What is Reading

"Reading" is the process of looking at a series of written symbols and getting meaning from
them. When we read, we use our eyes to receive written symbols (letters, punctuation marks
and spaces) and we use our brain to convert them into words, sentences and paragraphs
that communicate something to us.

Reading can be silent (in our head) or aloud (so that other people can hear).

Reading is a receptive skill - through it we receiveinformation. But the complex process of

reading also requires the skill of speaking, so that we can pronounce the words that we read.
In this sense, reading is also a productive skill in that we are both receiving information and
transmitting it (even if only to ourselves).

Reading is the third of the four language skills, which are:

1. Listening

2. Speaking

3. Reading

4. Writing

In our own language, reading is usually the third language skill that we learn.

Do we need to read in order to speak English? The short answer is no. Some native speakers
cannot read or write but they speak English fluently. On the other hand, reading is something
that you can do on your own and that greatly broadens your vocabulary, thus helping you in
speaking (and in listening and writing). Reading is therefore a highly valuable skill and
activity, and it is recommended that English learners try to read as much as possible in
English.

Visualize & Develop Ideas. Understand & Retain Concepts.

Create webs, idea maps, mind maps, concept maps, graphic organizers, process flows, and other
diagrams for thinking, organizing and writing. Use these proven visual thinking and learning techniques to
brainstorm or brainwrite ideas, explore and explain relationships, and integrate new knowledge with what
you already know. Inspiration® encourages deeper, more critical thinking and that improves creativity,
comprehension and retention.
 Brainstorm or brainwrite, capturing ideas quickly with RapidFire® tool.
 Represent information and trigger memory with symbols and images. Choose from Inspiration®’s
Symbol libraries with 1+ million images, searchable by keyword, or import your own.
 Jumpstart the writing process by adding notes to symbols.
 Highlight key concepts and group information with different text and link colors and font styles.

In Diagram View:
 Add symbols and images in multiple ways. Point and click to place them, use the Create tool, or
drag and drop from the Symbol palette. Choose the method that works best for you and your project.
 Show relationships between ideas with links.
 Explain the relationship between ideas with linking phrases – choose from a list of common
phrases or write in your own.
 Organize ideas effortlessly using the Arrange tool or to create various tree charts and webs.

In Map View:
 Expand your central idea by adding new topic and subtopic branches.
 Rearrange and connect ideas easily by dragging branches into place.
 Use the Relationship tool to show connections among branches and topics.
 Branches and their sub-branches automatically maintain the same color to visually keep related
thoughts together.
Plan & Organize Written Work
Organize ideas and think through projects and assignments more effectively using Inspiration’s Outline
View. Structure your work for planning and writing. Learn how to brainstorm and create essay outlines to
support the writing process. Gather and keep track of research information and develop a logical flow for
written and oral communication. With Outline View, you can quickly develop main and supporting ideas
and add detail helping you write to a purpose. Outlining, paired with the integrated visual views, lets you
move seamlessly between visual and written expressions of your thinking to expand and refine ideas and
produce quality work.

In Outline View:
 Transform diagrams and mind maps to outlines with one click.
 Continue the writing process by adding topics, subtopics and notes text. Diagram View and Map
View update automatically.
 Organize ideas and information with power outlining tools:
o Rearrange topics simply by dragging. Subtopics and notes move automatically.
o Change idea hierarchy, split or combine topics, transform lists to topics and subtopics, and
demote and promote groups of subtopics to fine tune your work.
 Manage your outline structure and order by hiding or showing subtopics and notes.
 Keep visual connections intact. See associated symbols and linking phrases from Diagram View in
Outline View.
 Meet word and page count requirements with Word Count.

Improve Communication & Build Presentations

Improve communication and share what you’ve learned with Inspiration’s Presentation Manager. Use the
content you’ve developed in Diagram, Map and Outline Views and expand your work into more thoughtful
and compelling presentations and final projects. Inspiration provides all the tools to create organized,
polished, formal presentations that convey ideas clearly and demonstrate your understanding and
knowledge. Use the FREE Inspiration Presenter to show your presentation easily on any Macintosh® or
Windows® computer.

 Develop ideas from content and snapshot graphics automatically generated from your Diagram,
Map and Outline Views.
 Add, duplicate, reorder and delete slides and talking points to expand your presentation and
communicate your message effectively.
 Use ready-made professional background themes to create visually appealing presentations.
 Change background colors and font styles or add graphic backgrounds to your own custom theme

styles.
 Choose from different slide layouts to best communicate your key points and visual content.
 Communicate visually by adding graphics from your computer and the internet. Create your own
snapshots from your diagram or mind map.
 Add impact to your talking points by including videos and sounds that play directly from your
presentation.
 Clarify your points of view and support your message by adding hyperlinks and speaker notes.
 Use slide transitions and reveal talking points individually to engage your audience.
 Print your slides in various formats (with or without speaker notes) for handouts including 3x5 and
4x6 cards.
 Export easily to PDF or Microsoft® Power Point for even more flexibility in sharing your work.
FREE Inspiration® Presenter, available on the Inspiration® 9 Install CD and downloadable online:
 Play your presentation directly from Inspiration®9 (or from any Windows® or Macintosh® computer.
 Present using single screen or take advantage of speaker monitor support that shows speaker
notes and other presenter information.
 Run your presentation automatically with the Auto-Play option.

Use Inspiration for All of Your School Projects

Enhance & Improve Your Work
 Build vocabulary and accurately express your intended message with the Word Guide, an
integrated dictionary and thesaurus.
 Include videos and record and play sound in your diagrams, outlines and presentations to add
multimedia impact.
 Add hyperlinks to web pages, files and other Inspiration® documents to gather research or
organize larger team projects.
 Capture the most important details in literary and informational text using Inspiration as a note
taking tool.
Share Your Work
 Print your work from Diagram, Map and Outline Views and from the Presentation Manager.
 Transfer your work to a word processor to streamline and support project completion.
 Save documents as PDFs.
 Use the Site Skeleton® export to transform diagrams into HTML web sites.
 Export diagrams and mind maps as .jpg, .gif, .png, .bmp or .wmf files to insert in other materials.
Use Inspiration to its Full Potential
 Choose from over 100 graphic organizer templates to provide guidelines and help you start projects
quickly. Use them across the curriculum, templates are available for English Language Arts, Science,
Social Studies and Thinking and Planning.
 On-demand Training Videos show you how to use Inspiration®’s most commonly used tools.
 A built-in help system provides assistance when you have questions about how to use Inspiration®
9.
 Examples give you ideas on how Inspiration can be used across the curriculum.

Brainstorming is supposed to be about harnessing the power of thinking outside the box to solve
that impossible problem. It’s the magic that helps you find amazing, unique ideas.

It’s not magic, of course, but when you’re desperate—possibly with writers block—magic sounds good.
Brainstorming techniques are what you turn to when you’re stuck and don’t know what to do next.

They can be great tools because anyone—group or single person—can use them.

4 Reasons You Should Brainstorm If You Want To Become A Better Writer

But why go through the hassle of using brainstorming techniques at all? There are generally four reasons
that people turn to brainstorming:

1. You need ideas.

2. You have a problem to solve.

3. You are looking to improve creative thinking.

4. You want your team to work together better.

The first two reasons get the lion’s share of the attention, but the last two, which lean toward extra-
curricular exercises, are just as important. If you want to be ready during go-time for the first two, you’d
better take a few practice swings at it using the last two.

Whether it’s just you or you’re a part of a team, make brainstorming and creative challenges a regular
habit.

Brainstorming as a group.

First, a caveat. It’s no secret that I’m wary of group brainstorming. That particular method of getting ideas
has become a standard solution for teams trying to solve problems.

While it can sometimes create more problems than it solves by encouraging social loafing and rewarding
some personalities over others, there are times when your team has to get together and come up with
ideas. Brainstorming techniques are also good for helping teams learn to work together.

Brainstorming on your own.

Brainstorming isn’t reserved for groups of people, though that’s how most of us think of it. There are
times when you’re on your own and need to generate ideas and solve problems all the same.

As an artist and writer with deadlines, I’m most familiar with brainstorming on my own. In fact, I did a little
solo brainstorming recently, for this very topic.

While trying to come up with an idea for my own blog post, I realized that it might be helpful to readers if I
told them how I came up with ideas and got past creative blocks in my own work—14 ideas in all.

As I looked through those 14 brainstorming techniques, I began to see three basic approaches to
brainstorming that I thought would be useful to you.
4 Brainstorming Techniques That Will Help You Write Creative Content

Brainstorming techniques can take a few basic approaches. Once you understand how they work, you can
mix and match them for the best results.

1. Use associative brainstorming techniques to get unstuck. Association is a powerful way to get past
typical thinking, and to get out of a rut. We generally come up with ideas that are obvious at first, and
associative brainstorming is a good way to artificially force yourself past that point instead of hours of work.

It’s a kind of shortcut that taps into the subconscious, the associations you already know but don’t allow
yourself to think.

Associative brainstorming works best for copy writers, creativity exercises, or when you’re stuck in a
creative project and don’t know what content to create next.

This can also be fun during your regular team building exercises.

Word storm.

A word storm is where you write down the words that come to mind when you see another word.

You might start with a word or two based on your project, and begin writing down any word that comes to
mind. These words are then grouped together according to how they are related to each other.

You’ll quickly create words that are associated or related, according to categories.

There is a Word Storm website that can help you get started with word storm techniques.

Word association.

Word associations are the same as a word storm, except that you don’t group according to how the words
are related to each other. It works better as a technique to get creativity flowing when you don’t want to
bother with over-thinking how words are related.

Start with a word or two, and write down the first words that come to mind. Don’t over-think the process;
you should be surprised at the words that pop into your head, particularly as you get warmed up.

The goal is to find those “hidden” words that people associate with a topic that you don’t immediately think
of.

Mind mapping.
Using a mind map is a way to visually organize data and information. Mind mapping has proven popular,
particularly if you are better able to understand data visually instead of as lists or outlines.

Organized around a central idea, a mind map works like the branch of a tree. Ideas and then sub ideas
that are associated with the main idea branch off from the central idea.

Word banks.

Word banks are collections of words based on the kind of word you need based on a specific topic or
theme.

This kind of brainstorming technique works well for copywriters who want to find a variety of words that suit
a specific project without repeating themselves. You can also use it to build a bank of words to keep on
hand when writing your headlines.

This is an example of power words we pulled together in a word bank to help you write more emotional
headlines.

Using a word storm might be one way to start a collection of words for your word bank, though the two
techniques are not the same.

Visual association.

While visual associations aren’t a typical tool for content marketers, they can be useful both in planning
beforehand as well as after visual content has been created.

Using visual association after a project is completed would make sure that what you’ve created doesn’t
raise negative associations in your audience. It is best done by people who weren’t on the team so that
their associations are honest and not tainted by being too familiar with the project.

Visual association is much like word association.

Think of a Rorschach test, in which you jot down whatever words or thoughts come to mind when you see
an image. The control for this method is what images you will use.

I actually have a book where I collect images from magazines and other sources. You might do the same,
or use a different image source.

2. Use measurable brainstorming to choose the best solution.

In some situations, you need to make decisions that are based on more than random associations. This is
where problem solving brainstorming steps in, when you need something concrete.

Pros and cons.

You probably already use an on-the-fly method of pros and cons to make decisions in life. Writing down
pros and cons in a structured manner with a few rules can make this a powerful tool.

Write down what you are trying to choose between. Then, list the pros and cons to tally up a total. The
option with the most pros is the route to go. You have to be careful to not cheat, though, and purposefully
stack the list the way you want it to go.

Let’s look at an example of cheating. Say that Jim, Todd, and Erica make up Team B. Cheating would look
like this:

Con: Team A will be upset.

Pro: Jim will be happy.
Pro: Todd will be happy.
Pro: Erica will be happy.
Three pros, one con, the pros have it!

Pros and cons help you cut through the gray area where you either aren’t sure what to do, or don’t want to
admit what you know you should do. When done right, the numbers are convincing.

Pros and cons (weighted).

There are times when some pros and cons outweigh others. In this case, you would need to weight the list
because each item is not equally important. To do this, you’d need to start by listing your top goals, the
things most important to you.

Instead of each list item being counted as one, the more important items in your list of goals would have a
higher weight.

Pros and cons seem simple, but we have a tendency to cheat. Often, there is a decision we want to be the
right one and we try to validate it by loading the pros and cons either way.

3. Take a new view to gain an entirely new perspective.

While associative brainstorming helps you find entirely new paths, and measurable brainstorming gives
you confidence to make decisions, finding a new view works when you’re on the right track but just not
able to nail it down.

It’s that feeling of being so close, but not quite there.

Ask, “What if…”

By simply asking, “What if?”, you can turn everything on its head.

Many fiction writers advocate asking yourself “what if” not only when you’re stuck, but even when the
writing is going well. Wondering what might happen if something changed, and using your brainstorming
prowess to run with it, is a good way to get a different view on the project or problem.

Think prepositionally.

My 7th grade English teacher did me a great service when she helped us understand prepositional
phrases by visualizing a box.

Prepositional phrases generally tell where something was, and so she said that any time you saw a phrase
in a sentence that could be used in relation to a box, you probably were dealing with a prepositional
phrase. For example: in the box, under the box, over the box, beside the box, and so on.

When it comes to brainstorming, it’s not about writing prepositional phrases, but it’s about imagining the
problem or project you are working on to be like that box. What if you took a swing at it from the other
side? From under it? From ahead of it?

Now you start challenging yourself to think of something from a different perspective, from a different time
(past or present) and all sorts of directions.

Ask questions.

Oddly, most of us, particularly when working in teams, have the answers we’re looking for (or close to it).
We feel stuck, though, because we aren’t able to sift through all the questions and the rest of the creative
noise and pare down to that answer we wanted.

By whittling away at what you know and removing the extraneous from the table, you can push aside the
curtain and finally see the answer. This is where questions come into play.

Write down the questions you have about the project or problem. Then, for each of these questions, start
listing the answers quickly.
As you begin to answer the initial questions, other questions will come to mind that are associated with the
answers you’re jotting down. Write down these sub-questions and do the same procedure.

In a way, it’s like creating an outline that is based on questions.

4. Tweak your brainstorming techniques to get the best possible results.

The last brainstorming technique has a bit of a twist. It’s all about the different ways you can use
brainstorming techniques to enhance what they do.

Each of the previous three brainstorming techniques can be made even more powerful by using a
combination or integrating a few other methods to up the ante.

Power combinations.

Look for combinations of techniques that work well together, or that your team seems to excel at.

For example, maybe doing word associations first, and then morphing into word bank exercises is the best
way to find words that work. Perhaps your designer finds great success in starting with visual associations
and then using a mind map to organize those associations.

Find combinations that get the job done.

Idea switch.

The idea switch can be used with just about any brainstorming technique in a team setting.

Start the brainstorming, but set a time limit. When the time is up, have your team members exchange what
they were working on with another member, and continue brainstorming.

Each team member builds on what the other had started.

This is a good way to kick the rust out of each team member’s creativity, and force them to rethink the
approach they had been working on.

It’s a kind of shortcut in that you might eventually end up there as a team. But forcing them to deal with the
ideas of someone else and build on them will get you some interesting results much quicker.

Forced limitations.
As I mentioned in my own brainstorming blog post, forced limitations is a way to solve a difficult problem by
creating a different problem.

With the idea that “necessity is the mother of invention”, forced limitations narrow the field of resources,
options, time, or outcomes—and force the team to work with less. Often, having too many options is
paralyzing, and forced limitations sparks creativity.

Think of Apollo 13.

They needed to get a square peg into a round hole in a limited time using limited materials in a way that
could be recreated by the Apollo astronauts. And they did.

Imagine, though, if they had any materials they wanted, and all the time in the world. How many billions
would it have taken, how many government contracts, how complicated would it have been, to get to the
ultimate solution?

Sometimes the limitations are, as in Apollo 13, not at all arbitrary. They are real.

But sometimes you have no limitations and you need to create some arbitrary limitations to get the same
effect. Maybe you’ll choose to reduce the time allowed for a solution, the materials available, or narrowly
defined goal.

Whatever it is, you’ll see that creativity has a way of growing when there is less to work with. Forced
limitations have a way of cutting to the chase, ridding the solution of the extraneous, and getting things
done.

4 Reasons To Try Brainstorming Techniques

You’ve probably used many of these methods already in your life. But if you want to become a better writer,
regular brainstorming will help you write more creative content.

I mentioned this earlier, but brainstorming:

1. Gives you new ideas.

2. Helps you work through problems.

3. Improves your creative thinking.

4. Helps your team work better together.

Brainstorming
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Brainstorm (disambiguation).

Brainstorming is a group creativity technique by which efforts are made to find a conclusion for a specific
problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its members.
The term was popularized by Alex Faickney Osborn in the 1953 book Applied Imagination.

Origin[edit]
Advertising executive Alex F. Osborn began developing methods for creative problem-solving in 1939. He
was frustrated by employees’ inability to develop creative ideas individually for ad campaigns. In response,
he began hosting group-thinking sessions and discovered a significant improvement in the quality and
quantity of ideas produced by employees. Osborn outlined his method in the 1948 book Your Creative
Power in chapter 33, "How to Organize a Squad to Create Ideas".[1]

Osborn's method[edit]

brainstorming activity conducting

Osborn claimed that two principles contribute to "ideative efficacy," these being :

1. Defer judgment,
2. Reach for quantity.[2]

Following these two principles were his four general rules of brainstorming, established with intention to :

 reduce social inhibitions among group members.

 stimulate idea generation.
 increase overall creativity of the group.

1. go for quantity: This rule is a means of enhancing divergent production, aiming to facilitate
problem solving through the maxim quantity breeds quality. The assumption is that the greater the
number of ideas generated, the bigger the chance of producing a radical and effective solution.
2. Withhold criticism: In brainstorming, criticism of ideas generated should be put 'on hold'. Instead,
participants should focus on extending or adding to ideas, reserving criticism for a later 'critical
stage' of the process. By suspending judgment, participants will feel free to generate unusual ideas.
3. Welcome wild ideas: To get a good long list of suggestions, wild ideas are encouraged. They can
be generated by looking from new perspectives and suspending assumptions. These new ways of
thinking might give you better solutions.
4. Combine and improve ideas:As suggested by the slogan "1+1=3". It is believed to stimulate the
building of ideas by a process of association.[2]

Applications[edit]
Osborn notes that brainstorming should address a specific question; he held that sessions addressing
multiple questions were inefficient.
Further, the problem must require the generation of ideas rather than judgment; he uses examples such as
generating possible names for a product as proper brainstorming material, whereas analytical judgments
such as whether or not to marry do not have any need for brainstorming.[2]
Groups[edit]
Osborn envisioned groups of around 12 participants, including both experts and novices. Participants are
encouraged to provide wild and unexpected answers. Ideas receive no criticism or discussion. The group
simply provides ideas that might lead to a solution and apply no analytical judgment as to the feasibility.
The judgments are reserved for a later date.[2]

Variations[edit]
Nominal group technique[edit]
Main article: nominal group technique
Participants are asked to write their ideas anonymously. Then the facilitator collects the ideas and the
group votes on each idea. The vote can be as simple as a show of hands in favor of a given idea. This
process is called distillation.
After distillation, the top ranked ideas may be sent back to the group or to subgroups for further
brainstorming. For example, one group may work on the color required in a product. Another group may
work on the size, and so forth. Each group will come back to the whole group for ranking the listed ideas.
Sometimes ideas that were previously dropped may be brought forward again once the group has re-
evaluated the ideas.
It is important that the facilitator be trained in this process before attempting to facilitate this technique. The
group should be primed and encouraged to embrace the process. Like all team efforts, it may take a few
practice sessions to train the team in the method before tackling the important ideas.
Group passing technique[edit]
Each person in a circular group writes down one idea, and then passes the piece of paper to the next
person, who adds some thoughts. This continues until everybody gets his or her original piece of paper
back. By this time, it is likely that the group will have extensively elaborated on each idea.
The group may also create an "idea book" and post a distribution list or routing slip to the front of the book.
On the first page is a description of the problem. The first person to receive the book lists his or her ideas
and then routes the book to the next person on the distribution list. The second person can log new ideas
or add to the ideas of the previous person. This continues until the distribution list is exhausted. A follow-up
"read out" meeting is then held to discuss the ideas logged in the book. This technique takes longer, but it
allows individuals time to think deeply about the problem.
Team idea mapping method[edit]
This method of brainstorming works by the method of association. It may improve collaboration and
increase the quantity of ideas, and is designed so that all attendees participate and no ideas are rejected.
The process begins with a well-defined topic. Each participant brainstorms individually, then all the ideas
are merged onto one large idea map. During this consolidation phase, participants may discover a
common understanding of the issues as they share the meanings behind their ideas. During this sharing,
new ideas may arise by the association, and they are added to the map as well. Once all the ideas are
captured, the group can prioritize and/or take action.[3]
Directed brainstorming[edit]
Directed brainstorming is a variation of electronic brainstorming (described below). It can be done manually
or with computers. Directed brainstorming works when the solution space (that is, the set of criteria for
evaluating a good idea) is known prior to the session. If known, those criteria can be used to constrain
the Ideation process intentionally.
In directed brainstorming, each participant is given one sheet of paper (or electronic form) and told the
brainstorming question. They are asked to produce one response and stop, then all of the papers (or
forms) are randomly swapped among the participants. The participants are asked to look at the idea they
received and to create a new idea that improves on that idea based on the initial criteria. The forms are
then swapped again and respondents are asked to improve upon the ideas, and the process is repeated
for three or more rounds.
In the laboratory, directed brainstorming has been found to almost triple the productivity of groups over
electronic brainstorming.[4]
Guided brainstorming[edit]
A guided brainstorming session is time set aside to brainstorm either individually or as a collective group
about a particular subject under the constraints of perspective and time. This type of brainstorming
removes all cause for conflict and constrains conversations while stimulating critical and creative thinking
in an engaging, balanced environment.
Participants are asked to adopt different mindsets for pre-defined period of time while contributing their
ideas to a central mind map drawn by a pre-appointed scribe. Having examined a multi-perspective point
of view, participants seemingly see the simple solutions that collectively create greater growth. Action is
assigned individually.
Following a guided brainstorming session participants emerge with ideas ranked for further brainstorming,
research and questions remaining unanswered and a prioritized, assigned, actionable list that leaves
everyone with a clear understanding of what needs to happen next and the ability to visualize the
combined future focus and greater goals of the group.
Individual brainstorming[edit]
"Individual brainstorming" is the use of brainstorming in solitary situations. It typically includes such
techniques as free writing, free speaking, word association, and drawing amind map, which is a visual note
taking technique in which people diagram their thoughts. Individual brainstorming is a useful method
in creative writing and has been shown to be superior to traditional group brainstorming.[5][6]
Question brainstorming[edit]
This process involves brainstorming the questions, rather than trying to come up with immediate answers
and short term solutions. Theoretically, this technique should not inhibit participation as there is no need to
provide solutions. The answers to the questions form the framework for constructing future action plans.
Once the list of questions is set, it may be necessary to prioritize them to reach to the best solution in an
orderly way.[7]
"Questorming" is another term for this mode of inquiry.[8]

Electronic brainstorming (EBS)[edit]

See also: Brainstorming software and Electronic meeting system
Although the brainstorming can take place online through commonly available technologies such as email
or interactive web sites, there have also been many efforts to develop customized computer software that
can either replace or enhance one or more manual elements of the brainstorming process.
Early efforts, such as GroupSystems at University of Arizona[9] or Software Aided Meeting Management
(SAMM) system at the University of Minnesota,[10] took advantage of then-new computer networking
technology, which was installed in rooms dedicated to computer supported meetings. When using
these electronic meeting systems (EMS, as they came to be called), group members simultaneously and
independently entered ideas into a computer terminal. The software collected (or "pools") the ideas into a
list, which could be displayed on a central projection screen (anonymized if desired). Other elements of
these EMSs could support additional activities such as categorization of ideas, elimination of duplicates,
assessment and discussion of prioritized or controversial ideas. Later EMSs capitalized on advances in
computer networking and internet protocols to support asynchronous brainstorming sessions over
extended periods of time and in multiple locations
Introduced along with the EMS by Nunamaker and colleagues at University of Arizona[9] was electronic
brainstorming (EBS). By utilizing customized computer software for groups (group decision support
systems or groupware), EBS can replace face-to-face brainstorming.[22] An example of groupware is
the GroupSystems, a software developed by University of Arizona.[9] After an idea discussion has been
posted on GroupSystems, it is displayed on each group member’s computer. As group members
simultaneously type their comments on separate computers, those comments are anonymously pooled
and made available to all group members for evaluation and further elaboration. [9]
Compared to face-to-face brainstorming, not only does EBS enhanced efficiency by eliminating travelling
and turn-taking during group discussions, it also excluded several psychological constraints associated
with face-to-face meetings. Identified by Gallupe and colleagues, [23] both production blocking (reduced
idea generation due to turn-taking and forgetting ideas in face-to-face brainstorming) and evaluation
apprehension (a general concern experienced by individuals for how others in the presence are evaluating
them) are reduced in EBS. [22] These positive psychological effects increase with group size.[3] A perceived
advantage of EBS is that all ideas can be archived electronically in their original form, and then retrieved
later for further thought and discussion. EBS also enables much larger groups to brainstorm on a topic
than would normally be productive in a traditional brainstorming session.[4]
Computer supported brainstorming may overcome some of the challenges faced by traditional
brainstorming methods. For example, ideas might be "pooled" automatically, so that individuals do not
need to wait to take a turn, as in verbal brainstorming. Some software programs show all ideas as they are
generated (via chat room or e-mail). The display of ideas may cognitively stimulate brainstormers, as their
attention is kept on the flow of ideas being generated without the potential distraction of social cues such
as facial expressions and verbal language.[3] EBS techniques have been shown to produce more ideas and
help individuals focus their attention on the ideas of others better than a brainwriting technique
(participants write individual written notes in silence and then subsequently communicate them with the
group).[3] The production of more ideas has been linked to the fact that paying attention to others’ ideas
leads to non-redundancy, as brainstormers try to avoid to replicate or repeat another participant’s comment
or idea. Conversely, the production gain associated with EBS was less found in situations where EBS
group members focused too much on generating ideas that they ignored ideas expressed by others. The
production gain associated with GroupSystem users’ attentiveness to ideas expressed by others has been
documented by Dugosh and colleagues.[21]EBS group members who were instructed to attend to ideas
generated by others outperformed those who were not in terms of creativity.
According to a meta-analysis comparing EBS to face-to-face brainstorming conducted by DeRosa and
colleagues[20], EBS has been found to enhance both the production of non-redundant ideas and the quality
of ideas produced. Despite the advantages demonstrated by EBS groups, EBS group members reported
less satisfaction with the brainstorming process compared to face-to-face brainstorming group members.
Some web-based brainstorming techniques allow contributors to post their comments anonymously
through the use of avatars. This technique also allows users to log on over an extended time period,
typically one or two weeks, to allow participants some "soak time" before posting their ideas and feedback.
This technique has been used particularly in the field of new product development, but can be applied in
any number of areas requiring collection and evaluation of ideas.[citation needed]
Some limitations of EBS include the fact that it can flood people with too many ideas at one time that they
have to attend to, and people may also compare their performance to others by analyzing how many ideas
each individual produces (social matching).[citation needed]

Incentives[edit]
Some research indicates that incentives can augment creative processes. Participants were divided into
three conditions. In Condition I, a flat fee was paid to all participants. In the Condition II, participants were
awarded points for every unique idea of their own, and subjects were paid for the points that they earned.
In Condition III, subjects were paid based on the impact that their idea had on the group; this was
measured by counting the number of group ideas derived from the specific subject's ideas. Condition III
outperformed Condition II, and Condition II outperformed Condition I at a statistically significant level for
most measures. The results demonstrated that participants were willing to work far longer to achieve
unique results in the expectation of compensation.[11]

Challenges to effective group brainstorming[edit]

A good deal of research refutes Osborn's claim that group brainstorming could generate more ideas than
individuals working alone.[6] For example, in a review of 22 studies of group brainstorming, Michael Diehl
and Wolfgang Stroebe found that, overwhelmingly, groups brainstorming together produce fewer ideas
than individuals working separately.[12]However, this conclusion is brought into question by a subsequent
review of 50 studies by Scott G. Isaksen showed that a misunderstanding of the tool, and weak application
of the methods (including lack of facilitation), and the artificiality of the problems and groups undermined
most such studies, and the validity of their conclusions. [13]
Several factors can contribute to a loss of effectiveness in group brainstorming.
Blocking:
Main article: Production blocking
Because only one participant may give an idea at any one time, other participants might forget the idea
they were going to contribute or not share it because they see it as no longer important or relevant.
[14] Further, if we view brainstorming as a cognitive process in which "a participant generates ideas
(generation process) and stores them in short-term memory (memorization process) and then eventually
extracts some of them from its short-term memory to express them (output process)", then blocking is an
even more critical challenge because it may also inhibit a person's train of thought in generating their own
ideas and remembering them.[15]
Collaborative fixation: Exchanging ideas in a group may reduce the number of domains that a group
explores for additional ideas. Members may also conform their ideas to those of other members,
decreasing the novelty or variety of ideas, even though the overall number of ideas might not decrease.[16]
 Evaluation apprehension: Evaluation apprehension was determined to occur only in instances of
personal evaluation. If the assumption of collective assessment were in place, real-time judgment of ideas,
ostensibly an induction of evaluation apprehension, failed to induce significant variance.[6][17]
Free-riding: Individuals may feel that their ideas are less valuable when combined with the ideas of the
group at large. Indeed, Diehl and Stroebe demonstrated that even when individuals worked alone, they
produced fewer ideas if told that their output would be judged in a group with others than if told that their
output would be judged individually. However, experimentation revealed free riding as only a marginal
contributor to productivity loss, and type of session (i.e., real vs. nominal group) contributed much more.[6]
Personality characteristics: Extroverts have been shown to outperform introverts in computer mediated
groups. Extroverts also generated more unique and diverse ideas than introverts when additional methods
were used to stimulate idea generation, such as completing a small related task before brainstorming, or
being given a list of the classic rules of brainstorming.[18]
Social matching: One phenomenon of group brainstorming is that participants will tend to alter their rate
of productivity to match others in the group. This can lead to participants generating fewer ideas in a group
setting than they would individually because they will decrease their own contributions if they perceive
themselves to be more productive than the group average. On the other hand, the same phenomenon can
also increase an individual's rate of production to meet the group average.[12][19]
Graphic organizer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A graphic organizer, also known as a knowledge map, concept map, story

map (or storymap), cognitive organizer, advance organizer, or concept diagram, is
acommunication tool that uses visual symbols to express knowledge, concepts, thoughts, or ideas, and the
relationships between them.[1] The main purpose of a graphic organizer is to provide a visual aid to
facilitate learning and instruction.[1][dead link][2]

Contents
[hide]

 1Forms
 2Enhancing students' skills
 3See also
 4References
 5External links

Forms[edit]
Graphic organizers take many forms:

Ishikawa's Cause & Effect diagram (fishbone chart)

 Relational Organizers

 storyboard
 fishbone -- Ishikawa diagram
 cause and effect web
 chart

 #Category/Classification Organizers
 concept mapping
 KWL tables
 mind mapping
 Sequence Organizers
  Chain
 Ladder
 Cycle

 Compare Contrast Organizers

 Dashboard (business)
 Venn diagrams

 Concept Development Organizers

 story web
 word web
 circle chart
 flow chart

 Options and Control Device Organizers

 mechanical control panel

 graphical user interface

Enhancing students' skills[edit]

A review study concluded that using graphic organizers improves student performance in the following
areas:[3]
Retention
Students remember information better and can better recall it when it is represented and learned both
visually and verbally.[3]
Reading comprehension
The use of graphic organizers helps improving the reading comprehension of students.[3]
Student achievement
Students with and without learning disabilities improve achievement across content areas and grade
levels.[3]
Thinking and learning skills; critical thinking
When students develop and use a graphic organizer their higher order thinking and critical thinking
skills are enhanced.[3]

Introduction to Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers guide learners’ thinking as they fill in and build upon a visual map or diagram. Graphic
organizers are some of the most effective visual learning strategies for students and are applied across the
curriculum to enhance learning and understanding of subject matter content. In a variety of formats
dependent upon the task, graphic organizers facilitate students’ learning by helping them identify areas of
focus within a broad topic, such as a novel or article. Because they help the learner make connections and
structure thinking, students often turn to graphic organizers for writing projects.
In addition to helping students organize their thinking and writing process, graphic organizers can act as
instructional tools. Teachers can use graphic organizers to illustrate a student’s knowledge about a topic or
section of text showing areas for improvement. For more graphic organizer examples including, webs,
concept maps and mind maps click here
 Graphic Organizer Example

Definition of a Graphic Organizer

A graphic organizer is a visual display that demonstrates relationships between facts, concepts or ideas. A
graphic organizer guides the learner’s thinking as they fill in and build upon a visual map or diagram. They
are also informally used as a term to describe all visual learning strategies such as concept mapping,
webbing, mind mapping, and more.

Types of Graphic Organizers

Webs, concept maps, mind maps and plots such as stack plots and Venn diagrams are some of the types
of graphic organizers used in visual learning to enhance thinking skills and improve academic performance
on written papers, tests and homework assignments.

Concept Maps
Concept maps graphically illustrate relationships between two or more concepts and are linked by words
that describe their relationship.

Concept Map Example

Webs
Brainstorming webs show how different categories of information relate to one another.
 Web Example

Mind Maps
Mind Maps are visual representations of hierarchical information that include a central idea or image
surrounded by connected branches of associated topics or ideas.

Mind Map Example

For more graphic organizer examples including webs, concept maps and mind maps click here

How to use graphic organizers

Graphic organizers are tools that can be used to visualize and organize information. Because graphic
organizers are often used as prompts for students to fill in the blanks, graphic organizers provide many
benefits to students who use them including:
 Helping students structure writing project
 Encouraging students to make decisions
 Making it easy for students to classify ideas and communicate
 Allowing students to examine relationships
 Guiding students in demonstrating their thinking process
 Helping students increase reading comprehension
 Making it easy to brainstorm
 Encouraging students to organize essential concepts and ideas
 Making it clear how to break apart a story into the main elements (intro, rising action, climax, etc.)
 Example of a Graphic Organizer for a Science Experiment

Teaching with Graphic Organizers

Used across the curriculum, teachers use graphic organizers to teach many things, including but not
limited to:
 Cause and effect
 Note taking
 Comparing and contrasting concepts
 Organizing problems and solutions
 Relating information to main themes and ideas
 Organizational skills
 Vocabulary knowledge
 Sequencing
Using Inspiration Software’s visual thinking and learning products Inspiration®, Kidspiraton® and
Webspiration Classroom™, students and teachers create graphic organizers as they brainstorm ideas,
organize information, gather research, make visual associations and identify connections.
For more graphic organizer examples including webs, concept maps and mind maps click here.
An outline is a plan for--or a summary of--a writing project or speech.

An outline is usually in the form of a list divided into headings and subheadings that distinguish main points
from supporting points. Most word processors contain an outlining feature that allows writers to format
outlines automatically.

As shown in Examples and Observations below, an outline may be either informal or formal.

Examples and Observations

 Informal Outlines
"The working outline (or scratch outline or informal outline) is a private affair--fluid, subject to constant
revision, made without attention to form, and destined for the wastebasket. But enough working outlines
have been retrived from wastebaskets that something can be said about them.

"A working outline usually begins with a few phrases and some descriptive details or examples. From them
grow fragmentary statements, tentative generalizations, hypotheses. One or two of these take on
prominence, shaping into the main ideas that seem worth developing. New examples bring to mind new
ideas, and these find a place in the list of phrases, canceling out some of the original ones. The writer
keeps adding and subtracting, juggling and shifting, until he has his key points in an order that makes
 sense to him. He scribbles a sentence, works in a transition, adds examples. . . .

"By then, if he has kept expanding and correcting it, his outline comes close to being a rough summary of
the essay itself."
(Wilma R. Ebbitt and David R. Ebbitt, Writer's Guide and Index to English, 6th ed. Scott. Foresman and
Company, 1978)
 The Outline as Draft
"Outlining might not be very useful if writers are required to produce a rigid plan before actually writing.
But when an outline is viewed as a kind of draft, subject to change, evolving as the actual writing takes
place, then it can be a powerful tool for writing. Architects often produce multiple sketches of plans, trying
out different approaches to a building, and they adapt their plans as a building goes up, sometimes
substantially (it is fortunately much easier for writers to start over or make basic changes)."
(Steven Lynn, Rhetoric and Composition: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, 2010)
 The Post-Draft Outline
"You might prefer . . . to construct an outline after, rather than before, writing a rough draft. This lets you
create a draft without restricting the free flow of ideas and helps you rewrite by determining where you
need to fill in, cut out, or reorganize. You may discover where your line of reasoning is not logical; you may
also reconsider whether you should arrange your reasons from the most important to the least or vice
versa in order to create a more persuasive effect. Ultimately, outlining after the first draft can prove useful
in producing subsequent drafts and a polished final effort."
(Gary Goshgarian, et al., An Argument Rhetoric and Reader. Addison-Wesley, 2003)
 Topic Outlines and Sentence Outlines
"Two types of outlines are most common: short topic outlines and lengthy sentence outlines. Atopic
outline consists of short phrases arranged to reflect your primary method of development. A topic outline is
especially useful for short documents such as letters, e-mails, or memos. . . .

"For a large writing project, create a topic outline first, and then use it as a basis for creating a sentence
outline. A sentence outline summarizes each idea in a complete sentence that may become the topic
sentence for a paragraph in the rough draft. If most of your notes can be shaped into topic sentences for
paragraphs in the rough draft, you can be relatively sure that your document will be well organized."
(Gerald J. Alred, et al., Handbook of Technical Writing, 8th ed. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2006)

 Formal Outlines
Some teachers ask students to submit formal outlines with their papers. Here is a common format used in
constructing a formal outline.

Arrangement of Letters and Numbers in a Formal Outline

I. (main topic)

A. (subtopics of I)
B.

1. (subtopics of B)
2.

a. (subtopics of 2)
b.

i. (subtopics of b)
ii.
 II. (main topic)

Note that subtopics are indented so that all letters or numbers of the same kind appear directly under one
another. Whether phrases (in a topic outline) or complete sentences (in a sentence outline) are used,
topics and subtopics should be parallel in form. Make sure that all items have at least two subtopics or
none at all.

 "To outline your material vertically, write your thesis at the head of the page and then use headings
and indented subheadings:

THESIS: Though many things make me want to score goals, I love scoring most of all because it
momentarily gives me a sense of power.

I. Common reasons for wanting to score goals

A. Help team
B. Gain glory
C. Hear cheers of crowd

II. My reasons for wanting to score goals

A. Feel relaxed

1. Know I'm going to score a goal

2. Move smoothly, not awkwardly
3. Get relief from pressure to do well

B. See world in freeze-frame

1. See puck going into goal

2. See other players and crowd

C. Feel momentary sense of power

1. Do better than goalie

2. Take ultimate mind trip
3. Conquer anxiety
4. Return to earth after a moment

Besides listing points in order of rising importance, this outline groups them under headings that show their
relation to each other and to the thesis."
 (James A.W. Heffernan and John E. Lincoln, Writing: A College Handbook, 3rd ed. W.W.
Norton, Example of Sentence Outline
Several aspects must be considered in writing a sentence outline.
 If you have chosen to write a sentence outline, all headings and sub-headings must be in sentence
form.
 As in any outline, remember that a division or sudivision can not be divided into one part; therefore,
if there is an "A" there must be a "B," and if there is a "1" there must be a "2."
Negative Effects of Divorce on Adolescents
I. When family conflicts arise as a result of divorce, adolescents suffer.
A. During the first year, these young people may be depressed due to conflicts between the custodial
and non-custodial parents.
B. Grandparents, aunts, and uncles are often restricted by visitation provisions.
C. Almost without exception, adolescents find divorce very painful, but they react in differing degrees
depending on their age.
II. Some of the most negative effects on adolescents may be associated with economic problems.
A. The family will most probably experience a lower standard of living due to the cost of maintaining two
households.
B. Some female custodial parents have poor job skills and must train before entering the job market.
C. The lower standard of living may result in misunderstanding and conflicts within the family.
D. The decreased standard of living, particularly for an untrained female custodial parent, often causes
relocation.
1. The family may have to move to a poorer neighborhood in order to cut costs.
2. As a result, the adolescent may have to attend a different school.
III. Adolescents from divorced families often experience peer problems.
A. Due to relocation and prejudice, adolescents may lose friends.
B. The lack of a solid relationship with both parents affects an adolescent's attitude toward the opposite
sex.
Research Paper Sentence Outline

Home
English 102
Syllabus (DOC file)
Davis Oldham
FOSS 5355
206-546-4768

SCC

This is a formal outline for your final research paper. It will present your thesis, the major points in support
of that thesis, and the sub-points supporting each major point. It may have additional levels of sub-sub-
points if you feel that is necessary.

The basic idea of a formal outline is that different types of letters or numbers (I, A, 1, a, i) represent
different levels of the hierarchy of your paper, and sub-levels are indented below main levels. For example:

This is the first main point

This is the first sub-point under I
This is the second sub-point under I
Sub-point B has its own sub-points
But you’d only list them if there were more than one
Here’s the second main point
It has two sub-points
But this one has no sub-sub points
(If you’re using Microsoft Word, you might find yourself getting frustrated by its “helpful” approach to
formatting lists. My advice is, don’t sweat the formatting too much. I’d prefer that you follow this or a similar
format, but the main thing is that the relations among ideas should be clear. The reader should be able to
see at a glance which are the main points, which are the secondary points, which are at the third level of
importance, and so on. It should also be obvious which secondaery points belong under which main points.
Usually this is accomplished by using different numbering for different levels, and indenting the less
important levels. But if you can’t make that work, do whatever you have to so that the relationships are
clear.)

Some guidelines for formal outlines are presented in “Developing an Outline” at the Purdue University
Online Writing Lab. Please follow those guidelines when writing your outline.

In addition to the elements of a formal outline, please also:

Include a thesis statement at the start.

Cite your sources: list all authors used in each section in parentheses at the end of that section
Attach a list of sources that includes all the sources used for the outline and no others. This list may differ
from the one you submitted for the Preliminary Bibliography, if you have added new sources or eliminated
old ones.
Topic and Sentence Outlines

There are two major types of outline:

Topic Outline
Sentence Outline
A topic outline lists words or phrases. A sentence outline lists complete sentences.

A topic outline arranges your ideas hierarchically (showing which are main and which are sub-points), in
the sequence you want, and shows what you will talk about. As the name implies, it identifies all the little
mini-topics that your paper will comprise, and shows how they relate.

A sentence outline does all of this, plus it shows exactly what you will say about each mini-topic. Each
sentence, instead of simply identifying a mini-topic, is like a mini-thesis statement about that mini-topic. It
expresses the specific and complete idea that that section of the paper will cover as part of proving the
overall thesis.

The method described below will produce a sentence outline.

Your sentence outline should, if done thoroughly and carefully, represent almost a first draft of your
research paper. Once you’ve written it, the paper will practically write itself. You’ll just be filling in the
blanks, so to speak—providing specific examples and other support to flesh out and prove the ideas you’ve
already sketched out. The purpose, in other words, of doing this work is not to make work for you, but to
save you work in the long run by breaking the job down into smaller, manageable tasks.

Tip: Outlines can be very detailed or very general, but the more detail you have the farther you’ll get toward
writing your paper. Here’s an example. A paper of 12 pages (about 4,500 words) might have four major
topics or points, represented by roman numerals (I - IV) in the outline. This would mean each point would
represent about three pages of the final paper. These three pages will include background information,
multiple sources, different pieces of evidence and explanation supporting that point, and often a brief
description of alternative views and an explanation of why those views are not so convincing. Smaller
points supporting each of the main points might then take up a single page, or 2 - 3 paragraphs—again
with evidence, explanation, alternative views and so on. Finally, even smaller points under these might
correspond to individual paragraphs in the final draft.

Writing the Sentence Outline

Write out your thesis at the top of the page.

Make a list of points you must prove to prove your thesis. What would someone have to agree with, in
order to agree with the thesis?
These will be the main sections of your paper. Like the thesis, these should be complete, declarative
sentences—something you can either prove or disprove.
On a new page, write your first main point. This is the thesis for that section of the paper.
Make a list of the points you have to prove to prove that point. Just as with the main points, these should
be complete, declarative sentences—statements you can prove or disprove.
These are your sub-points for that section.
Repeat the process for each of your main points.
Once you have the main points and supporting points written down, it’s time to start organizing. First make
sure which are main and which are supporting points. For example, you may find that what you thought
was a main point is really part of proving another main point. Or, what you first listed under a main point
may need its own section. This may change as you continue to work on the outline and draft the paper.

Now you can decide what order you want to present your ideas in. Again, label them with letters or
numbers to indicate the sequence.

Tip: Don’t just settle for one organization. Try out at least two different sequences. You’ll be surprised at the
connections that emerge, the possibilities that open up, when you rearrange your ideas. You may find that
your thesis suddenly snaps into focus, or that points that seemed unrelated in fact belong together, or that
what you thought was a main idea is actually a supporting idea for another point. Good writing is all about
re-vision, which literally means “seeing again”—seeing your work from a fresh perspective. You can do this
at every stage of the writing process, and especially at the organization stage.

Finally, write up the outline in the order you’ve chosen. Remember to include a thesis statement at the start
of the outline, and cite and list your sources.