud may equal or may exceed
formation water salinity.
salt dome A dome that is formed by the intrusion of salt into overlying
sediments. A piercement salt dome is one that has pushed up so
that it penetrates the overlying sediments, leaving them
truncated. Formations above the salt plug are usually arched so
that they dip in all directions away from the center of the dome.
See also diapir.
salt water A water that contains a large quantity of salt. Brine.
saltwater disposal The method and system for the disposal of salt water produced
with crude oil. A typical system comprises the following:
saltwater mud A drilling mud in which the water has appreciable amounts of
salt (usually sodium chloride) dissolved in it.
sample log A record of rock cuttings descriptions which is made as the
samples are brought to the surface by the drilling mud. This
record shows the characteristics of the rock strata which have
been penetrated by the bit.
sample taker See sidewall coring tool. Not to be confused with fluid sampler
or formation tester.
sand line (1) A wire line on a drilling rig often used to run or recover tools
inside the drill pipe.
scale (1) Depth scale. Depth scales vary with locale and requirements.
Most single logs are recorded on two different films at once, and
the two films may optionally be on different depth scales. One
film may be for correlation and the other tor detailed
interpretation, or one may be for normal use and the other for
quick-look interpretation by the overlay technique.
scattered gamma-
See density log.
ray log
Schmidt diagram A polar plot where the azimuth indicates dip or drift direction
and the distance from the origin indicates the dip or drift
magnitude. In the modified Schmidt diagram, used for plotting
low dips, zero dip is on the outside and dips become larger
toward the center of the diagram .
screen (1) A view screen on the camera or recorder. Part of the light
trace beamed from each galvanometer is reflected onto the
screen on a simulated grid. The curve responses of each log can
be observed on the screen during the survey operations.
sealed reservoir A reservoir of limited size. One from which the formation fluids
cannot escape because of a permeability barrier.
set casing To run and cement casing at a specific depth in a well bore.
shale base line (1) A line drawn through the deflections characteristic of shale
on an SP curve, which is used as the reference in making
measurements to determine the characteristics of permeable
rocks and their formation waters.
shale shaker A vibrating screen for sifting out rock cuttings from drilling
mud. Drilling mud returning from downhole, carrying rock chips
in suspension. Flows over and through the mesh of the shale
shaker leaving small fragments of rocks which can be collected
and examined for information about the formations being drilled.
shaped charge A high explosive with a lined cavity often used in gun
perforating operations. The jet produced by the detonation has a
very high velocity of about 30,000 feet/second. The jet can be
shaped by the controlled collapse designed into the shape of the
cavity and liner. The high energy of the jet is due to its high
velocity and the mass of the liner which becomes vaporized.
shut in To close the valves at the top of a well bore. To stop flow out of,
or injection into, a well bore.
shut-in Being in a static fluid flow state at the surface. All valves at the
wellhead having been closed.
shut-in bottom- The downhole pressure opposite a formation of interest when the
hole pressure valves at the surface (or downhole) are completely closed. The
pressure is transmitted by fluids which exist in a formation and
are in communication with the well bore.
shut-in pressure Pressure as recorded at the wellhead when the valve is closed
and the well is shut in.
shut-in-time The length of time elapsed since the fluid in the well bore was in
dynamic condition (as in production or injection).
sidetrack To drill around broken drill pipe or casing, which has become
lodged permanently in the hole, by the use of a whipstock or
turbodrill. See also directional drilling.
sidewall acoustic A well log of the acoustic properties of rock made by a contact
log pad device which presses the acoustic transducers against the
formation wall. The span of the acoustic receivers is 6.0 inches,
producing a transit time curve with much sharper interface
resolution which aids recognition of thin, interbedded strata and
finding of lowangle fractures. The Sidewall Acoustic Log
(SWA) is a Dresser Atlas trademark.
sidewall core A formation sample obtained with a wireline tool from which a
hollow cylindrical bullet is fired into the formation and retrieved
by cables attached to the bullet. See sidewall coring tool.
sidewall coring A percussion-type device (i.e., gun) which can be attached to the
tool well-logging cable, provided with a means of accurately depth-
positioning the tool (SP or gamma-ray curve), which is used to
obtain formation samples. Hollow. cylindrical core barrels (i.e.,
bullets) can be shot in sequence, from the gun into the formation.
After each core barrel has been fired into the formation wall, it is
pulled free and retrieved by wires connecting the barrel to the
gun. Core barrels are available for penetrating formations of
different hardness. The type of barrel and size of charge are
varied to optimize recovery in different formations.
sidewall
epithermal See sidewall neutron log.
neutron log
sidewall neutron An epithermal neutron log made with the neutron source and
(porosity) log detector mounted in a skid which is pressed against the borehole
wall and may cut into the mud cake to minimize borehole
effects.
sidewall pad A wall contact pad. A measuring device mounted on the end of
an arm which proiects from the sonde body during the survey.
Usually contains electrical measuring or detection equipment.
Eliminates much of the effects of the borehole by placing
measuring equipment in direct contact with the drilled face of the
formation. Compare skid.
signature log A display of the acoustic wave train in the amplitude-time mode
wherein the amplitudes of the different acoustic wave forms are
shown as a function of time. See full wave train. Compare
intensity modulated-time.
skin depth As originally defined for the case of a metallic wire carrying an
alternating current, the skin depth is the distance into the wire at
which the current density is reduced to 1/e (or 37%) of its value
at the surface of the wire.
The survey cable is now outside the drill pipe and extending
from the side-entry sub to the derrick floor. Mud circulation
through the drill pipe can be accomplished at any time during
operations.
(2) A solid mass of metal debris which results from the collapse
of the metallic liner during detonation of a shaped charge. The
slug follows the jet at about one-tenth the velocity of the jet.
Sometimes sufficient debris exists to partially plug perforations.
Society of
Petroleum SPE. Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME. See AIME.
Engineers
Society of SPWLA. A society of 3800 persons (as of 1984) in over 60
Professional Well countries which was organized to advance the science of
Log Analysts formation evaluation through well-logging techniques. It was
organized on January 29, 1959 at Tulsa, Oklahoma; incorporated
December 14, 1959 in the State of Oklahoma; and has its
business office in Houston, Texas. The SPWLA conducts annual
symposia and publishes "The Log Analyst."
soft rock Used to distinguish between mining (hard rock) discipline and
discipline petroleum (soft rock) discipline.
solution-gas drive A source of natural reservoir energy, in which the solution gas
coming out of the oil expands to force the oil into the wellbore.
solution gas-oil
See gas-oil ratio.
ratio
sonar caliper A logging tool used in solution caverns to determine cavern size.
Using the sonar principle, one or more rotating sound emitting
and receiving devices are used to record a 360° profile of the
cavern walls.
sonde error An unwanted portion of the total conductivity signal sent to the
surface by the downhole induction-logging instrument. The
sonde error is generated by imperfections in the coils in the
sonde. It is isolated and measured during the calibration
operation when the sonde is placed in a zero signal medium (air).
Once evaluated, it is cancelled during the survey operation. See
also diode error.
specific acoustic
See interval transit time.
time
specific gravity (1) Of solids or liquids, it is the ratio of the density of the
material at standard conditions of temperature and pressure to
the density of pure water under standard conditions.
spontaneous
See SP.
potential
SP reduction The ratio of PSP to SSP. Sometimes called alpha. See PSP and
factor SSP.
spud (1) With a well-logging tool, to raise the tool a short distance and
drop it repeatedly against minor obstructions in the hole in order
to reach greater depths in the borehole. An operation which
should be carried out only with care.
spurt loss That quantity of mud filtrate which invades porous and
permeable rock, immediately following bit penetration of the
rock, while the effective permeability to the infiltrating phase
controls the fluid loss. Once an appreciable mud cake has
formed, the permeability of the mud cake is the fluid-loss
controlling factor.
where
and aw and amf are the activities of the formation water and mud
filtrate, respectively. Because of the inverse relationship between
activity and equivalent resistivity in dilute solutions, this
equation is approximated by
where Rmfe and Rwe are the equivalent resistivities of mud filtrate
and formation water, respectively. For NaCI solutions which are
not too saline, Rmfe = Rmf and Rwe = Rw; for more concentrated
solutions, an activity correction should be made. Since the static
SP in a sandstone is equal to the potential causing current (I) to
flow in a mud column of resistance (Rm), shale of resistance
(Rsh), and a sandstone of resistance (Rss), then
standard cubic
One cubic foot of gas at 60°F and l 4.7 psia.
foot of gas
standard In statistics. The positive square root of the expected value of the
deviation square of the difference between a random variable and its mean.
With a normal distribution of data, 68.3% of the data fall within
one standard deviation from the mean.
standoff (1) The distance separating a sonde from the wall of the
borehole.
stand of pipe A section of drill pipe or tubing (one, two, or three – sometimes
four joints) unscrewed from the string as a unit and racked in the
derrick. The height of the derrick determines the number of
joints that can be unscrewed in one "stand of pipe."
static fluid level A misnomer; it means the level to which liquid rises in a well
when the well is shut in.
static mud Hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of the mud column.
column pressure
static spontaneous
Static SP. See SSP.
potential
static well The environmental conditions at any given level in the hole
conditions when the well is shut-in and crossflow does not exist.
statistical check A recording of the measured variable at a given depth in the hole
to determine the effect of statistical variations on the
measurement with time.
statistical
See statistical variations.
fluctuations
stock tank barrel STB. A 42-gallon barrel of crude oil at standard conditions of
temperature and pressure.
stratigraphic trap A type of reservoir capable of trapping oil or gas due to changes
in porosity and permeability or to the termination of the reservoir
bed.
stripper A line wiper for the removal of excess mud or oil from the
survey cable.
stripper well A well nearing depletion, producing a very small amount of oil.
structural trap A trap in reservoir rock which has been tormed by the
deformation (folding or faulting) of the rock layer. Anticlines,
salt domes, and faults of different kinds result in barriers which
form traps. See fault and fold.
stuck pipe Drill pipe, drill collars, casing, or tubing that has inadvertently
become lodged immovably in the hole. It may occur when
drilling is in progress, when casing is being run in the hole, or
when the drill pipe is being hoisted.
stuck point The depth in the hole at which the drill stem, tubing, or casing is
stuck.
suction line The line that carries a product out of a tank to the suction side of
the pumps.
suction pit The mud pit from which mud is picked up by the suction of the
mud pumps. Also called a sump pit.
surface casing The first string of casing set in a well after the conductor pipe,
varying in length from a few hundred to several thousand feet.
Some states require a minimum length to protect aquifiers
containing fresh water.
survey cable Logging cable, hoist cable. Contains one or more insulated
electrical conductors (often seven) enclosed in a tightly wrapped
sheath of steel wires (armor).
tadpole plot An arrow plot. A plot of dipmeter or drift results where the dip angle
is plotted versus depth as the displacement of a dot. A line segment
points from the dot in the direction of dip using the usual map
convention of north being at the top. Sometimes called a vector plot.
tail (1) Log tail. A short form appended to the well log, containing vital
information to identify the well and curve scales.
(2) Calibration tail. An appendage to the well log which contains all
recorded calibration information for the survey.
(3) Any other appended information or record (e.g., repeat section).
tar sand Native asphalt, solid and semi-solid bitumen, including tar-
impregnated rock or sands from which oil is recoverable by special
treatment.
TD Total depth.
TDS Total dissolved solids. Reported in either ppm or mg/liter. See parts
per million.
tectonic Of, pertaining to, or designating the rock structure and external
forms resulting from the deformation of the earth's crust.
telluric currents Earth currents. The term usually refers to natural earth currents
originating as a result of variations in the earth's magnetic field.
Sometimes the term is applied also to earth currents resulting from
artificial electric or magnetic fields.
temperature log A well log of temperatures recorded within the borehole, utilizing a
temperature-sensitive element exposed to wellbore fluid. The
temperature survey is often used to locate permeable gas producing
zones in empty holes, and to locate producing or injection intervals,
acid treatment in tervals, and casing leaks, crossflows, etc. in cased
holes. The differential temperature survey, recorded with either one
or two temperature sensors, records the rate of change in temperature
with respect to depth. It is very sensitive to small changes in
temperature resulting from small thermal events.
tertiary recovery Recovery methods which increase ultimate oil production beyond
that achievable with primary and secondary methods. These methods
are usually employed in the latter stages of conventional secondary
flooding applications, but may be implemented early in the
secondary application or in combination with the secondary method.
These oil recovery methods enhance the production of oil by
increasing the proportion of the reservoir affected, reducing the
amount of residual oil in the swept zones and reducing the viscosity
of thick oils.
The tertiary methods usually are divided into three broad groups:
thermal, miscible and chemical. See also primary and secondary
recovery.
test film A short film documenting the calibration procedure. See calibration
tail.
test loop Calibration loop. A device used to calibrate induction logging tools.
A test loop is an artificial ground loop which consists of a
continuous loop (i.e., ring) of electrically conductive material
containing a series connected precision resistor. The purpose of the
loop is to provide a precise, calibrated, repeatable signal in the
induction receiver coils when it is placed over the measure point of
the activated tool in a zero signal medium (i.e., air). See induction
log.
test set A volt-ohmmeter used by all logging crews for troubleshooting and
checking insulation and continuity of the conductors in the survey
cable and for making simple electrical checks on other equipment.
thermal decay time The time for the neutron population to fall to 1/e (37%) of its
original value. When the macroscopic capture cross section, Σ, is in
capture units (1 c.u. = 10–3 cm–1) and τ is in microseconds, Σ and τ
are related by Σ = 4,550/τ.
Thermal (Neutron) TDT. The Thermal Decay Time Log is a record of the rate of capture
Decay Time Log of thermal neutrons in a portion of formation after it is bombarded
with a burst of 14-MeV neutrons. An electronic neutron generator in
the tool produces pulses of neutrons which spread into the borehole
and formation.
The TDT-K system utilizes two detectors and two variable time
gates (plus a background gate) to sample the capture gamma
radiation decay following the neutron burst. The width and positions
of the time gates. as well as the neutron burst width and burst
repetition rate, are varied in response to signals that are related to Σ
(or more precisely, related to the formation decay rate, τ, where
τ = 4550/Σ).
The TDT-M system utilizes sixteen time gates and one of four
possible neutron burst widths and burst repetition rates. Counts from
the sixteen gates are combined to form two "sum" gates (plus a
background gate) from which Σ is computed. As in the TDT-K
system, the combination of gates used to form the "sum" gates, as
well as the burst width and repetition rate, are selected according to
Σ (or τ) of the formation.
thermal expansion The volumetric change in a unit volume of material when the
temperature is increased. Thermal expansion and thermal contraction
have different bases and are not numerically equal.
Thermal Multigate TMD. A record of the macroscopic thermal neutron cross sections of
Decay Log the formation (ΣF) and the borehole (ΣB).
B
thermal neutron A neutron which has the kinetic energy of about 0.025 eV. The
thermal neutron is in thermal equilibrium with the substance in
which it exists and will neither gain nor lose energy statistically until
it is captured by a neutron absorber. See neutron and capture cross
section. Compare epithermal neutron.
thief zone Thief formation. A part of a formation which takes drilling mud after
it has been penetrated by the borehole. This loss of mud into the
formation constitutes lost returns and could result in lost circulation.
thixotropy The property exhibited by various gels which allows them to become
fluid when agitated, and of setting again to a gel when allowed to
stand. Drilling muds are often thixotropic.
tight hole (1) A well about which information is restricted and passed only to
those authorized, for security and competitive reasons.
time constant (1) The time in seconds for a measuring instrument to register a 63%
change from a former level of response toward a new level of
response.
(2) In nuclear logging, because of the random nature of nuclear
emissions, the detector output is averaged over a selected time
interval in order to record the representative radiation level of the
environment. Instrument response will thus adjust gradually to
environmental changes depending on the length of the averaging
time (i.e., time constant). See also lag.
time-since- The length of time elapsed after circulation has ceased until the
circulation logging tool reaches total depth in the well. Maximum temperature
in the well is presumed to be registered on the maximum-reading
thermometer at the deepest depth.
tool Downhole tool or downhole instrument package. A complete
subsurface service device. A number of tools can be run
simultaneously as a combination service. The combination of tools
will also be a tool. When sonde and cartridge designations are used,
the term tool includes the combined sonde and cartridge.
Toolpusher A specially designed system for use in highly deviated and bad holes
which will mechanically position a stack of conventional-type
logging devices opposite the zones or formations of interest. The
Toolpusher uses drill pipe to push the logging devices to the desired
depths in the well.
Once the tools have been assembled, they are lowered into the well
on drill pipe until the top of the zone of interest is reached. At this
point, a side entry sub is made up into the drill string through which
the wireline is inserted and lowered to the latch assembly at the top
of the tool stack. Its positive connection is ensured by applying
tension to the wireline. The side entry sub is sealed. the hook and
rotary table locked, (to minimize pipe rotation) and the drill string
lowered until the tools are positioned at the bottom of the zone of
interest. The wireline can be pumped down if necessary. Once in
logging position. the compensated density tool is positioned with the
rotary table such that an extendable pad on the tool contacts the high
or low side of the hole.
The zone of interest is logged as the pipe is pulled out of the hole in
single or multiple joints. Log data is multiplexed through a single
conductor to the surface. When the zone of interest has been logged,
tension is removed from the wireline releasing it from the latch. The
wireline is recovered leaving the drilling crew a conventional trip out
of the hole.
The logging devices available for use with the Toolpusher are: dual
induction laterolog, compensated density, gamma ray, compensated
neutron, and directional survey package. The Toolpusher is a
Gearhart Industries trademark.
torpedo A quick-connecting and quick-disconnecting device, mounted near
the head end of the survey cable. which provides strength and the
means to manually connect electrical survey conductors to the bridle
and head.
tortuosity The crookedness of the pore pattern. The ratio of the distance
between two points by way of the connected pores to the straight-
line distance.
total depth TD. (1) The total depth reached by drilling tools.
(2) The total depth in the well reached by a specific logging tool.
total dissolved TDS. The total dissolved mineral matter in water (e.g., formation
solids water). Usually measured in mg/liter and often reported in parts per
million, sometimes in grains per gallon. May vary from a few
hundred ppm to 300,000 ppm in oil field brines. Has been reported
as high as 642,798 ppm (sp. gr. 1.458) in brine from the Salina
dolomite (Silurian) in Michigan. Sea water usually has about
35,000 ppm. See also water analysis.
total porosity The total pore volume occupied by fluid in a rock. Includes isolated
nonconnecting pores and volume occupied by adsorbed, immobile
fluid. See porosity. Compare effective porosity.
tracer log Tracer survey. A well log used for the purpose of following,
locating, or monitoring the behavior of a traceable material (e.g.,
radioactive isotope, boron, etc.). See also radioactive-tracer log.
track (1) Well log track on the API log grid. Holding the well log
vertically so that the top of the well appears at the top of the log,
Track = Log track on the left side of the log. Left of the depth
1 column.
Track = Log track to the immediate right of the depth column
2 and in the middle of the log.
Track = Log track on the far right side of the log.
3
transducer Any device or element which converts an input signal into an output
signal of a different form. For example, an electrical device which
receives and transforms electrical energy into another form, such as
magnetostrictive material and winding used in acoustic transmitters
and receivers.
transition profile A realistic profile in which the distribution of fluids in the invaded
section beyond the flushed zone varies with increasing distance from
the borehole. Compare step profile.
transition zone A zone of transitional saturations between water and gas, water and
oil, or gas and oil. The transitional zone between oil and water in a
water wet rock, for example, will be that length of formation where
water will be at its lowest saturation at the top and oil will be at its
lowest saturation at the bottom. In this example, virtually l00% oil
wouldbe produced at the top of the transition zone, and virtually
l00% water would be produced at the bottom.
transit-time TTI. Sonic interval transit time, t, is integrated over depth to yield
integration total travel time. Tic-marks are placed on the acoustic log at depth
intervals corresponding to total travel time increments of 1000 µs, or
1 ms each. These tic-marks may be used to determine acoustic travel
time.
transmutation The process which results in the change ot an isotope of one element
into an isotope of a different element by the emission of energy
during spontaneous radioactive decay or the absorption of energy
during activation.
traveling block The large, heavy-duty block hanging in the mast or derrick and to
which the hook is attached. The traveling block supports the drill
column and "travels" up and down as it hoists the pipe out of the
hole and lowers it in. The traveling block may contain from three to
six sheaves depending upon the loads to be handled and the
mechanical advantage necessary. The cable from the hoisting drum
on the drawworks runs to the derrick's crown block and down to the
traveling block's sheaves.
travel time Acoustic travel time over a specific distance. For example, travel
time may refer to interval transit time or to integrated transit time.
true resistivity The resistivity of fluid-filled rock where the fluid distributions and
saturations are representative of those in the uninvaded, undisturbed
part of the rock
true vertical depth TVD. The vertical distance between a specific location in a borehole
and a horizontal plane passing through the depth datum. It is
determined from directional surveys.
true vertical depth A log computed from well logs obtained in deviated holes, in which
log measured depths have been converted to true vertical depths.
trumpet log A microlaterolog, in which the bucking electrodes are concentric
about the current electrode so that the current flow is concentrated in
a tube shape which gradually flares out.
tubing A small-diameter pipe that is run into a well to serve as a conduit for
the passage of oil and gas to the surface.
tubing head A flanged fitting that supports the tubing string, seals off pressure
between the casing and the outside of the tubing, and provides a
connection that supports the Christmas tree.
tubing pressure The pressure inside the tubing in a well measured at the wellhead.
turbidity current A highly turbid, sediment-rich. dense current which moves rapidly
along the bottom of standing water until it loses its energy.
turbodrill A drilling tool that rotates a bit attached to it by the action of the
drilling mud on the turbine blades built into the tool. When a
turbodrill is used, rotary motion is imparted only at the bit; thus it is
unnecessary to rotate the drill stem. Although straight holes can be
drilled with the tool, it is used most often in directional drilling.
turbulent flow The high-velocity flow of fluids in which the fluid elements are
heterogeneously mixed and confused, and local velocities and
pressures fluctuate irregularly. Compare laminar flow.
turnkey contract A drilling contract which calls for the payment of a stipulated
amount to the drilling contractor on completion of the well. In a
turnkey contract, the contractor furnishes all material and labor and
controls the entire drilling operation. independent of supervision by
the operator.
ultra-long-spaced ULSEL. A well log recorded with the use of a modified long
electric log normal electrode configuration mounted on a 5,000-foot bridle.
The AM spacing can be made 75, 150, 600, or 1,000 feet.
Differences between the measured resistivities and anticipated
resistivities calculated from conventional resistivity logs indicate
nearby resistivity anomalies. Used to define the distance to a salt
dome flank. May have important application in locating salt
overhangs or casing in nearby well bores.
U.S. Geological USGS. The U.S. Geological Survey, an arm of the U.S.
Survey Department of the Interior, is the principal federal agency
concerned with preparing accurate maps of the physical features
of the country and providing scientific information essential to
the development of the nation's land, mineral, and water
resources. It is recognized as one of the world's foremost
research organizations in the earth sciences.
1. It makes maps:
o Topographic maps, showing accurately the shape
of the land surface and the location of natural and
man made features – hills, valleys, streams, lakes,
highways, trails, buildings, etc.
o Hydrologic maps, showing the availability and
quality of water.
o Geologic maps, showing the types, ages, and
configurations of rock formations that lie at and
beneath the earth's surface.
o A variety of outline maps, mineral-resource maps,
geophysical maps, state base maps, and many
others.
2. It studies the earth's processes that may be hazardous to
man and his works, such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and floods, in an attempt to understand how
these processes operate, and hence how their destructive
effects may be reduced or prevented.
3. It develops new prospecting techniques that can be used
by industry in its continuing search for mineral resources.
4. It studies the natural processes that form deposits of
valuable minerals. because knowing why certain kinds of
mineral resources are formed in certain locations or in
certain kinds of rocks may provide clues that will help to
find new mineral resources now hidden beneath the
earth's surface.
5. It takes a continuing inventory of the nation's water
resources and studies areas that have special water
problems.
6. It classifies federally owned lands for mineral and water
power potential.
7. It does fundamental research in topography, geology,
hydrology, geochemistry, geophysics, and related
sciences.
8. It publishes maps and reports to make the results of these
investigations available to the public.
vapor pressure The pressure at which a liquid and its vapor are in equilibrium at
a given temperature.
variable density An acoustic log in which the acoustic wave train is recorded in
log the variable photographic density or intensity modulated-time
mode. See illustration at wave train display.
vertical resolution The capability to resolve thin beds. Often expressed as the
minimum thickness of formation that can be distinguished by a
tool under operating conditions.
vertical seismic VSP. A collection of seismic traces made from one-, two-, or
profile three-dimensional geophones mounted in the same downhole
tool which is anchored to the borehole wall. These traces are
taken at sequential depths in a well and record the energy over a
period of several seconds received from one or more sources
located at the surface. The resulting profile displays the direct,
reflected, refracted, and diffracted waves in both compressional
and shear modes from all interfaces in the sedimentary column.
It is the most accurate correlation tool for relating the well logs
and lithologic logs to the field seismograms.
(1) Marsh funnel seconds. The time it takes for 1000 cm3 of
drilling mud to flow through the funnel. The longer the time in
seconds, the more viscous is the mud.
washover Pertaining to part of the fishing operation to free stuck drill pipe
or tubing.
wash over To release pipe that is stuck in the hole by running washover
pipe. The washover pipe must have an outside diameter small
enough to fit into the borehole but an inside diameter large
enough to fit over the outside diameter of the stuck pipe. A
rotary shoe, which cuts away the formation, mud, or whatever is
sticking the pipe, is made up on the bottom joint of the washover
pipe, and the assembly is lowered into the hole. Rotation of the
assembly frees the stuck pipe. Several washovers may have to be
made if the stuck portion is very long.
water analysis (1) A chemical analysis of water in which the quantity of ions in
solution is determined for the common cations and anions (e.g.,
Na+, K+, Ca++, Mg++, S04--, Cl-, CO3--, HCO3-). The character of
the solution can be described in terms of the ion concentrations
in parts per million, milligrams per liter, or its reaction value.
The reaction value relates the weight of each ion to its valence
and atomic (or radical) weight. For example,
The reaction values of positive and negative ions are exactly
equal when all ions have been considered.
water-base mud A drilling mud in which the continuous phase is water. Compare
oil-base mud.
water block A reduction in the relative permeability to oil or gas due to the
increase in water saturation near the borehole caused by the
invasion of water from a water-base mud.
water cut The volume fraction of water in the total volume of liquid
produced from a well.
water loss A mud property. The measure of filtrate loss in a water base
(water external phase) drilling mud.
water saturation The fraction or percentage of the pore volume of a rock occupied
by water. The occupation may take different forms; i.e.,
funicular, insular, or pendular saturation See saturation.
water table The undistorted upper surface of the saturated zone. The pressure
everywhere on this surface is at atmospheric pressure.
water wet hydrophilic. A solid surface is water wet when the adhesive
attraction of water molecules for the solid substance is greater
than the attraction between water molecules. The angle of
contact of a water droplet on a water-wet solid surface will be
less than 90° (measured inside the water phase). A mobile
nonwetting oil phase would advance over the adhesive layer of
water.
wavelength The distance between two points having the same phase in two
consecutive cycles of a periodic wave, along a line in the
direction of propagation.
Wavelets are generated for each energy mode and the composite
particle motion resulting from the compressional, shear, fluid,
and boundary waves becomes the wave train with characteristics
of the transmitting source, coupling, and the transmission media.
See acoustic wave and wave train display, also Stoneley wave
and tube wave.
wave train display The acoustic wave train can be displayed in different modes on
some acoustic well logs. For example:
weight indicator A surface panel on which the total weight or tension on the cable
is metered and can be monitored during the survey.
well bore A borehole. The bore of a well, whether cased or uncased. Often
modernized to one word, wellbore, particularly when the term is
used as an adjective.
wellbore storage Afterflow or afterinjection, continuing for a short time after the
effect well bore is shut in at the surface, in the form of wellbore
loading or unloading due to the compressibility of fluids inside
the well bore. The well bore has storage capacity equal to the
volume within the well bore in direct communication with the
porous and permeable formation. When the well bore is shut in
at the wellhead, fluid will continue to flow into or out of the well
bore until pressure is equalized between the well bore and
formation. No wellbore storage effect can occur if the well bore
is shut in at the bottom of the well at the face of the formation.
well completion The activities and methods necessary to prepare a well for the
production of oil and gas; the method by which a flow line for
hydrocarbons is established between the reservoir and the
surface. The method of well completion used by the operator
depends on the individual characteristics of the producing
formation of formations. These techniques include open-hole
completions. conventional perforated completions, sand-
exclusion conmpletions, tubingless comple tions, multiple
completions, and miniaturized completions.
well log wireline log, borehole log. The product of a survey operation,
also called a survey, consisting of one or more curves. Provides a
permanent record of one or more physical measurements as a
function of depth in a well bore.
(2) Other types of well logs are made of data collected at the
surface; examples are core logs, drilling-time logs, mud sample
logs, hydrocarbon well logs, etc.
well spacing The regulation of the number and location of wells over a
reservoir as a conservation measure.
wild well A well which has blown out of control and from which oil,
water, or gas is escaping with great force. Also called a gusher.
yield point The maximum stress that a solid can withstand without
undergoing permanent deformation either by plastic flow or by
rupture.
Z/A The ratio of atomic number (Z) to atomic weight (A). Nuclei of
the same Z but different A are different forms of the same
element and are called isotopes.
zonal isolation Refers to the state or quality with which the fluids in one
permeable zone can be kept separate from those fluids of
another. Zonal isolation is created and maintained in the well
bore by cementing the production string in place and by
appropriate use of casing plugs and packers. Beyond the well
bore radius and inside the formations, zonal isolation is a
function of the existance of permeable barriers such as
impermeable shale members, dense sediments, or cap rock. The
quality of zonal isolation is directly related to the quality of the
cement and bonding which is found between casing, cement
sheath, and formation; and to the degree of or lack of
permeability of the members which can serve as permeability
barriers.
zone A rock stratum which is singled out for reference because of its
different character or fluid content from other strata.
zone of aeration (1) A subsurface zone containing water under pressure less than
that of the atmosphere, including water held by capillarity; and
containing air or gases generally at atmospheric pressure.
Extends from the ground surface to the water table.
(2) Also refers to zones shallow enough that they are oxidizing,
since they are replenished by rain water.