‘A’ Level Philosophy and Ethics

Notes
Conscience - Freud

Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939)

Freud was an Austrian doctor who had a number of troubled middle

class Viennese ladies. He had a private practice in Vienna, where he
developed his theories about the development of the mind.

He developed the term Psychoanalysis, and also coined many of his

other technical terms. Some of these terms have become widely
known, though sometimes their original meanings have become
changed!

He began to develop his ideas as he worked with hypnosis as a

treatment for hysteria in Paris. His mentor (a French Physiologist
called Jean Charcot) was convinced that the hysteria that he was
treating was psychical in origins. Charcot believed that ideas and
beliefs could have a physical effect on a person.

Repression
Freud believed that a person can lose complete control of their mental
states through a process called Repression. The process caused a change
in the mental state that could lead to mental illness.

In particular, the repression of early sexual experiences could have a

damaging effect on a person:

A young child is told off by its mother for

touching itself – “Don’t do that – it’s dirty!”

The child comes to feel that feelings of a

sexual nature are “dirty”, and tries to push
the feelings into their subconscious

The sexual feelings are now repressed. These

repressed feelings may cause mental imbalance,
leading to possible illness.

Freud developed this idea through some of the discussions with his
patients. He began to consider the idea that infants develop sexual
feelings for their parents. He based this idea on an experience that he
remembered during a session of self-analysis. He recalled feeling sexually
aroused when seeing his mother naked. The trauma of such an experience
causes “neurosis”.

Neurosis
A mental illness associated with feelings of anxiety developed through having to
deal with mental conflicts. The distress experienced can to an obsessive-
compulsive disorder, or some other neurotic behaviour.
 Conscience - Freud

Freud and the Conscience

Freud’s ideas about the development of the conscience are based on his
beliefs about the development of the adult mind.

The Ego The Super-Ego

εγω - ego (Greek – ‘I’) The feelings of disapproval of
The ego is developed by the mind society are “internalised” to form
as a “front” to interact with the Super-Ego.
society. The socialisation of the ð § The super-ego therefore
individual involves the repression restricts the instinctive
of natural, but antisocial desires. behaviour of the individual.
ò
The Conscience
The conflicts caused by the creation of the Super-Ego lead to the
creation of a “guilty conscience”. The conscience develops into a
powerful force, independent of reason and instinct. It leads to feelings
of guilt based on the perceived expectations of society.
The Super-Ego divides into two activities. Freud based this idea on
the way that parents behave towards their children as they bring
them up.
ò ò
The Ego Ideal The Conscience
A parent will reward “good” A parent will also punish “bad”
(i.e. appropriate) behaviour with behaviour. The child will feel
praise. The child learns to disappointment and shame when
appreciate the parent’s approval. it sees its parent’s
It feels pride in satisfying its disappointment.
parent’s expectations.

Freud’s ideas appear to have some basis in Child Development studies.

Children are socialised by contact with the adult world. Through play they
learn how to deal with other people. They also learn not to be selfish and
to think of others.

This socialisation takes place through parents’ rewarding good behaviour

and punishing bad behaviour. However, the parents are not always “in
control” of their own feelings. Sometimes they allow their own feelings of
frustration and disappointment show (based in their feelings of inadequacy
formed because of perceived pressures from other parents).

The parent rewards the child for The child enjoys the warm feeling
behaviour that is “approved”. of satisfaction.

Displays of anger or even violence The child feels guilt and shame at
demonstrate the parent’s “letting its parent down”.
disappointment.

These feelings of shame and guilt become established in the psyche as the
conscience.

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 Conscience - Freud

The Conscience at Work

A person brought up in a strictly Christian family can experience powerful
feelings of guilt if (or when!) they begin to reject some of the values that
they have been brought up to hold.

Peter was brought up in a strongly Presbyterian family. When he was a

child, he attended Church twice every Sunday.
§ The minister’s sermons would be delivered in powerful tones – the
theme would usually be the punishment in hell waiting for the
unrighteous.
§ He would be made to wear his uncomfortable “Sunday Best” – there
would be no Television, or toys or games. The day was spent in silent
contemplation, Bible study or discussion groups.
§ Many topics were “taboo” – particularly sex. Alcohol was banned. The
women in the Church dressed modestly, and expected their daughters
to dress the same.

When Peter leaves home, and begins to experience aspects of

the World previously forbidden to him, he may feel a
certain guilt. For example, Peter’s first experience of
alcohol may not simply leave him with a powerful hangover.
He may also feel guilt. This feeling of guilt may (or may
not) affect his decision making in future encounters with
the demon drink.
§ These guilt feelings will be particularly powerful when
linked to sexuality.
§ In particular, homosexuality, masturbation and sex
outside of the marriage bond would give rise to guilt
feelings.

The Christian Church appears to have behaved in such a way as to

support Freud’s theory. St Augustine and St Paul are accused of
establishing a climate of sexual repression through their teachings about
sexuality:

§ St Paul writes at length about the correct setting for a sexual

relationship – in particular he argues that marriage can be used as a
safety valve for the sex-drive.
§ St Augustine provides a clearer example of the way that guilt can lead
to a puritanical view of sex.

St Augustine’s mother was a devout Christian. Augustine grew to resent her views, and as he
grew he began to “experiment” with life. During his early years, he joined a sect (almost like
joining a cult today). He travelled to Milan to study rhetoric, and took a lover (she later gave
birth to a Son by him). However, he began to feel increasingly uncomfortable about his
hedonistic lifestyle. He began to look for less physical answers to his feelings, and at a
particularly low moment had a conversion experience.

On his return to North Africa he was (forcibly) ordained Bishop of Hippo, and he began
writing some of the most influential works in Christian literature.

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 Conscience - Freud

With reference to sexual intercourse, Augustine is quoted as saying “men

should go to their task with reluctance”. Augustine also argued that the
best relationship within a marriage was one of celibacy. His teachings
affected Christian attitudes to sexuality.

§ This has led to a repression of sexuality within Christianity – the

Church appeared to consider sexuality to be innately sinful.

Freud argues that this disapproval of sexuality has caused the repression
of feelings of shame, leading to neurotic behaviour. The guilt felt by a
person causes them to behave in a certain way.

Does this mean that there is no place for God in Freud’s view of
the Conscience?
Freud’s argument is based on the idea that the Conscience is
manufactured from experiences and conditioning. Aquinas and Butler
argue for a more God-given conscience.

There has not been a satisfactory attempt to explain how Freud’s version
of the conscience can have God as its source – the best would appear to
be that God provided the structure in which the conscience develops.

Modern developments in Freud’s theory.

Psychology now argues for a two-level conscience.
The super-ego forms an The ego forms a more mature
under-developed conscience. conscience. It seeks to achieve
This is based on the mass of a form of self-identity based on
experiences of shame and guilt. value and worth. The ego tries
The super-ego causes the to develop a “world-view” for
person to behave like a child – the person which informs his
seeking approval, or obeying direction through life.
rules without question.

It is possible to reintroduce the role of God into the development of the

conscience. The mature conscience seeks to establish self-identity based
on ideas of value. Many philosophers have argued that the highest value
is that of the greatest good (the Summum Bonum). Some even identify
God with the highest good – it could therefore be argued that as the
mature conscience is striving for the highest good.