GAMETOPHYTES AND DOUBLE FERTILIZATION IN

FLOWERING PLANTS (ANGIOSPERMS)

Angiosperms, also called flowering plants, have seeds that are enclosed within an ovary
(usually a ruit,while gymnosperms have no flowers or fruits,and have unenclosed or “naked”
seeds on the surface or scales of leave.Gymnosperm seeds are often configured as
cones.The characteristics of agymnosperms include flowers,fruits,and endosperm in the
seeds.

ANGIOSPERM
Definition Seed-producing flowering plants whose seeds are enclosed within an
ovary
Seeds Enclosed inside an ovary usually in fruits
Live Cycle Seasonal (die dureng autumn/fall)
Tissue Triploid(endosperm produced during triple fusion)
Reproductive Presnet in flowers can be unisexsul or bisexual
system
Leaves Flat
Cotyledons Present single (monocots) or in a pair (dicots)
Wood Hardwood
Periniality Non-perinnial
Kingdom Plantae
Domain Eukarya
Reproduction Mostly rely on animals
uses Medications, food , clothing, etc

In angiosperms, meiosis in the sporophyte generation produces two kinds of spores.

 Megaspores
o which develop in the megasporangium and
o which will develop into the female gametophyte generation.

The female gametophyte develops within an ovule contained in the ovary f the
pistil. Within the ovule, meiosis has produced haploid cells. Now, one of these
cells grows to become a megaspore. Its nucleus will devide by mitosis to give rise
to a multinucleate structure known as the embryo sac. One of these nuclei is called
the egg nucleus. The embryo sac constitutes the female gametophyte. Note that
 this small, haploid structure remains within the ovary of the plant.

 Microspores
o which develop in the microsporangium and
o which will germinate and develop into the male gametophyte generation

The male gametophyte develops within the anthers of a flower. It is the

plollen grain plus the pollen tube that grows from it. The pollen tube will
deliver haploid nuclei(sperm) to a haploid nucleus (egg) within the embryo sac
of the flower. We left production off pollen at the point where 4 microspores
had been produced by meiosis. As shown below, these micropores separate
and develop into pollen grains. The generative nucleus will devide by mitosis
to form two haploid nuclei, usually called sperm nuclei.
 Mature pollen grains are released to the surface of the anther where
they are picked up by pollinators (mainly insects) or by the wind. If a pollen
grain lands on the stigma of a flower, a pollen tube forms, grows down the
pistil , and enters an ovule.

Both types of sporangia are formed in flowers. In most angiosperms, the flowers are perfect:
each has both microsporangia and megasporangia. Some angiosperms are imperfect, having
either microsporangia or megasporangia but not both.

 Monoecious plants have both types of imperfect flower on the same plant.
 Dioecious plants have imperfect flowers on separate plants; that is, some plants are
male, some female.

 Flowers develop from

flower buds. Each bud
contains 4 concentric
whorls of tissue. From
the outer to the inner,
these develop into

 a whorl of sepals
(collectively called the
calyx)
 a whorl of petals (collectively called the corolla)
 stamens in which the microsporangia form
 carpels in which the megasporangia form.

Link to a discussion of the genetic control of flower formation.

Stamens
Each stamen consists of a

 lobed anther, containing the microsporangia and supported by a thin

 filament

Meiosis of the diploid microspore mother cells in the anther produces four haploid
microspores. Each of these develops into a pollen grain consisting of
  a larger vegetative cell (also called the tube cell) inside of which is a
 a smaller germ cell (also called the generative cell).

At some point, depending on the species, the germ cell divides by mitosis to produce 2 sperm
cells.

Carpels
Carpels consist of a

 stigma, usually mounted at the tip of a

 style with an
 ovary at the base.

Often the entire whorl of carpels is fused into a single pistil.

The megasporangia, called ovules, develop within the ovary.

Meiosis of the megaspore mother cell in each ovule produces 4 haploid cells:

 a large megaspore and

 3 small cells that disintegrate.

Development of the megaspore

The nucleus of the megaspore undergoes 3

successive mitotic divisions. The 8 nuclei that

result are distributed and partitioned off

by cell walls to form the embryo sac. This is the
mature female gametophyte generation.

 The egg cell will start the new sporophyte

generation if it is fertilized. It is flanked by
 2 synergid cells. In several (perhaps all)
angiosperms, they secrete an attractant that
guides the pollen tube through the
micropyle into the embryo sac.
 The large central cell, which in most
angiosperms contains 2 polar nuclei, will
after its fertilization develop into the
endosperm of the seed.
 3 antipodal cells.

Pollination
When a pollen grain reaches the stigma, it germinates into a pollen tube. If it hasn't done so
already, the germ cell divides by mitosis forming 2 sperm cells. These, along with the tube
nucleus, migrate down the pollen tube as it grows through the style, the micropyle, and into
the ovule chamber.

In Arabidopsis the pollen tube follows a gradient of increasing concentration of gamma

amino butyric acid (GABA; the same molecule that serves as an important neurotransmitter
in the human brain — Link). Two other chemicals that have been found in other species to
guide pollen tubes to their destination are

 a gradient of nitric oxide (NO) [Link];

 a gradient of a small defensin-like peptide.

The pollen tube with its contents makes up the mature male gametophyte generation.

Double fertilization

The pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle and ruptures.

 One sperm cell fuses with the egg forming the diploid zygote.
 The other sperm cell fuses with the polar nuclei forming the endosperm nucleus.
Most angiosperms have two polar nuclei so the endosperm is triploid (3n).
 The tube nucleus disintegrates.

Self-incompatibility

Most angiosperms have mechanisms by which they avoid self-fertilization. Link to a

discussion of these.

Seeds
After double fertilization, each
ovule develops into a seed, which
consists of

 a plumule, made up of
o two embryonic leaves, which will become the first true leaves of the seedling,
and
o a terminal (apical) bud. The terminal bud contains the meristem at which later
growth of the stem takes place.
 One or two cotyledons which store food that will be used by the germinating
seedling.
o Angiosperms that produce seeds with two cotyledons are called dicots.
Examples: beans, squashes, Arabidopsis
o Angiosperms whose seeds contain only a single cotyledon are monocots.
Examples: corn and other grasses.
  The hypocotyl and radicle, which will grow into the part of the stem below the first
node ("hypocotyl" = below the cotyledons) and primary root respectively.

The development of each of the parts of the plant embryo depends on gradients of the
plant hormone, auxin.

 In addition to the embryo plant (derived from the zygote), each seed is covered with
protective seed coats derived from the walls of the ovule.

The food in the cotyledons is derived from the

endosperm which, in turn, received it from the parent sporophyte. In many angiosperms (e.g.,
beans), when the seeds are mature, the endosperm has been totally consumed and its food
transferred to the cotyledons. In others (some dicots and all monocots), the endosperm
persists in the mature seed.

The seed is thus a dormant embryo sporophyte with stored food and protective coats. Its two
functions are

 dispersal of the species to new locations (aided in angiosperms by the fruit)

 survival of the species during unfavorable climatic periods (e.g., winter). "Annual"
plants (e.g., beans, cereal grains, many weeds) can survive freezing only as seeds.
When the parents die in the fall, the seeds remain alive — though dormant— over the
winter. When conditions are once more favorable, germination occurs and a new
generation of plants develops.

Fruits
Fruits are a development of the ovary wall and sometimes other flower parts as well. As
seeds mature, they release the hormone auxin, which stimulates the wall of the ovary to
develop into the fruit. In fact, commercial fruit growers may stimulate fruit development in
unpollinated flowers by applying synthetic auxin to the flower.

Fruits promote the dispersal of their content of seeds in a variety of ways.

 Wind. The maple "key" and dandelion parachute are examples.

 Water. Many aquatic angiosperms and shore dwellers (e.g., the coconut palm) have
floating fruits that are carried by water currents to new locations.
 Hitchhikers. The cocklebur and sticktights achieve dispersal of their seeds by sticking
to the coat (or clothing) of a passing animal.
 Edible fruits. Nuts and berries entice animals to eat them. Buried and forgotten (nuts)
or passing through their g.i. tract unharmed (berries), the seeds may end up some
distance away from the parent plant.
 Mechanical. Some fruits, as they dry, open explosively expelling their seeds. The
pods of many legumes (e.g., wisteria) do this.