efinitions of mathematics

Main article: Definitions of mathematics

Leonardo Fibonacci, the Italian mathematician who introduced the Hindu–Arabic

numeral system invented between the 1st and 4th centuries by Indian
mathematicians, to the Western World
Aristotle defined mathematics as "the science of quantity", and this
definition prevailed until the 18th century.[27] Starting in the
19th century, when the study of mathematics increased in rigor and
began to address abstract topics such as group theory and projective
geometry, which have no clear-cut relation to quantity and
measurement, mathematicians and philosophers began to propose a
variety of new definitions.[28] Some of these definitions emphasize the
deductive character of much of mathematics, some emphasize its
abstractness, some emphasize certain topics within mathematics.
Today, no consensus on the definition of mathematics prevails, even
among professionals.[6] There is not even consensus on whether
mathematics is an art or a science.[7] A great many professional
mathematicians take no interest in a definition of mathematics, or
consider it undefinable.[6] Some just say, "Mathematics is what
mathematicians do."[6]
Three leading types of definition of mathematics are called logicist,
intuitionist, and formalist, each reflecting a different philosophical
school of thought.[29] All have severe problems, none has widespread
acceptance, and no reconciliation seems possible.[29]
An early definition of mathematics in terms of logic was Benjamin
Peirce's "the science that draws necessary conclusions" (1870).[30] In
the Principia Mathematica, Bertrand Russell and Alfred North
Whitehead advanced the philosophical program known as logicism,
and attempted to prove that all mathematical concepts, statements,
and principles can be defined and proved entirely in terms of
symbolic logic. A logicist definition of mathematics is Russell's "All
Mathematics is Symbolic Logic" (1903).[31]
Intuitionist definitions, developing from the philosophy of
mathematician L.E.J. Brouwer, identify mathematics with certain
mental phenomena. An example of an intuitionist definition is
"Mathematics is the mental activity which consists in carrying out
constructs one after the other."[29] A peculiarity of intuitionism is that it
rejects some mathematical ideas considered valid according to other
definitions. In particular, while other philosophies of mathematics
allow objects that can be proved to exist even though they cannot be
constructed, intuitionism allows only mathematical objects that one
can actually construct.
Formalist definitions identify mathematics with its symbols and the
rules for operating on them. Haskell Curry defined mathematics
simply as "the science of formal systems".[32] A formal system is a set
of symbols, or tokens, and some rules telling how the tokens may be
combined into formulas. In formal systems, the word axiom has a
special meaning, different from the ordinary meaning of "a self-
evident truth". In formal systems, an axiom is a combination of tokens
that is included in a given formal system without needing to be
derived using the rules of the system
efinitions of mathematics
Main article: Definitions of mathematics
 Greek mathematician Pythagoras (c. 570 BC – c. 495 BC), commonly credited
with discovering the Pythagorean theorem

Mayan numerals
As evidenced by tallies found on bone, in addition to recognizing how
to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples may have also
recognized how to count abstract quantities, like time – days,
seasons, years.[18]
Evidence for more complex mathematics does not appear until
around 3000 BC, when the Babylonians and Egyptians began using
arithmetic, algebra and geometry for taxation and other financial
calculations, for building and construction, and for astronomy.[19] The
earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement,
painting and weaving patterns and the recording of time.
In Babylonian mathematics, elementary arithmetic (addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division) first appears in the
archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral
systems have been many and diverse, with the first known written
numerals created by Egyptians in Middle Kingdom texts such as the
Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.[citation needed]
Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a systematic
study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics.[20]
 Persian mathematician Al-Khwarizmi (c. 780 – c. 850), the inventor of algebra.
During the Golden Age of Islam, especially during the 9th and
10th centuries, mathematics saw many important innovations building
on Greek mathematics: most of them include the contributions from
Persian mathematicians such as Al-Khwarismi, Omar Khayyam and
Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī.
Mathematics has since been greatly extended, and there has been a
fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of
both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today. According
to Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in the January 2006 issue of the Bulletin of the
American Mathematical Society, "The number of papers and books
included in the Mathematical Reviews database since 1940 (the first
year of operation of MR) is now more than 1.9 million, and more than
75 thousand items are added to the database each year. The
overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new
mathematical theorems and their proofs."[21]
Etymology
The word mathematics comes from Ancient Greek μάθημα
(máthēma), meaning "that which is learnt",[22] "what one gets to know",
hence also "study" and "science". The word for "mathematics" came
to have the narrower and more technical meaning "mathematical
study" even in Classical times.[23] Its adjective is μαθηματικός
(mathēmatikós), meaning "related to learning" or "studious", which
likewise further came to mean "mathematical". In particular,
μαθηματικὴ τέχνη (mathēmatikḗ tékhnē), Latin: ars mathematica,
meant "the mathematical art".
Similarly, one of the two main schools of thought in Pythagoreanism
was known as the mathēmatikoi (μαθηματικοί)—which at the time
meant "teachers" rather than "mathematicians" in the modern sense.
In Latin, and in English until around 1700, the term mathematics more
commonly meant "astrology" (or sometimes "astronomy") rather than
"mathematics"; the meaning gradually changed to its present one
from about 1500 to 1800. This has resulted in several mistranslations.
For example, Saint Augustine's warning that Christians should
beware of mathematici, meaning astrologers, is sometimes
mistranslated as a condemnation of mathematicians.[24]
The apparent plural form in English, like the French plural form les
mathématiques (and the less commonly used singular derivative la
mathématique), goes back to the Latin neuter plural mathematica
(Cicero), based on the Greek plural τα μαθηματικά (ta mathēmatiká),
used by Aristotle (384–322 BC), and meaning roughly "all things
mathematical"; although it is plausible that English borrowed only the
adjective mathematic(al) and formed the noun mathematics anew,
after the pattern of physics and metaphysics, which were inherited
from Greek.[25] In English, the noun mathematics takes a singular
verb. It is often shortened to maths or, in English-speaking North
America, math.[26]

Mathematics (from Greek μάθημα máthēma, "knowledge, study, learning") is the study of
such topics as quantity,[1] structure,[2] space,[1] and change.[3][4][5] It has no generally
accepted definition.[6][7]
Mathematicians seek out patterns[8][9] and use them to formulate new conjectures.
Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof. When
mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning
can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic,
mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, and the systematic study
of the shapes and motions of physical objects. Practical mathematics has been a human
activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve
mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry.
Rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclid's Elements.
Since the pioneering work of Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932), David Hilbert (1862–1943), and
others on axiomatic systems in the late 19th century, it has become customary to view
mathematical research as establishing truth by rigorous deduction from appropriately
chosen axioms and definitions. Mathematics developed at a relatively slow pace until
the Renaissance, when mathematical innovations interacting with new scientific
discoveries led to a rapid increase in the rate of mathematical discovery that has continued
to the present day.[10]
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) said, "The universe cannot be read until we have learned the
language and become familiar with the characters in which it is written. It is written in
mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures,
without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these,
one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth."[11] Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) referred to
mathematics as "the Queen of the Sciences".[12] Benjamin Peirce (1809–1880) called
mathematics "the science that draws necessary conclusions".[13] David Hilbert said of
mathematics: "We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not
like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules. Rather, it is a
conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means
otherwise."[14] Albert Einstein (1879–1955) stated that "as far as the laws of mathematics
refer to reality, they are not certain; and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to
reality."[15]
Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine,
finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical
disciplines, such as statistics and game theory. Mathematicians also engage in pure
mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There
is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, and practical applications for what
began as pure mathematics are often discovered.[16]

The National Association of Biology Teachers (NABT) is an American-based scholarly

society.
NABT was formed in 1938 and incorporated in 1956. Their membership comprises
thousands of biology educators and administrators—representing all grade levels—from the
U.S. and abroad.[1] NABT also publishes the journal The American Biology Teacher nine
times a year. Subscriptions to the journal are available for institutions. Individuals may
purchase individual issues.[2]
NABT has a large number of sections, affiliations and committees that help to facilitate
networking and support. Some examples of these are:
4-Year College Section
2-Year College Section
AP Biology
Multicultural Affairs Section
International Section
Role & Status of Women in Biology Education
Retired Members Section
State and Province Affiliate
NABT BioClub
Outreach Coordinators & Informal Educators
NABT has been involved in several controversies over teaching of creationism in public
schools, including McLean v. Arkansas in 1982 and Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School
District in 2005.

Presidents[edit]
This is an incomplete list, for a complete list, please see List of National Association of
Biology Teachers presidents
Current President: Susan Finazzo

Past Presidents
2016: Bob Melton
2015: Jane Ellis
2014: Stacey Kiser
2013: Mark Little
2012: Don French
2011: Dan Ward
2010: Marion V. "Bunny" Jaskot
2009: John Moore
2008: Todd Carter
2007: Patricia Waller
2006: Toby M Horn

Structural
Main articles: Molecular biology, Cell biology, Genetics, and
Developmental biology

Schematic of typical animal cell depicting the various organelles and structures.
Molecular biology is the study of biology at the molecular level.[43] This
field overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly those of
genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology is a study of the
interactions of the various systems within a cell, including the
interrelationships of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and how those
interactions are regulated.
The next larger scale, cell biology, studies the structural and
physiological properties of cells, including their internal behavior,
interactions with other cells, and with their environment. This is done
on both the microscopic and molecular levels, for unicellular
organisms such as bacteria, as well as the specialized cells of
multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure
and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences.
The similarities and differences between cell types are particularly
relevant to molecular biology.
Anatomy is a treatment of the macroscopic forms of such structures
organs and organ systems.[44]
Genetics is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of
organisms.[45][46] Genes encode the information needed by cells for the
synthesis of proteins, which in turn play a central role in influencing
the final phenotype of the organism. Genetics provides research tools
used in the investigation of the function of a particular gene, or the
analysis of genetic interactions. Within organisms, genetic information
is physically represented as chromosomes, within which it is
represented by a particular sequence of amino acids in particular
DNA molecules.
Developmental biology studies the process by which organisms grow
and develop. Developmental biology, originated from embryology,
studies the genetic control of cell growth, cellular differentiation, and
"cellular morphogenesis," which is the process that progressively
gives rise to tissues, organs, and anatomy. Model organisms for
developmental biology include the round worm Caenorhabditis
elegans,[47] the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster,[48] the zebrafish
Danio rerio,[49] the mouse Mus musculus,[50] and the weed Arabidopsis
thaliana.[51][52] (A model organism is a species that is extensively
studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the
expectation that discoveries made in that organism provide insight
into the workings of other organisms.)[53]
Physiological
Main article: Physiology
Physiology is the study of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical
processes of living organisms function as a whole. The theme of
"structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have
traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology,
but some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what
particular organism is being studied. For example, what is learned
about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells.
The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of
human physiology to non-human species. Plant physiology borrows
techniques from both research fields.
Physiology is the study the interaction of how, for example, the
nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and circulatory systems,
function and interact. The study of these systems is shared with such
medically oriented disciplines as neurology and immunology.
Evolutionary
Evolutionary research is concerned with the origin and descent of
species, and their change over time. It employs scientists from many
taxonomically oriented disciplines, for example, those with special
training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology,
botany, or herpetology, but are of use in answering more general
questions about evolution.
Evolutionary biology is partly based on paleontology, which uses the
fossil record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of
evolution,[54] and partly on the developments in areas such as
population genetics.[55] In the 1980s, developmental biology re-
entered evolutionary biology after its initial exclusion from the modern
synthesis through the study of evolutionary developmental biology.[56]
Phylogenetics, systematics, and taxonomy are related fields often
considered part of evolutionary biology.

 Evolutionary biology – the study of the origin and descent of species over time
 Genetics – the study of genes and heredity.
 Epigenetics – the study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular
phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA
sequence
 Hematology (also known as Haematology) – the study of blood and blood-forming
organs.
 Integrative biology – the study of whole organisms
 Marine biology (or biological oceanography) – the study of ocean ecosystems, plants,
animals, and other living beings
 Microbiology – the study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their
interactions with other living things
 Bacteriology – the study of bacteria
 Mycology – the study of fungi
 Parasitology – the study of parasites and parasitism
 Virology – the study of viruses and some other virus-like agents
 Molecular biology – the study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level,
some cross over with biochemistry
 Nanobiology – the study of how nanotechnology can be used in biology, and the study of
living organisms and parts on the nanoscale level of organization
 Neuroscience – the study of the nervous system
 Population biology – the study of groups of conspecific organisms, including
 Population ecology – the study of how population dynamics and extinction
 Population genetics – the study of changes in gene frequencies in populations of
organisms
 Paleontology – the study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life
 Pathobiology or pathology – the study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature,
and development of disease
 Physiology – the study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of
living organisms
 Phytopathology – the study of plant diseases (also called Plant Pathology)
 Psychobiology – the study of the biological bases of psychology
 Radiobiology – study of the action of ionic radiation on living things.
 Quantum biology – the study of quantum mechanics to biological objects and problems.
 Sociobiology – the study of the biological bases of sociology
 Systems biology – the study complex interactions within biological systems through a
holistic approach
 Structural biology – a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry,
and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules
 Theoretical biology – the branch of biology that employs abstractions and mathematical
models to explain biological phenomena
 Zoology – the study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and
behaviour, including:
 Ethology – the study of animal behaviour
 Entomology – the study of insects
 Herpetology – the study of reptiles and amphibians
 Ichthyology – the study of fish
 Mammalogy – the study of mammals
 Ornithology – the study of birds

A patient admitted to the hospital is usually under the care of a

specific team based on their main presenting problem, e.g., the
cardiology team, who then may interact with other specialties, e.g.,
surgical, radiology, to help diagnose or treat the main problem or any
subsequent complications/developments.
Physicians have many specializations and subspecializations into
certain branches of medicine, which are listed below. There are
variations from country to country regarding which specialties certain
subspecialties are in.
The main branches of medicine are:
• Basic sciences of medicine; this is what every physician is educated
in, and some return to in biomedical research
• Medical specialties
• Interdisciplinary fields, where different medical specialties are mixed
to function in certain occasions.
Basic sciences[edit]
• Anatomy is the study of the physical structure of organisms. In
contrast to macroscopic or gross anatomy, cytology and
histology are concerned with microscopic structures.
• Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry taking place in living
organisms, especially the structure and function of their
chemical components.
• Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of biological
systems by means of the methods of Mechanics.
• Biostatistics is the application of statistics to biological fields in the
broadest sense. A knowledge of biostatistics is essential in the
 planning, evaluation, and interpretation of medical research. It
is also fundamental to epidemiology and evidence-based
medicine.
• Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of
physics and physical chemistry to study biological systems.
• Cytology is the microscopic study of individual cells.

Louis Pasteur, as portrayed in his laboratory, 1885 by Albert Edelfelt

• Embryology is the study of the early development of organisms.
• Endocrinology is the study of hormones and their effect throughout
the body of animals.
• Epidemiology is the study of the demographics of disease
processes, and includes, but is not limited to, the study of
epidemics.
• Genetics is the study of genes, and their role in biological
inheritance.
• Histology is the study of the structures of biological tissues by light
microscopy, electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry.
• Immunology is the study of the immune system, which includes the
innate and adaptive immune system in humans, for example.
• Medical physics is the study of the applications of physics principles
in medicine.
• Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, including protozoa,
 bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
• Molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the
process of replication, transcription and translation of the
genetic material.
Neuroscience includes those disciplines of science that are related to
the study of the nervous system. A main focus of neuroscience is the
biology and physiology of the human brain and spinal cord.
Secondary care medical services are provided by medical specialists in their offices or clinics
or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care provider who first
diagnosed or treated the patient. Referrals are made for those patients who required the
expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These include both ambulatory
care and inpatient services, emergency rooms, intensive care medicine, surgery
services, physical therapy, labor and delivery, endoscopy units,
diagnostic laboratory and medical imaging services, hospice centers, etc. Some primary care
providers may also take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a secondary care
setting.
Tertiary care medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers
equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals.
These include trauma centers, burn treatment centers, advanced neonatology unit
services, organ transplants, high-risk pregnancy, radiation oncology, etc.
Modern medical care also depends on information – still delivered in many health care
settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by electronic means.
In low-income countries, modern healthcare is often too expensive for the average person.
International healthcare policy researchers have advocated that "user fees" be removed in
these areas to ensure access, although even after removal, significant costs and barriers
remain.[19]
Separation of prescribing and dispensing is a practice in medicine and pharmacy in which
the physician who provides a medical prescription is independent from the pharmacist who
provides the prescription drug. In the Western world there are centuries of tradition for
separating pharmacists from physicians. In Asian countries it is traditional for physicians to
also provide drugs.[20]

Branches[edit]
Working together as an interdisciplinary team, many highly trained health
professionals besides medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health
care. Examples include: nurses, emergency medical technicians and paramedics, laboratory
scientists, pharmacists, podiatrists, physiotherapists, respiratory therapists, speech
therapists, occupational therapists, radiographers, dietitians,
and bioengineers, surgeons, surgeon's assistant, surgical technologist.
The scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields. Dentistry,
while considered by some a separate discipline from medicine, is a medical field.

Contemporary medicine is in general conducted within health care

systems. Legal, credentialing and financing frameworks are
established by individual governments, augmented on occasion by
international organizations, such as churches. The characteristics of
any given health care system have significant impact on the way
medical care is provided.
From ancient times, Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise
to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals and the
Catholic Church today remains the largest non-government provider
of medical services in the world.[15] Advanced industrial countries (with
the exception of the United States)[16][17] and many developing
countries provide medical services through a system of universal
health care that aims to guarantee care for all through a single-payer
health care system, or compulsory private or co-operative health
insurance. This is intended to ensure that the entire population has
access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay.
Delivery may be via private medical practices or by state-owned
hospitals and clinics, or by charities, most commonly by a
combination of all three.
Most tribal societies provide no guarantee of healthcare for the
population as a whole. In such societies, healthcare is available to
those that can afford to pay for it or have self-insured it (either directly
or as part of an employment contract) or who may be covered by care
financed by the government or tribe directly.

Modern drug ampoules

Transparency of information is another factor defining a delivery
system. Access to information on conditions, treatments, quality, and
pricing greatly affects the choice by patients/consumers and,
therefore, the incentives of medical professionals. While the US
healthcare system has come under fire for lack of openness,[18] new
legislation may encourage greater openness. There is a perceived
tension between the need for transparency on the one hand and such
issues as patient confidentiality and the possible exploitation of
information for commercial gain on the other.
Delivery[edit]
See also: Health care, clinic, hospital, and hospice
Provision of medical care is classified into primary, secondary, and
tertiary care categories.