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in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment, or emitted by a black body (an opaque and
non-reflective body). It has a specific spectrum and intensity that depends only on the body's
temperature, which is assumed for the sake of calculations and theory to be uniform and
constant.
The thermal radiation spontaneously emitted by many ordinary objects can be approximated as
contains black-body radiation and will emit it through a hole made in its wall, provided the hole
A black-body at room temperature appears black, as most of the energy it radiates is infra-
red and cannot be perceived by the human eye. Because the human eye cannot perceive color at
very low light intensities, a black body, viewed in the dark at the lowest just faintly visible
temperature, subjectively appears grey (but only because the human eye is sensitive only to black
and white at very low intensities - in reality, the frequency of the light in the visible range would
still be red, although the intensity would be too low to discern as red), even though its objective
physical spectrum peaks in the infrared range. When it becomes a little hotter, it appears dull red.
Although planets and stars are neither in thermal equilibrium with their surroundings nor
perfect black bodies, black-body radiation is used as a first approximation for the energy they
emit. Black holes are near-perfect black bodies, in the sense that they absorb all the radiation that
falls on them. It has been proposed that they emit black-body radiation (called Hawking
radiation), with a temperature that depends on the mass of the black hole.
The term black body was introduced by Gustav Kirchhoff in 1860. Black-body radiation is also
A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation,
regardless of frequency or angle of incidence. A white body is one with a "rough surface that
A black body in thermal equilibrium (that is, at a constant temperature) emits electromagnetic
radiation called black-body radiation. The radiation is emitted according to Planck's law,
meaning that it has a spectrum that is determined by the temperature alone (see figure at right),
An approximate realization of a black surface is a hole in the wall of a large enclosure. Any light
entering the hole is reflected indefinitely or absorbed inside and is unlikely to re-emerge, making
the hole a nearly perfect absorber. The radiation confined in such an enclosure may or may not
be in thermal equilibrium, depending upon the nature of the walls and the other contents of the
enclosure.
Real materials emit energy at a fraction—called the emissivity—of black-body energy levels. By
definition, a black body in thermal equilibrium has an emissivity of ε = 1.0. A source with lower
bodies with emissivity as close to one as possible remains a topic of current interest.
In astronomy, the radiation from stars and planets is sometimes characterized in terms of
an effective temperature, the temperature of a black body that would emit the same total flux of
electromagnetic energy.
All normal (baryonic) matter emits electromagnetic radiation when it has a temperature
above absolute zero. The radiation represents a conversion of a body's thermal energy into
Conversely all normal matter absorbs electromagnetic radiation to some degree. An object that
absorbs all radiation falling on it, at all wavelengths, is called a black body. When a black body
is at a uniform temperature, its emission has a characteristic frequency distribution that depends
The concept of the black body is an idealization, as perfect black bodies do not exist in
nature. Graphite and lamp black, with emissivities greater than 0.95, however, are good
best as the ultimately stable steady state equilibrium radiation in a cavity in a rigid body, at a
uniform temperature, that is entirely opaque and is only partly reflective. A closed box of
graphite walls at a constant temperature with a small hole on one side produces a good
approximation to ideal black-body radiation emanating from the opening. Black-body radiation
has the unique absolutely stable distribution of radiative intensity that can persist in
thermodynamic equilibrium in a cavity. In equilibrium, for each frequency the total intensity of
radiation that is emitted and reflected from a body (that is, the net amount of radiation leaving its
surface, called the spectral radiance) is determined solely by the equilibrium temperature, and
does not depend upon the shape, material or structure of the body. For a black body (a perfect
absorber) there is no reflected radiation, and so the spectral radiance is due entirely to emission.
Consequently, black-body radiation may be viewed as the radiation from a black body at thermal
equilibrium.
MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS:-
The quantity of energy emitted by a true blackbody only depends on its temperature. This
radiation level, named Radiant Emittance R, is defined by the following distribution discovered
where:-
h is the Planck’s constant ( h=6.626 x 1034 Js)
Wien’s law, also called Wien’s displacement law, relationship between the temperature of
a blackbody (an ideal substance that emits and absorbs all frequencies of light) and the
wavelength at which it emits the most light. It is named after German physicist Wilhelm Wien,
who received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1911 for discovering the law.
Wien studied the wavelength or frequency distribution of blackbody radiation in the 1890s. It
was his idea to use as a good approximation for the ideal blackbody an oven with a small hole.
Any radiation that enters the small hole is scattered and reflected from the inner walls of the
oven so often that nearly all incoming radiation is absorbed and the chance of some of it finding
its way out of the hole again can be made exceedingly small. The radiation coming out of this
hole is then very close to the equilibrium blackbody electromagnetic radiation corresponding to
the oven temperature. Wien found that the radiative energy dW per wavelength interval dλ has a
maximum at a certain wavelength λm and that the maximum shifts to shorter wavelengths as the
temperature T is increased. He found that the product λmT is an absolute constant: λmT = 0.2898
centimetre-degree Kelvin.
Wien’s law of the shift of the radiative power maximum to higher frequencies as the temperature
is raised expresses in a quantitative form commonplace observations. Warm objects emit infrared
radiation, which is felt by the skin; near T = 950 K a dull red glow can be observed; and the
colour brightens to orange and yellow as the temperature is raised. The tungsten filament of
a light bulb is T = 2,500 K hot and emits bright light, yet the peak of its spectrum at this
temperature is still in the infrared, according to Wien’s law. The peak shifts to visible yellow
Stefan–Boltzmann law, statement that the total radiant heat energy emitted from a surface is
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. Formulated in 1879 by Austrian
physicist Josef Stefan as a result of his experimental studies, the same law was derived in 1884
degrees Kelvin), then E = σT4, the Greek letter sigma (σ) representing the constant of
proportionality, called the Stefan–Boltzmann constant. This constant has the value
5.6704 × 10−8 watt per metre2∙K4. The law applies only to blackbodies, theoretical surfaces that
absorb all incident heat radiation. By the 1890’s, experimental techniques had improved
sufficiently that it was possible to make fairly precise measurements of the energy distribution in
this cavity radiation, or as we shall call it black body radiation. In 1895, at the University of
Berlin, Wien and Lummer punched a small hole in the side of an otherwise completely closed
OBSERVATIONS:-
The beam coming out of the hole was passed through a diffraction grating, which sent the
moved up and down along the screen to find how much radiant energy was being emitted in each
arrangements were much more sophisticated. For example, to make the difficult infrared
measurements higher frequency waves were eliminated by multiple reflections from quartz and
other crystals.) They found a radiation intensity/frequency curve close to this (correct one):
The visible spectrum begins at around 4.3×1014 Hz, so this oven glows deep red.
One minor point: this plot is the energy density inside the oven, which we denote by ρ(f, T),
Δf is ρ(f, T)Δf.
To find the power pumped out of the hole, bear in mind that the radiation inside the oven has
waves equally going both ways—so only half of them will come out through the hole. Also, if
the hole has area A, waves coming from the inside at an angle will see a smaller target area. The
Let’s look at these curves in more detail: for low frequencies f, ρ( f, T) was found to be
proportional to f 2, a parabolic shape, but for increasing f it fell below the parabola, peaking
at fmax, then dropping quite rapidly towards zero as f increased beyond fmax.
For those low frequencies where ρ( f, T) is parabolic, doubling the temperature was found to
double the intensity of the radiation. But also at 2T the curve followed the doubled parabolic
path much further before dropping away—in fact, twice as far, and fmax(2T) = 2fmax(T).
The curve ρ( f, 2T), then, reaches eight times the height of ρ( f, T). (See the graph above.) It
also spreads over twice the lateral extent, so the area under the curve, corresponding to the total
black bodies are used as optical reference sources for optical sensors.That's why blackbodies are
CONCLUSION:-
There is a growing interest in materials with blackbody-like attributes for radar-absorbent and
camouflage for enhanced radar invisibility. Additionally, such materials have been used as
infrared thermal detectors and solar energy collectors. In addition, they are useful in cameras and
telescopes as surfaces that are anti-reflective to reduce stray light, and for gathering information
about objects located in areas of high-contrast where such materials will absorb the light coming
Blackbody, in physics, an ideal black substance that absorbs all and reflects none of the radiant
energy falling on it. Lampblack, or powdered carbon, which reflects less than 2% of the radiation
arrangement of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes was reported in 2008 to have a reflectance of
wavelength of the radiant energy of a blackbody radiator depends on the absolute temperature of
the blackbody and not on its internal nature or structure. As the temperature increases, the
wavelength at which the energy emitted per second is a maximum decreases. This phenomenon
can be seen in the behavior of an ordinary incandescent object, which gives off its maximum
radiation at shorter and shorter wavelengths as it becomes hotter and hotter. First it glows in long
red wavelengths, then in yellow wavelengths, and finally in short blue wavelengths. In order to
explain the spectral distribution of blackbody radiation, Max Planck developed the quantum
theory in 1901. In thermodynamics the principle of the blackbody is used to determine the nature
and amount of the energy emitted by a heated object. Black-body radiation has served as an
important source of confirmation for the big-bang theory, which holds that the universe was born
in a fiery explosion c.13.7 billion years ago (according to current calculations). According to the
theory, the explosion should have left a remnant black-body cosmic background radiation that is
uniform in all directions and has an equivalent temperature of only a few degrees Kelvin. Such a
uniform background, with a temperature of 2.7°K (see Kelvin temperature scale), was discovered
in 1964 by Arno A. Penzias and Robert L. Wilson, who were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1978 for their work. Recent data gathered by the NASA satellite Cosmic Microwave
Background Explorer (COBE) has revealed small temperature fluctuations in the radiation that