1.

Conflicts have both Negative and positive impacts Discuss

2. Name and explain levels of conflict

3. Explain Conflict process

Conflict’s Positive and Negative Aspects

Many of us see conflict as an adverse occurrence, it comes positive and negative outlook,

coming from clashing individuals or groups.

The Positive Aspects of Conflict

In Social Conflict: Escalation, Stalemate and Settlement, Dean Pruitt and Jeffrey Rubin identify

five positive or beneficial aspects of the conflict.

Conflict contributes to social change ensuring both interpersonal, and intergroup dynamics

remain fresh and reflective of current interests and realities

Conflict serves to “discourage premature group decision making,” forcing participants in the

decision-making process to come up with solutions to conflict.

It is through conflict that solutions are found and solved in relationships and organisations.

Through conflict, groups are made stronger, and they unite to a common goal by providing a
way out for group members to come to an agreement of their interests in a particular group.

Without tearing the group apart, and collapsing it.

The conflict between groups produces intra-group unity as the conflict provides the opportunity

for increased intra-group cooperation while working towards the group’s collective goal for

the conflict’s outcome.

The Negative Aspects of Conflict

Pruitt and Rubin also note that, despite most conflicts being resolved peacefully with positive

outcomes, the conflict has definite negative and sometimes even severe consequences.

Conflict causes groups to lose focus on their prime objectives, leaving them with less time and

resources for other activities. When the conflict uses “heavy contentious tactics,” it causes the

misdirected use of resources meant for other needs to be channelled somewhere else.

A conflict tends coming up with short and sometimes long-term effects which tax people both

physical and psychological sometimes leading to deep-rooted traumas and less coping

mechanisms. It is passed down from one generation to the other leaving families passing

grudges from father to son.

Our Perspective Regarding Conflict

The ability for conflict to culminate both in positive and negative results closely resembles our

perspectives regarding battle and can be mapped along a continuum from a positive or benefit-

centric attitude on one end to a negative or cost-centric view on the other.

Research suggests that an individual’s perspective regarding conflict strongly impacts their

ability to satisfactory address it.

As our perspective of conflict charts our path for engaging and navigating our differences, our

view of conflict must be balanced, realistic, and flexible. Such an attitude recognises that battle

is a standard, natural aspect of human engagement that inevitably shows different degrees in

almost everyone’s life. The perspective also understands that, though the conflict has potential

costs, it does not have to be harmful or destructive. When properly understood and addressed

constructively, conflict can be managed in a way that minimises its potential, but not inevitable,

adverse impacts.

(I) Individual Level Conflict:

Management should keep in mind that all employees have conflict within and amongst

themselves. Conflict comes up within a person whenever he/she drives and motives are

blocked, or he is confronted with competing roles and goals, and he is unable to make decisions.

Factors of Conflict in Individuals :

1. Unacceptability:
Every individual has a known acceptable alternative regarding his/her objectives and views.

Since the alternative favoured by the organisation is not satisfying to him, he is unable to admit

it. Unacceptability is biased because what one individual wants differs from another. When the

alternatives are no desired by an individual, he will search for new alternatives. His search for

an acceptable alternative continues. But sometimes, repeated failure to discover acceptable

options leads to conflict.

2. Incomparability:

One knows the probability distribution of the alternatives, but he is not able to decide because

the results are exceptional. When the results are not similar, no decision could be taken.

Similarly, an individual is also unable to make a proper comparison of alternatives. The

comparison requires clarity, the technique of contrast including weighing of different elements,

rationality in attitude and behaviour and the ability to accomplish the task.

The method of comparison also depends on the certainty and decisiveness of one regarding the

least standard of achievement. If the individual does not have much certainty as to what are the

expectations, he will not be able to make a comparison. The state of incomparability causes a

lot of tension and conflict to the individual.

3. Uncertainty:

Individuals are unsure about the environments within and outside the organisations. If the

situation could be anticipated, the behaviour of the people regarding the acceptability of the

alternative and effectiveness of the option could be gauged with confidence. In a state of doubt,
the individual feels frustrated which is results in conflict. Within an individual, there are usually

some competing goals and roles.

Types of Conflict Within Himself:

(a) Frustration

(b) Goal conflict and

(c) Role conflict

(a) Frustration:

When one is unable to do what he wants to do, he becomes frustrated. Disappointment is the

highest level of dissatisfaction which, in turn, generates conflict in the individual. This happens

when the motivated drives of one are prevented before he reaches his goal. These obstacles

may be physical or mental/social-psychological. Frustration, in turn, leads to the defence

mechanism.

The defensive mechanism or the consequence or the feeling of frustration has broadly been

listed under four heads:

(i) Aggression

(ii) Withdrawal

(iii) Fixation and

(iv) Compromise.

For example, a person wants to enter a room through the door, which is locked. The door is the

barrier. In spite of his best attempts, if he cannot unlock the door, he will resort to hostility, i.e.

bashing the door. Another option can be retreating from the circumstances, i.e. the entrance. If

that does not accomplish anything, then he can try another option, i.e. renewed efforts to open

the door. Finally, he can compromise, i.e. If he cannot enter the room through the door, then

try through the window, i.e. choosing an alternate course of action to whichever alternative he

decides there will be conflict, owing to frustration.

(b) Goal Conflict:

A common source of conflict for a person in the organisation is the presence of two or more

similar goals. This kind of conflict has both positive and negative opinions. Goal conflict

occurs when two or more motives block each other. When an individual is unable to decide on

the goal to be accomplished either due to positive and negative features existing in the goals or

the presence of two or more competing goals, it creates a lot of conflict in the person. In this

context, three types of goal conflict have been chosen.

These are:

(i) Approach—Approach conflict

(ii) Approach-Avoidance conflict

(iii) Avoidance-Avoidance conflict

(i) Approach-Approach Conflict:

Approach-Approach conflict is a situation which occurs when an individual compares two or

more equally attractive but mutually exclusive goals. He cannot choose as to which one is

better of the two, e.g. a person has to choose between acquiring a promotion in the present

organisation and taking an acceptable job with another organisation. This type of conflict has

the least impact on the organisational behaviour.

The approach-approach conflict could be solved with the help of Leon Festinger’s well-known

theory of “Cognitive Dissonance”. Dissonance means psychological discomfort or conflict.

The individual may reduce noise by cognition of a job which is decidedly better than the other.

He can manipulate the information by rationalising the particular decision he takes, seeking

more favourable information about the choice made and avoiding the information causing

dissonance.

(ii) Approach-Avoidance Conflict:

Approach-Avoidance conflict is a position in which a single goal has both positive as well as

negative aspects. He is motivated to approach the target because of the positive features but

simultaneously compelled to avoid it because of its negative attributes. For example, a person

may be granted a raise carrying much higher pay and status, but away from his hometown.
In this method the conflict is at the peak when the approach-avoidance curves meet each other

as shown in the following figure:

Distance From Goal

The verdict could be taken to resolve the conflict by looking at the gradients of avoidance and

approach elements. It the angle of any one of them is steeper beyond the equality point K, it

implies the other one will be over it. Hence the goal is taken because the approach having

positive elements is less steep and is the avoidance gradient having a negative factor.

In fig (2) the goal is avoided because beyond equilibrium the gradient of approach is steeper

than avoidance. In other words, the restraint overweighs approach; hence, the purpose is

rejected. This type of goal conflict is very relevant for organisational behaviour.

(iii) Avoidance-Avoidance Approach:

Avoidance-Avoidance conflict is when you are forced to choose between two conflicting

negative situations. For example, a person may dislike their present job, but the choice of

resigning and looking for another job may be similarly unattractive.

Ordinarily, if both the goals are unattractive, it is comparatively easier to resolve the conflict

not attempting both. But, in some situations, it may not be possible to prevent both the goals.

In such a case, the target having comparatively lesser negative element may be retained and

the other abandoned. Avoidance-Avoidance is not an easy task though both have harmful

ingredients.
In the above conflict situations, the individual will feel dissatisfied with the organisation as the

organisation does not meet his expectations. This will lead to in-congruency between

individual goals and those of the organisation. While Approach- Approach conflict may be

mildly distressing for the individuals, other goal conflicts may be entirely dysfunctional for

both the organisation as well as its members. The general approach for the management should

be to resolve goal conflicts by building compatibility not a conflict between personal and

organisational goals.

(c) Role Conflict:

Every person plays some roles in social and organisational situations. Although all the parts

which he brings to the organisation are relevant to his behaviour, his regulatory position is most

important in the study of organisational practice. Every individual in the organisation is

expected to behave in a particular manner while performing a specific role.

When the expected role is different or opposite from the behaviour anticipated by the individual

in that role, role conflict arises because there is no way to meet one expectation without

rejecting the other. In an organisational setting, everyone plays the role of a superior and

subordinate. Whenever there is a different expectation about himself and others, conflict ought

to arise.

Similarly, conflict may also arise whenever there is overlapping of the two roles played

simultaneously by the same person. For example, a superior is reprimanding his subordinate

for the lapses, and during this course, his boss communicates with him.
There are four types of role conflicts:

(i) Intra-sender Role Conflict:

The intra-sender role this sort of conflict is when one is asked to perform a task at a specified

time but with fewer resources an nd capability. In this case, the expectations from a single

member of a role are incompatible.

(ii) Inter-sender Role Conflict:

In Inter-sender role conflict, the expectations sent from one sender may conflict with those

from one or more other senders.

(iii) Self-Role Conflict:

Self-role conflict occurs when a person is asked to do a job which is incompatible with his

beliefs. One might be asked to overlook personal view for the good of the situation.

(iv) Inter-Role Conflict:

Inter-role conflict arises when an individual occupies multiple and divergent roles

simultaneously, and the expectations associated with these different roles are incompatible.

In an organisation, there are expected behavioural norms for every position.

It's described as role expectation from that individual.

If those duties are not appropriately related they lead to -(a) role ambiguity, (b) role conflict

and (c) role overload.

(a) Role Ambiguity:

Roles need to be spelt out clearly, so the employee understands what is expected of them. This

can happen when the manager or employee's duties are not spelt out clearly in the contract of

employment or merely being misunderstood by the worker.

(b) Role Conflict:

Role conflict mostly comes into play when people know and understand their roles but choose

not to perform or show them.

(c) Role Overload:

Workers can sometimes get overwhelmed by roles thrust on them by management. This, in

turn, creates stress for the employees. Managers sometimes are not aware of this if it's not

communicated.

Role conflicts based on:

(i) Awareness of role conflict

(ii) Acceptance of conflicting job pressures

(iii) Ability to handle stress

(iv) Personality

Role conflict generates tensions among people and affects their attitudes and behaviours so

much. It can be fixed apart from the factors enumerated above by an individual by playing the

role according to conviction and the norms of justice and fair-play. He will play a role by a

standardized and objective pattern of expectation about himself and by others.

(II) Interpersonal Conflict:

The interpersonal conflict involves conflict between two or more individuals I and is probably

the most common and most recognized conflict. All conflicts are rational conflicts because

most of the conflicts are involve a person who is in one organisation or group and to one other

in another group or organisation.

Different aims and objective generate interpersonal conflict. In many cases, these conflicts

come out because of opinions rather than factual. Opinionated views create a lot of personal

clashes and are very personal.

Four Sources of interpersonal conflict according to Whetten and Cameron.

(1) Personal Differences:

People's diverse views can be a significant source of conflict between individuals. Individual

differ because of one’s upbringing, cultural and family traditions, family background,

education experience and values.

(2) Information Deficiency:

Misinformation or lack of information usually results in conflict. This type of conflict often

results from communication breakdown in the organisation.

(3) Role Incompatibility:

The course of interpersonal conflict can be a role of misunderstanding. In today’s inter-

functional organisations, many managers have functions and tasks that are interdependent, and

the individual roles of these managers may be incompatible.

(4) Environment Stress:

People clash each other because of environmental stress. Scarcity and diminishing of resources

to pressures of population and uncertainty escalate a conflict. These usually get solved because

with some people moving to other areas.

The group dynamics are usually solved through counselling and expert management of conflict

crisis; after analysis, the group is encouraged to be open and create mutual trust.
(III) Group Level Conflict:

A group is composed of two or more people who are in interaction with each other, have a

well-defined They have norms and behavioural patterns which bring them together. Groups

not only affect the expression of their members. Instead, they have an entire influence on

organisations and other groups too. Through Intra and Intergroup processes the group has

conflict.

There are five stages in a conflict. These are latent conflict, perceived conflict, felt conflict,

manifest conflict, and conflict aftermath.

(i) Latent Conflict: The first stage of conflict is latent conflict in which the factors that could

become a cause of potential conflict exist. These are the dry for autonomy, the divergence of

goals, role conflict and the competition for scarce resources.

(ii) Perceived conflict: Sometimes conflict arises even if no latent conflict is present. In this

stage, one party perceived the others to be likely to thwart or frustrate his or her goals. The

case, in which conflict is seen when no latent conflict arises, this results in the conflicting

parties misunderstanding each other's positions. Improving ways of communication can easily

deal with such conflict.

(iii) Felt Conflict: Felt conflict is the stage when the conflict is not only perceived but felt

and cognized. For example, Bilali may be aware that he is in a serious argument with Clara

over witchcraft.
But this may not make. Bilali tense or apprehensive and it may have no impact, whatsoever,

on Bilali affection towards Clara. The personalization of dispute is the tool which causes many

people to be affected by conflict. The feeling makes them own the conflict and take it in.

Reasons for owning conflict:

(i) The contradictory demands on efficient organization and individual growth which is caused

by the individual. Anxieties may also result from crisis or extra-organizational pressures.

Individuals need to vent these anxieties to maintain balance.

(ii) Conflict becomes individualised when the whole character of the person is involved in the

relationship. Antagonistic feelings are most prevalent in the close relations that define various

institutions and residential colleges.

(iv) Manifest Conflict: Manifest conflict is the stage when the two parties engage in behaviour

which evokes a response from each other. The most noticeable of these acknowledgements are

open aggression, apathy, sabotage, withdrawal and perfect obedience to rules. Except for prison

riots, political revolutions and extreme labour unrest, violence as a form of manifest conflict

are rare. The motives towards violence may remain they tend to be expressed in a less violent

manner.

(v) Conflict Aftermath: The outcome of conflict may have positive or negative repercussion

for the organization depending upon the how conflict is settled. If the conflict is sincerely

resolved to the satisfaction of all participants, the basis for a more cooperative relationship may

be laid, or the participants in their drive for a more ordered relationship may focus on latent

conflicts not previously perceived and dealt with. On the other hand, if the dispute is merely

suppressed but not resolved, the latent conditions of conflict may be aggravated and explode

in a more severe from until they are rectified. This conflict episode is called conflict aftermath.
Works Referenced

Dean G. Pruitt and Jeffrey Z. Rubin. Social Conflict, (2003) Escalation, Stalemate and

Settlement. McGraw-Hill

Ellen B. Zweibel, Rose Goldstein, John A. Manwaring, and Meridith B. Marks (2008). What

Sticks: How Medical Residents and Academic Health Care Faculty Transfer Conflict

Resolution Training from the Workshop to the Workplace. Conflict Resolution Quarterly 25

Spring

B Mayer. (2012),The Dynamics of Conflict: A Guide to Engagement and Intervention. Jossey-

Bass