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in Transient Testing
M.M. Kamal, SPE, Arco Oil & Gas Co.
SPE 2059'
Summary. This paper discusses Introduction voir engineering, it still is one of the most
the developments expected in six Transient tests are used in all areas of pe- active areas of interest in research, devel-
troleum engineering to provide useful infor- opment, and field operations. The high level
areas of pressure-transient testing of activity is expected to continue because
mation about the well/reservoir system. For
during the next 5 to 10 years (ad- example, they can be used to evaluate the (1) several technical problems have not been
vances in measurements, new types of fluids discovered and the potential solved (e.g., rigorous analyses of tests in
of wildcats and development wells by drill- heterogeneous formations or reservoirs un-
models, computer-aided analysis, in-
stem tests; to estimate the completion effi- dergoing secondary or tertiary recovery are
tegration with other reservoir- needed); (2) computer and communication
ciency after perforating, gravel packing, or
des~ription methods, standardiza- fracturing of a well; to monitor the changes developments have provided more capabil-
tion, and new testing methods). Its in reservoir pressures and wellbore skin ities to transfer, to process, and to analyze
throughout the well's life; to determine the data; (3) the industry is becoming aware of
purpose is to stimulate discussion the benefits of comprehensive reservoir
communication among several wells by in-
among those working in well-test terference and pulse tests; to provide infor- description, which requires integration of
analysis about the developments mation about injection wells through several characterization methods where tran-
step-rate and fallofftests; and to play an im- sient testing is proving to be a key element;
needed in this area of technology. and (4) results from work in this area have
portant role as one of the reservoir-
description methods. Transient testing is a been successful in the past. Therefore, it is
rigorous, reliable, and relatively well- likely that resources will be allocated to de-
understood tool of the trade. velop the needed technology.
Use of transient tests is widespread for The key word describing the expected de-
several reasons. velopments is "evolution." While a revolu-
1. They provide information needed to tionary development could occur, it is more
manage oil and gas reservoirs (e.g., perme- likely that small, steady steps will contrib-
ability, reservoir pressure, and effective ute to well-test-analysis development in the
fracture length). next few years.
2. They are relatively simple to run (in
some cases, we need only a surface pres- Advances In Measurements
sure gauge and a valve). Flow rate and pressure are the two parame-
3. The results from these tests are not ters monitored and used in well testing.
tool-dependent (Le., we don't need differ- Flow rate originally was used as the con-
ent interpretation methods for pressure trolling variable and pressure response was
gauges from different manufacturers if their measured vs. time. The name "pressure-
accuracy, precision, and resolution are in transient analysis" reflects this procedure.
the same range). The flow rate usually was changed at the
4. Interpretation models are available in surface. The pressure response was meas-
the literature (probably because several of ured either at the surface or downhole. Now,
these models were developed at academic either flow rate or pressure is used as the
institutions and service companies). controlling variable, and the response of the
From time to time, papers l -6 that sum- other parameter is measured (we have not
. marize the state of the art or discuss the use only PD vs. tD type curves, but also l/qD
of current technology are presented. This vs. tD type curves). Thus, "well-test anal-
paper looks to the future. It points out areas ysis" is a more appropriate name than
where technical advances are needed to pressure-transient analysis. Analysis meth-
solve existing problems in reservoir descrip- ods that use the transient behavior of the
tion and management. Areas of expected de- flow rate and pressure simultaneously also
velopment were determined on the basis of are available. Nevertheless, most tests are
the current state of technology and the forces run by changing the flow rate at the surface
that most likely will dictate the directions and measuring the bottomhole-pressure
of the work. Although transient testing is (BHP) response vs. time.
considered to be a "mature" area of reser-
Pressure Measurement. Perhaps the most
Copyright 1991 Society of Petroleum Engineers significant development in transient-test
TIME, min
INPUT
measurements during the last 30 years is the for a 1O,OOO-psi pressure element. The ac-
quartz crystal gauge. This type of gauge al- curacy of oscillating crystal gauges ranges
lowed well testing with only small changes from 0.025 to 0.035%; resolution is around
in pressure (e.g., pulse testing 7 ) and re- 0.01 psi for a 1O,OOO-psi pressure ele-
sulted in practical new interpretation tech- ment. 9 Table 1.4 in Ref. 9 and Table 1 in
niques (e.g., pressure derivatives) that Ref. 10 detail the specifications of various
otherwise would have been difficult to de- gauges.
velop. Pressure gauges currently in use may Because of relatively low accuracy and
be divided into three types: mechanical, high resolution, use of the mechanical gauge
electrical, and oscillating crystal. Mechan- is gradually diminishing. The accuracy and
ical and electrical gauges use a Bourdon resolution of electrical gauges come close
tube, a floating piston, or a flexible bellows to those of oscillating crystal gauges. Some
to convert pressure to mechanical displace- electrical gauges (e.g., strain gauges), how-
ment. In mechanical gauges, the pressure- ever, drift (Le., over a period of time, they
sensing element is connected to a stylus that show a change in the output value, which
etches the pressure as it changes with time is not a function of the measured pressure).
on a paper-thin metal chart, which is read The total error owing to drift increases with
by magnifying instruments. Mechanical time, which means that caution should be
gauges are reliable and in wide use under exercised when such gauges are used in
the general designation "Amerada" long-term tests (e.g., interference tests).
gauges. 9 In electrical gauges, the pressure- Fig. 1 is a schematic of drift.
sensing elentent is coupled to a transduction Oscillating crystal gauges require longer
device that converts the displacement hlto times to reach thermal stabilization or to
an electrical signal or signal-generating overcome sudden pressure changes (see
form. 10 Strain and capitance gauges are Figs. 2 and 3). Capacitance gauges use the
deformation of one or more electrodes to
typical electrical gauges. Oscillating crys-'
alter the capacitance (and hence the frequen-
tal gauges typified by the Hewlett-Packard
cy output) of the gauge. The electrodes are
gauges combine the pressure-sensing ele-
deformed as a result of,the pressure change.
ment and the transduction device into one
The thoe required for capacitance gauges to
unit. These gauges also may be called
reach thermal stability is somewhere be-
"direct-exposure transducers" because the
tween that of strain gauges and standard
vibrating quaitz crystal is directly exposed quartz gauges. Because capacitance gauges
to the pressure so that the mechanical defor- use mechanical movement to reflect pres-
mation occurs directly in the transduction sure change, they also drift.
device. 10 In certain cases, BHP measurements are
The accuracy, resolution, and sensitivity impossible (e.g., sucker-rod pumpmg wells)
of pressure gauges vary over wide ranges. or unnecessary (e.g., dry gas wells). In such
Accuracy is the ratio of the error in the cases, pressure is measured either directly
measured value to the ful1-scale output of or indirectly at the surface (e.g., acoustic
the pressure gauge (expressed in percent). measurements of liquid levels in the
Resolution is the smallest change in the annulus).
measured value that will cause a measura- The expected advances m the area of pres-
ble change in the trarisducer output (ex- sure measurement will result from three
pressed in percent of full scale or psi). sources.
Sensitivity is the ratio of the change in the 1. Development in pressure-gauge man-
transducer output to a chartge in the value ufacturing. Advances will result from im-
of the measured pressure. The accuracy of proved understanding of the physics that
mechanical gauges is about 0.25%; their control the gauge performance and use of
resolution ranges from 0.25 psi for a 500-psi more suitable material. For example, the
pressure element to 5 psi for a iO,OOO-psi time required for thermal stabilization of
pressure element. For electrical gauges, the quartz crystal gauges was reduced through
accuracy rariges from 0.025 to 0.1 %, and use of a tighter thermal match between the
the resolution ranges from 0.01 to 0.02 psi two crystals in the gauge.
in ;
0.
r:
w 1E1~-----'------'-----"-----'------r-----,------,____- .
(f)
LL
LL'
o
W
a:
::J QUARTZ GAUGE
(f)
(/)
w
-----------
a: 1:>
CL <I
: 1EQ~----~------t-----~-----+------~~~1-----~~~~
a:
::J
TIME. min en
en
w
a:
0-
Fig. 3-Schematic of time required for en
en
stabilization after sudden pressure change w
...J
Z
(after Ref. 9). o
!Iiw 1E-1 ~-----t----:"-:"'----+----+----:"++------+------+----------1
::;;
2. Improved understanding of pressure- is
gauge characteristics. Reservoir engineers
who sometimes design and usually analyze
the transient tests will gain knowledge about
gauge characteristics, leading to selection of
the most appropriate pressure gauge based
1E-7 1E-6 1E-5 1E-4 1E-3 1E-2 1E-1 1EQ 1E1
on the test objective. For example, when a
DIMENSIONLESS TIME
multiple well test (long test time, small pres-
sure change) is run, a strain gauge may not
be used because of drift. On the other hand, Fig. 4-Various flow regimes for horizontal wells.
a strain gauge may be acceptable for a build-
up test, and it requires less time than the they require measurement of the transient expands the scope of transient testing.
quartz crystal gauge to reach thermal stabili- flow rate either as it decreases to a level un- Resources are allocated and a new model
zation. measurable by existing meters and/or in usually is developed when a need arises.
3. Improved algorithms for calculation of multiphase flow conditions. Piers 16 de- Therefore, it is reasonable to expect devel-
BHP from surface pressures. These are ex- scribes improvements in the measurement opments in the following areas.
pected to improve, especially those for high- of low flow rates. Siegfried et al.17 is one
flow-rate gas wells, where pressure may be example of several research projects that are Horizontal Wells. Activities in this area
measured at the surface, and for pumping under way at various organizations to ad- have increased lately, mainly because of ad-
wells, where acoustic measurements are dress this problem. vances in drilling and completion technolo-
used. The following advances are expected. gy. Several papers 19-22 address horizontal
1. Development of a reliable low-flow- well testing. Unlike vertical wells in
Flow-Rate Measurements. Surface flow- rate meter. homogeneous reservoirs where one or two
rate measurements are usually adequate for 2. Development of the ability to measure flow regimes (infinite-acting radial flow and
analysis purposes as long as the rates are flow under two- and multiphase flow con- pseudo-steady state) exist, horizontal wells
monitored continuously and thus are not dis- ditions (see Ref. 18). may have four flow regimes (see Fig. 4).
cussed here. Downhole flow-rate measure- 3. Clarification of the directions for sub- Solutions are available for uniform-flux and
ments show promise to enhance and expand sequent improvements in the use of flow infinite-conductivity horizontal wells in
our ability to describe reservoirs through meters and development of reliable specifi- bounded reservoirs and for reservoirs with
transient testing. II cations for the accuracy and resolution of an upper constant-pressure boundary
Several recent publications 12-15 address each flow meter. (simulating a gas cap). Rosenzweig et
the use of simultaneous rate and pressure Advances also are expected in the trans- al.,23 however, suggest that the constant-
measurements. Refs. 12 and 13 describe mission of data to the surface in real time pressure boundary may not adequately rep-
techniques to analyze conventional tests, and without a wireline. Several ideas are now resent a gas cap.
Refs. 14 and 15 discuss specific tests that under investigation. As the industry tests more horizontal
require transient-rate data. These develop- wells, experience will dictate whether new
ments provided a motive to improve flow- New Models solutions are needed to analyze these tests.
rate measurements because, in several cases, Development of new interpretation models Treatment of a gas cap or aquifer seems to
"Extension of the
coal degaslflcation
pseudopressure
function to multiple
well tests, where the
gas saturation may be
different throughout
the area of investigation,
will be very helpful In
estimating reservoir
DIMENSIONLESS FALLOFF TIME. ~tD/TD
anisotropy."
Fig. 5-Typical falloff curves with wellbore storage and skin effects.
<Xl
I
~
lEO
:>
a:w
0
oil
a:
E
~ 0
-'
w lE-l
0
+
+
lE-2-+--'-'-rrnTrt--'~~TTnn---r-r~Tn~--~~~Tn~~~~~~
lE-3 lE-2 lE-l lEO lEl lE2
TIME (HRS)
Fig. 6-Field example of a falloff test after gas injection in a WAG process.
be one area that needs further investigation. baszadeh and Kamal 24 presented a solution
The assumption of infinite conductivity is for the water-injection case that showed that
another area that is expected to be addressed. reservoir-specific type curves are needed for
Neither the uniform-flux nor the infinite- rigorous interpretation of water-injection
conductivity model considers the effects of falloff tests. Fig. 5 shows a typical type
producing the fluids at one end of the curve. The water bank immediately around
horizontal segment. the wellbore is shown by the first horizon-
tal line on the derivative curve, the oil bank
Multibank Systems. Secondary and tertiary is represented by the second horizontal line,
recovery operations involve injecting one or and a transition zone exists between the two
more fluids into the reservoir. Some of these banks. Bratvold and Horne 25 deal with
fluids are immiscible with the oil (e.g., nonisothermal water-injection situations
water) and some are miscible (e.g., CO 2 ), (e.g., when large quantities of cold water
Injection of these fluids results in gradually are injected into a relatively warmer reser-
changing saturations and mobilities away voir) and Yeh and AgarwaI26 with multi-
from the injection well. Analyses of injec- ple fluid banks.
tivity, falloff, and step-rate tests under these Investigation of pressure falloff from in-
conditions require suitable models. Ab- jection wells where multiple banks of gas
10l,---------~--------~--------r_------~--------~--------~
~0:
~ 100~--------4---------+---------~~~~-4---------+--------~
o
z
«
w
a:
:::J
en
en
w
a:
Q.
en
en
~
6 10.1~~------4--.....~~l--=-------I------------4---------+--------~
enz
~
o
.-.
1O-2-+-~~"TTTTTr+--r-'~rTTT+--'~rT"T-rrrI---'---'--'""TT"rn+--____~-n+--- __-.~~
10-3 10- 2 10- 1 10 0 10 1 102 103
DIMENSIONLESS TIME 10
_0 10
a: 10 ",./ \
0
0
- " FIRST DERIVATIVE :2~ 10
6
'L:' \ \
A ~03
"0- ,\ \
Q.
'"_0 ~ ~
Fig. 10-Type curves for radial flow with skin and wellbore storage (from Ref. 35).
102~-----------------------------------------------------,
10°+-------~--------,-------~r-------_r--------r_------~
10- 4 10- 2 10- 1 100
ELAPSED TIME (HRS)
pert system, which is probably the most ap- these segments in a given order identifies or neural-network program for the first step
propriate for test design. 37 To design a the model behavior. The test data are passed of the analysis, and a multimodel program
test, an engineer usually combines the test through a previously trained network that for the second step. Such a system will al-
objective with well and reservoir properties "recognizes" the various models of be- low the engineer to run more comprehen-
obtained from various mes, personal knowl- havior. Nearly everyone who has worked sive tests and, more importantly, to obtain
edge of well testing, results from computer with pattern-recognition and neural-network a better reservoir description.
programs that perform calculations and systems prefers one over the other. HQW-
produce graphs, and information about tools ever, the industry needs to build some ex- Integration With Other
and equipment from field and service com- perience with both methods (and probably Reservoir Description Methods
pany personnel. An expert system program some other methods) before an optimum Well testing is a reservoir-description tool.
uses the same information with a set of rules method for this application becomes clear. Its value to the production and reservoir en-
to determine the optimum test design. Such Step 2 of the analysis (calculating the sys- gineer increases as it is used with other
a program will increase test-design activi- tem parameters) uses conventional programs reservoir-description methods to determine
ties, especially if a good library of tools and ranging from a mere plotting package to a reservoir parameters that are hard to obtain
gauge specifications is included in its data sophisticated program. The state-of-the-art otherwise. A combination of single- and
base. programs contain a large library of type multiple-well tests is usually the best way
curves for various reservoir and well sys- to obtain reservoir descriptions. 42 There
Test Analysis. Well-test analysis can be tems, a regression package to help obtain are two main advantages of using well test-
viewed as a two-step process. In the first a good type-curve match, and perhaps a ing as a reservoir-description method: the
step, the engineer determines the model of downsized numerical simulator to calculate large volume of the reservoir it can sample
behavior of the well/reservoir system (e.g., specific type curves for cases where analyt- (compared with logs and cores) and the rela-
a well with a finite-conductivity fracture in ical solutions are unavailable. The most sig- tively short time in which it is run (compared
a homogeneous reservoir or a well in a nificant advantages of these programs are with interwell tracers and field production
double-porosity bounded system). In the secc that they allow the engineer to view the data performance). The main drawback of well
ond step, the engineer calculates the vari- in different formats and improve the analy- testing is that it averages the properties over
ous parameters of the model (e. g. , sis through interactive type-curve matching a given volume of the reservoir (although
permeability and fracture length). Step 1 . and regression algorithms. 40-41 Fig. 12 some consider this an advantage). Of course,
lends itself to an AI method of analysis, (Fig. 10 of Ref. 41) shows how a regression- because it is an inverse process, well test-
whereas Step 2 can be handled by conven- analysis system obtains a good type-curve ing suffers from nonuniqueness and can
tional computer programs. match. Computers clearly are improving our benefit from use of information from other
The AI programs used for Step 1 will ability to interpret well tests. They provide reservoir-description methods.
probably be pattern-recognition or neural- easier and more accurate ways to plot data Use of well testing in reservoir descrip-
network programs. Expert systems also may and to calculate results and allow the use of tion will increase as more operators become
be used; however, the number of rules re- complicated models. aware of the importance of a good descrip-
quired and the potential changes in the rules Future well-test-analysis programs will tion for optimum reservoir-management de-
as new models are developed may make run faster and provide better graphics. They cisions and as more quantitative descriptions
such a system less than optimal. Pattern- also will be able to access common data of reservoirs are made through the use of
recognition programs have been developed bases with other reservoir-description geostatistical applications. Studies 43 of the
for well testing. 38,39 Fig. 11 (Fig. 6 in Ref. programs. However, the most significant use of transient testing in such applications
38) illustrates how pattern recognition can improvements will be seen in AI model- have begun and are expected to increase.
be used to identify the model of behavior. recognition programs coupled with current Other studies 44 -46 have shown that tran-
The pressure derivative is replaced by a parameter-calculation programs. It is sient testing can also be used to calculate
representation that identifies the slope of the reasonable to think that we soon will see an relative permeability data. Field tests are
curve as segments with known trends (e.g., integrated program that combines an expert needed to validate such ideas and point out
up, down, and plateau). The combination of system for test design, a pattern-recognition the direction for developments.