Chapter1 MG 2pp

TEL252E
Signals and Systems
Prof.Dr.
f Muhittin
hi i Gökmen
G k
Dept. Of Computer Eng.
MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 1
Lecture 1
1) General Informations about course
2) Signals
3) Systems
4) Examples
1
General Information
Course Name:
TEL252E Signals and Systems
Course Staff:
Instructors: Prof.Dr.Muhittin Gökmen
Room #: EEB 4316
e-mail:gokmen@cs.itu.edu.tr
Doç.Dr. Sabih Atadan
Room #:EEB 5109
e-mail: satadan@cs.itu.edu.tr
Teaching Assistant: Muzaffer Ege Alper
R
Room #
#: R
Research
hLLab3
b3
General Information (Cnt’d)
Course Material:
Lecture Notes
Oppenheim, A. V., and A. S. Willsky, with
S. H. Nawab. Signals and Systems. 2nd ed.
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1997.
ISBN: 0138147574.
2
General Information
Evaluation:
4 Homeworks %10
2 Quizes  %15
Mid-Term  %35
Final  %40
Detailed information can be found in the course

web-page:
http://www.cs.itu.edu.tr/~canberk/tel252e.htm
Calendar
Week 1 Introduction
Week 2 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals and Systems. System Properties.
Singular functions.
Week 3 Convolution. Periodic Signals.
Week 4 Continuous- and Discrete-Time Fourier Series.
Week 5 Continuous-Time Fourier Transform.
Week 6 Continuous-Time Fourier Transform (cont.). Discrete-Time Fourier Transform.
Week 7 Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (cont.).
Week 8 First and Second Order Continuous- and Discrete-Time Systems. Ideal and Non-Ideal
Filters.
Week 9 Midterm Exam
Week 10 Sampling. Impulse-Train Sampling. Sampling Theorem and Aliasing. Zero and First
Order Hold. Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Conversions.
Week 11 Laplace Transforms
Transforms, Unilateral and Bilateral z-Transforms,
z-Transforms Region of Convergence
(ROC). The relationships between Laplace Transform, (Continuous and Discrete) Fourier
Transforms and z-Transform.
Week 12 Transfer Functions using the Laplace- and z-Transforms, Pole-Zero Plot in s- and z-
planes, Stability.
Week 13 Constant Coefficient Linear Differential and Difference Equations.
Week 14 Block Diagram Representation of Continuous- and Discrete-Time Systems. Direct
Form, Series and Cascade Filter Realizations. Feedback Structure in s-Domain.
3
Course Outline (Tentative)
 Fundamental Concepts of Signals and Systems
 Signals
 Systems
 Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems
 Convolution integral and sum
 Properties of LTI Systems …
 Fourier Series
 Response to complex exponentials
 Harmonically related complex exponentials …
 Fourier Integral
 Fourier Transform & Properties …
 Modulation (An application example)
 Discrete-Time Frequency Domain Methods
 DT Fourier Series
 DT Fourier Transform
 Sampling Theorem
 Z Transform
 Stability analysis in z domain
Chapter
p I
Signals and Systems
4
SIGNALS
Signals are functions of independent variables
that carry information about the behavior or
nature of some phenomenon
For example:
• Electrical signals --- voltages and currents
in a circuit
• Acoustic signals --- audio or speech signals
(analog or digital)
• Video signals --- intensity variations in an
image (e.g. a CAT scan)
• Biological signals --- sequence of bases in a
gene
What is Signal?
 Signal is the variation of a physical phenomenon / quantity with respect

to one or more independent variable
 A signal is a function
function.
Example 1: Voltage on a capacitor as a function of time.
R
+
Vs I
i C Vc
-
RC circuit
5
What is Signal?
Example 2 : Closing value of the stock exchange Example 3:Image as a function of x-y coordinates
index as a function of days (e.g. 256 X 256 pixel image)
Index
M T W T F S S
Fig. Stock exchange
THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
• Can be continuous
— Trajectory of a space shuttle
— Mass
M density
d it iin a cross-section
ti off a brain
b i
•Can be discrete
— DNA base sequence
— Digital image pixels
• Can be 1-D, 2-D, ••• N-D
• For this course: Focus on a single (1-D) independent variable
which we call “time”.
Continuous-Time (CT) signals: x(t), t — continuous values

Discrete-Time (DT) signals: x[n], n — integer values only
6
CT Signals
Most of the signals in the physical world are CT

signals—E.g. voltage & current, pressure,
temperature, velocity, etc.
DT Signals
• x[n], n — integer, time varies discretely
• Examples of DT signals in nature:

— DNA base sequence
— Population of the nth generation of certain
species
7
Many human-made DT Signals
Ex.#1 Weekly Dow-Jones Ex.#2 digital image
industrial average
Courtesy of Jason Oppenheim.

Used with
ith permission.
permission
Why DT? — Can be processed by modern digital computers

and digital signal processors (DSPs).
Continuous-Time vs. Discrete Time

 Signals are classified as continuous-time (CT) signals and
discrete-time (DT) signals based on the continuity of the
independent variable!
 In CT signals, the independent variable is continuous (See

Example 1 (Time))
 In DT signals, the independent variable is discrete (See
Ex 2 (Days), Example 3 (x-y coordinates, also a 2-D
signal))
i l))
 DT signal is defined only for specified time instants!
 also referred as DT sequence!
8
 The postfix (-time) is accepted as a convention, although some

independent variables are not time
 To distinguish CT and DT signals, t is used to denote CT

independent variable in (.), and n is used to denote DT
independent variable in [.]
 Discrete x[n], n is integer
 Continuous x(t), t is real
 Signals can be represented in mathematical form:

 x(t) = et, x[n] = n/2
0 ,tt  5
 y(t) = 
 t
2
,t  5
 Discrete signals can also be represented as sequences:
 {y[n]} = {…,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,…}

Graphically,
x[n]
x(t )
... x[3] x[2] ...
x[2] x[1]
x[1] x[0]
0 t ... -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 ... n
(Fig.1.7 Oppenheim)
 It is meaningless to say 3/2th sample of a DT signal because it is not defined.
 The signal values may well also be complex numbers (e.g. Phasor of the
capacitor voltage in Example 1 when the input is sinusoidal and R is time
varying)
9
Signal Energy and Power
 In many applications, signals are directly related to physical quantities
capturing power and energy in a physical systems
t2
 x(t )
2
 Total energy of a CT signal x(t ) over t1  t  t 2is dt
t1
t
1 2

2
 The time average of total energy is x(t ) dtand referred to as
(t2  t1 ) t1
average power of x(t ) over t1  t  t 2
n2
 x[n]
2
 Similarly, total energy of a DT signal x[n] over n1  n  nis2
n1
 Average power of x[n] over n1  n  n2is

n2
1

2
x[n]
( n2  n1  1) n1

 For infinite time intervals:
 Energy: accumulation of absolute of the signal
 T 
li  x(t ) dt  x(t )
2 2
E  lim d  d
dt Total energy in CT signal
T  T 
 N 
 
2 2
E   lim x[ n ]  x[ n ] Total energy in DT signal
T  n N n  
 Signals with E    are of finite energy
 In order to define the power over infinite intervals we need to take limit of
the average:
T
 1 E Note: Signals with E  
T   2T 
2
P  lim x ( t ) dt  lim 
T   2T have P  0
T
N
 1 E

2
P  lim x[ n ]  lim
N  2 N  1 N  2 N  1
n N
10
 Energy signal iff 0<E<, and so P=0

 e.g:  0, t  0
x(t )   t
e , t  0
 Power signal iff 0<P<, and so E=
 e.g: {x[n]}  ...  1,1,  1,1,1,1...}
 Neither
et e e energy
e gy nor
o po
power,
e , when
e bot
both E a
and
dPa
are
e infinite
te
 e.g: x(t )  e t
 Exercise: Calculate power and energy for the above signals
Transformation of Independent
Variable
 Sometimes we need to change the independent variable
axis for teoretical analysis or for just practical purposes
(both in CT and DT signals)
 Time shift x[n]  x[n  n0 ]
 Time reversal x(t )  x(t ) (reverse playing of magnetic tape)
 Time scaling x(t )  x(t / 2) (slow playing, fast playing)
11
Examples of Transformations
x[n]
Time shift
... ... n
x[n-n0]
........ ... n
n0
If n0 > 0  x[n-n0] is the delayed version of x[n]

(Each point in x[n] occurs later in x[n-n0])
x(t)
Time shift
x(t-t0)
t
t0
t0 < 0  x(t-t0) is an advanced version of x(t)
12
x(t)
Time reversal
x(-t)
Reflection about t=0
Time scaling
x(t)
x(2t)
compressed!
x(t/2)
stretched!
t
13
 It is possible to transform the independent variable with a general nonlinear

function h(t) ( we can find x(h(t)) )
 However, we are interested in 1st order polynomial transforms of t, i.e.,
x(t+) x(t)
Given the signal x(t): 1
t
0 1 2
x(t+1)
Let us find x(t+1): 1
(It is a time shift to the left) t

-1 0 1
x(-t+1)
1
Let us find x(-t+1):
(Time reversal of x(t+1)) -1 0 1
t
For the general case, i.e., x(t+),

1. first apply the shift (),
2. and then perform time scaling (or reversal) based on .
x(t+1)
Example: Find x(3t/2+1)
1
t
-1 0 1
x((3/2)t+1)
1
t
-2/3 0 2/3
14
Periodic Signals
 A periodic signal satisfies: x(t )  x(t  T ) t , T  0
p
Example: A CT p
periodic signal
g
x (t )
 2T T
2T
0 T
 If x(t) is periodic with T then T ) for m  Z 

x(t )  x(t  mT
 Thus, x(t) is also periodic with 2T, 3T, 4T, ...
 The fundamental period T0 of x(t) is the smallest value of T for which

x(t )  x(t  T ) t , T  0 holds
Periodic Signals
 A non-periodic signal is called aperiodic.
Period must be
 For DT we must have integer!
x[n  N ]  x[n] n, N  0
Here the smallest N can be 1,  a constant signal
 The smallest positive value N0 of N is the fundamental

period
i d
15
Even and Odd Signals
 If x(t )  x(t ) or x[n]  x[n] even signal (symmetric wrt y-axis)
 If x(t )   x(t ) or x[n]   x[n] odd signal (symmetric wrt origin)
x(t) x(t)
even odd
t t
 Decomposition of signals to even and odd parts:
1
EVx(t )  x(t )  x(t)
2
x(t )  EV x(t ) ODx(t )
1
OD x(t)   x(t )  x(t)
2
Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
 Occur frequently and serve as building blocks to construct many

other signals
 CT Complex Exponential:
x(t )  Ce
at
where a and C are in general complex.
 Depending on the values of these parameters, the complex

exponential can exhibit several different characteristics
a>0 Real Exponential a<0

(C and a are real)
x(t) x(t)
C t C
t
16
 Periodic Complex Exponential (C real, a purely imaginary)
x(t )  e jw0t
 Is this function periodic?
2πn
x(t )  e jw0t  e jw0 ( t T )  e jw0t .e jw0T T n Z 
ω0
for periodicity =1
 The fundamental period is T0 

2
0
 Thus, the signals ejω0t and e-jω0t have the same fundamental
period
 By using the Euler’s relations:
e j  cos   j sin 
e  j  cos   j sin 
We can express: (put   0 t  
e j0t  cos 0t  j sin 0t
A cos(0t   ) 
2
e 
A j (0t  )  j (0t  )
e
A
 
 e j e j 0 t  e  j e  j 0 t
2

A sin(0t   ) 
2j
e 
A j (0t  )  j (0t  )
e 
A j j 0 t
2j

e e  e  j e  j 0 t  
Sinusoidals in terms of complex exponentials
17
Alternatively,

A cos((0t   )  A Re e j (0t  ) 
A sin( t   )  A Ime
0
j (0t  )

2
T0 
x (t ) 0
CT sinusoidal signal
A cos 
A cos(0t   )
t
x ( t )  A cos(  0 t   )
 Complex periodic exponential and sinusoidal signals are of infinite

total energy but finite average power
T T0 T T0
j 0 t 2
E period  
T
e dt   1  dt (T  T0 )  T  T0
T
1
Pperiod  E period  1
(T  T0 )  T
 As the upper limit of integrand is increased as T  2T0 , T  3T0 ,...E period 
 However, always Pperiod  1

 Thus, Finite average power!
T
1 2
T  2T 
P  lim  e j t dt  1 IMPORTANT
0
T
18
Harmonically Related Complex
Exponentials
 Set of periodic exponentials with fundamental
frequencies that are multiplies of a single
positive frequency 0
xk (t )  e jk0t for k  0,1,2,...
k  0  xk (t ) is a constant
k  0  xk (t ) is periodic with fundamental frequency k 0
2 T 2
and fundamental period  0 , where T0 
k 0 k 0

Exponentials
 kth harmonic xk(t) is still periodic with T0 as well
 H
Harmonic i (f
(from music):
i ) ttones resulting
lti ffrom
variations in acoustic pressures that are integer
multiples of a fundamental frequency
 Used to build very rich class of periodic signals
19
General Complex Exponential Signals
Here, C and a are general complex numbers
y C  C e j and a  r  j0 x(t )  Ceat

Say,
Then
x(t )  Ceat  C erte j (0t  )  C ert cos(0t  )  j C ert sin(0t  )
(Real and imaginary parts) Growing and damping sinusoids for r>0 and r<0
x(t )
t, r  0 t, r  0
x(t )  Ce rt cos(0t   )
envelope
DT Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
xn   C n where C and  are in general complex numbers

It is more convenient and customaryy to use α instead of en
Real exponentia l signals : C and  are real
for   1,0    1,1    0,   1

(Sign alternatio n for   0)
 1 0  1
1    0   1
20
DT Sinusoidal Signals
Consider e j0 n we then have similar to the CT case

A j j 0 n  j  j 0 n
A cos((0 n   )  (e e e e )
2
Infinite energy, finite average power with 1.
 1
General complex exp signals
If C and  are in polar form as

C  C e j ,    e j 0
then
n n
C n  C  cos(0 n   )  j C  sin(0 n   )
 1
Real and imaginary parts of DT general complex exp are
sinusoidals (growing   1, and decaying   1)
Periodicity Properties of DT Signals
Consider the DT complex exp : e j0 n

Let' s find e j(0  2 )n  e j0 n e
j 2n
1
SO THE FN WITH FREQ 0 IS THE SAME AS THE FN WITH 0  2

This is very different from CT complex exp.
CT exp has distinct freq values 0
DT exp has identical freq values 0  2k , k  Z
Result:
It is sufficient to consider an interval from 0 to 0 +2 to completely

characterize the DT complex exponential!
21
One usually takes 0  0  2 or -   0  

 For CT exp as 0  the rate of oscillation  indefinitely
 For DT exp as 0  from 0 to  , the rate of oscillation ,
as 0  more until 2 , the rate of oscillation  to zero.
Hence, low freq (slow varying) DT complex exp is around 0  0 and 0  2
High freq (rapidly varying) DT complex exp is around 0  
What about the periodicity of DT complex exp?
Periodicity condition : e j0 ( n  N )  e j0 n e

j 0 N
(*)
must be unity
This holds if 0 N is an integer multiple of 2 . (**)

In other words some integer m we must have 0 N  2m
0 m
Or equivalently  (* * *)
2 N
We have the conditions from (*) and (**) that m and N
must be integers.
0 m
So DT exp is periodic when  is a rational number,
2 N
not periodic otherwise!!!
22
Take the common factor out

2 0
The fundamental frequency is then 
N m
 2 
The fundamental period is then N  m  (* * **)

 0
Therefore to find the fund freq of an complex exp we need to express
0
as in ((* * *))
2
(The same development is also valid for DT sinusoidal signals.)!!

Examples
Ex : x[n]  cos(2n ) is periodic with fund period 12.

12
2  1
x[n]  cos(2n )  cos(0 n) 0   0  no factors in common,
common
12 12 2 12
 12 
so by using (* * **) , N  1   12
1
Ex : x[n]  cos(4n ) is periodic with fundamental period 6.
12
4  2 (n  1)
[ ]  cos((4n )  cos((0 n)) 0 
x[n]  0   ,
12 12 2 12 ( N  6)
 12 
then using (* * **) , N  1   6
2
23
Examples
 OBSERVATION:
 With no common factors between N and m, N in (***) is the
fundamental period of the signal
 Hence, if we take common factors out
0 1
 N 6
2 6
 Comparison of Periodicity of CT and DT Signals:
 Consider x(t) and x[n]
x(t)  cos ( 2πt ) x[n]  cos ( 2πn )

12 12
x(t) is periodic with T=12, x[n] is periodic with N=12.

Examples
 But, if 
x(t )  cos 8t
31
 and x[n]  cos 8n  
31
x(t) is periodic with 31/4.
0 4
 In DT there can be no fractional periods, for x[n] we have 
2 31
then N=31.
If  6  and x[n]  cosn 6 

x(t )  cos t
0 1 there is
x(t) is periodic with 12π, but x[n] is not periodic, because 
no way to express it as in (***) 2 12
Study Fig.1.27 page 27, Table 1.1 in Opp. Example 1.6 as well
24
Exponentials (Discrete Time)
 Set of periodic exponentials with a common period
N
2
 Si
Signals
l att frequencies
f i multiples
lti l off
N
(from 0N=2m)
 2 
jk  n
k [n]  e  N 
for k  0 ,  1,  2 ,...
 In CT, all of the HRCE, e jk 0t for k  0,1,2,... are

distinct
 Different in DT case!

Exponentials (Discrete Time)
 Let’s look at (k+N)th harmonic:
 2   2 
j ( k  N ) n jk  n
j 2n
k  N [ n]  e  N 
e  N 
.e  k [ n]
1
 Only N distinct periodic exponentials in k[n] !!

 That is,
2 4 2
j n j n j ( N 1) n
0 [n]  1, 1[n]  e N
, 2 [ n]  e N
,  ,  N 1[n]  e N
0[n]  N [n], 1[n]  N 1[n]
25
Unit Impulse and Unit Step Functions
 Basic signals used to construct and represent other signals
 0, n  0 δ[n]
DT unit impulse:
p  [n]   Unit impulse (unit sample)
1, n  0 - - - - - -
n
u[n]
0, n  0
DT unit step: u[ n ]  
1, n  0 - - - - - -
n
Relation between DT unit impulse and unit step (?):
 [n]  u[n]  u[n  1]

(DT unit impulse is the first difference of the DT step)
 Interval of summation
u[ n ]    [n - k]
0
[n-k] n<0
- - - - - -
k
n 0
(DT step is the
running sum of DT Interval of summation
unit sample)
[n-k] n>0
- - - - - -
k
n
x[n] [n]  x[0] [n] 0
More generally for a unit impulse [n-n0] at n0 :
x[n] [n  n0 ]  x[n0 ] [n  n0 ] Sampling property
26
(Continuous-Time)
0, t  0 u(t)
CT unit step: u(t )  
1, t  0 t
δ(t)
CT unit impulse is the
CT impulse: du(t ) 1
 (t )  t
1st derivative of the
dt 0 unit sample
t
CT unit step is the running integral
u (t )    ( )d of the unit impulse

Continuous-Time Impulse
 CT impulse is the 1st derivative of unit step

du(t )
 (t ) 
dt
 There is discontinuity at t=0, therefore we define u  (tas
)
u  (t ) u (t )  lim u  (t )
 0
1
du (t )
0 
t   (t )    (t )  lim   (t )
dt  0
  (t )  (t )
1/
1
t t
0  0
27
Continuous-Time Impulse
REMARKS:
 Signal
g of a unit area
 Derivative of unit step function
 Sampling property x(t ) (t  t0 )  x(t0 ) (t  t0 )
 The integral of product of (t) and (t) equals (0) for

any (t)
( ) continuous
i at the
h origin
i i and d if the
h iintervall off
integration includes the origin, i.e.,
t2
  ( ) ( ) d 
t1
 ( 0 ) for t 1  0  t 2
CT and DT Systems
What is a system?
 A system: any process that results in the transformation

of signals
 A system has an input-output relationship
 Discrete-Time System: x[n]  y[n] : y[n] = H[x[n]]
x[n] DT y[n]
System
 Continuous-Time System: x(t)  y(t) : y(t) = H(x(t))
x(t) CT y(t)
System
28
CT and DT Systems
Examples
 In CT, differential equations are examples of systems

 Zero state response of the capacitor voltage in a series
RC circuit
R
+ dvc (t ) 1 1
Vs I
i C Vc  vc (t )  vs (t )
dt RC RC
-
vc(t): output, vs(t): input
RC circuit
 In DT, we have difference equations
 Consider a bank account with %1 monthly interest rate
added on: y[n]  1.01y[n  1]  x[n]
y[n]: output: account balance at the end of each month
x[n]: input: net deposit (deposits-withdrawals)
Interconnection of Systems
 Series (or cascade) Connection: y(t) = H2( H1( x(t) ) )
x(t) System 1 System 2 y(t)
H1 H2
 e.g. radio receiver followed by an amplifier
 Parallel Connection: y(t) = H2( x(t) ) + H1( x(t) )

System 1
H1
x(t) y(t)
+
System 1
H2
 e.g. phone line connecting parallel phone microphones
29
Interconnection of Systems
 Previous interconnections were “feedforward systems”

 The systems has no idea what the output is
 Feedback Connection: y(t) = H2( y(t) ) + H1( x(t) )
x(t) System 1 y(t)
+ H1
System 2
H2
 In feedback connection, the system has the knowledge of output

 e.g. cruise control
 Possible
MG2011 to have combinations of connections..
TEL252E Signals and Systems 59
System Properties
Memory vs. Memoryless Systems
 Memoryless Systems: System output y(t) depends only

on the input
p at time t, i.e. y(
y(t)) is a function of x(t).
()
 e.g. y(t)=2x(t)
 Memory Systems: System output y(t) depends on input
at past or future of the current time t, i.e. y(t) is a function
of x() where - <  <.
 Examples:
 A resistor: y(t) = R x(t)
t
1
C 
y (t )  x( )d
 A capacitor:
 A one unit delayer: y[n] = x[n-1]

n
 An accumulator:
y[n]   x[k ]
k  
30
System Properties
Invertibility
 A system is invertible if distinct inputs result in distinct outputs.

 If a system is invertible, then there exists an inverse system which
converts output of the original system to the original input
input.
 Examples:
x(t) y(t) Inverse w(t)=x(t)

System
System
n t
y (t )  4 x(t ) y[n]   x[k ]

k  
y (t )   x(t )dt

1 dy (t )
w(t )  y (t ) w[n]  y[n]  y[n  1] w(t ) 
4 dt
y (t )  x 4 (t ) Not invertible
System Properties
Causality
 A system is causal if the output at any time depends only on values of

the input at the present time and in the past
 Examples:
 Capacitor voltage in series RC circuit (casual)
y (t )  2 x(t  4) Non-causal
y[n]  x[ n] Non-causal (why?) (For n<0, system requires future

inputs)
y (t )  2 x(t  4) cos(t  1) Causal (why?)
 Systems of practical importance are usually casual

 However, with pre-recorded data available we do not constrain
ourselves to causal systems (or if independent variable is not time, any
example??) 1 M
y[n]   x[n  k ]
2M  1 k  M
Averaging system in a block of data
31
System Properties
Stability
 A system is stable if small inputs lead to responses that do not diverge

 More formally, a system is stable if it results in a bounded output for any
bounded input
input, ii.e.
e bounded
bounded-input/bounded-output
input/bounded output (BIBO).
(BIBO)
 If |x(t)| < k1, then |y(t)| < k2.
 Example:
t
y (t )   x(t )dt y[ n]  100 x[ n] stable
0
Ball at the base of valley Ball at the top of hill

x(t)
y(t)
y(t)
x(t)
M
1
 Averaging system: y[ n ]  
2M  1 k  M
x[ n  k ] stable
 Interest system: y[n]  1.01 y[n  1]  x[n] unstable (say x[n]=[n], y[n]
grows without bound
System Properties
Time-Invariance
 A system is time-invariant if the behavior and characteristics of the

system are fixed over time
 More formally: A system is time-invariant
time invariant if a delay (or a time
time-shift)
shift)
in the input signal causes the same amount of delay (or time-shift)
in the output signal, i.e.:
x(t) = x1(t-t0)  y(t) = y1(t-t0)
x[n] = x1[n-n0]  y[n] = y1[n-n0]
 Examples:
y[n]  nx[n] y (t )  x(2t ) y (t )  sin x(t )
x1[n]  y1[n]  nx1[ n]
x2 [n]  x1[n  n0 ]  y2 [n]  nx1[n  n0 ] Not TIV
TIV
y1[n  n0 ]  (n  n0 ) x1[n  n0 ]  y2 [n] (explicit operation
on time) (Ex. 1.14)
(Ex. 1.16)
(Ex. 1.15) When showing a system is not TIV, try to
Not TIV find counter examples…
32
System Properties
Linearity
 A system is linear if it possesses superposition property,

i.e., weighted sum of inputs lead to weighted sum of
responses of the system to those inputs
 In other words, a system is linear if it satisfies the
properties:
 It is additivity: x(t) = x1(t) + x2(t)  y(t) = y1(t) + y2(t)
 And it is homogeneity (or scaling): x(t) = a x1(t)  y(t) = a y1(t), for
a any complex constant.
 The two properties can be combined into a single
property:
 Superposition:
x(t) = a x1(t) + b x2(t)  y(t) = a y1(t) + b y2(t)
x[n] = a x1[n] + b x2[n]  y[n] = a y1[n] + b y2[n]
How
MG2011 do you check linearity of a given system?
TEL252E Signals and Systems 65
System Properties
Linearity
 Examples:
y[n]  2 x[n]  3
y (t )  x 2 (t ) y[n]  Re{x[n]}
x1[n]  2, x2 [n]  3
x1[n]  r[n]  js[ n]  y1[n]  r[n] x1[n]  y1[n]  2.2  3  7
x2 [n]  ax1[n]  j (r[n]  js[ n]) for a  j x2 [n]  y2 [n]  2.3  3  9
nonlinear
 x2 [n]   s[n]  jr[ n]
x1[n]  x2 [n]  2  3  5
x2 [n]  y2 [ n]   s[ n]  ay1[n]
x1[n]  x2 [n]  y1 2 [n]  2.5  3  13
y1[n]  y2 [ n]  7  9  16  y1 2 [n]
nonlinear
nonlinear
y[n]  2 x[n  1]
linear
33
Superposition in LTI Systems
 For an LTI system:

 given response y(t) of the system to an input signal x(t)
 it is possible to figure out response of the system to any signal
x1(t) that can be obtained by “scaling” or “time-shifting” the input
signal x(t), i.e.:
x1(t) = a0 x(t-t0) + a1 x(t-t1) + a2 x(t-t2) + … 
y1(t) = a0 y(t-t0) + a1 y(t-t1) + a2 y(t-t2) + …
 Very useful property since it becomes possible to solve a
wider range of problems.
 This property will be basis for many other techniques
that we will cover throughout the rest of the course.
Superposition in LTI Systems
 Exercise: Given response y(t) of an LTI system to the input signal x(t) below,
find response of that system to the input signals x1(t) and x2(t) shown below.
x(t)
() y(t)
2
1
t t
1 -1 1
x1(t) x2(t) 4
2
2
1 3 t
t
-1
-1/2 1/2 1
34
3
Audio Physics Of Acoustics
Sound can be thought of in one of two ways:
• In the time domain
• In the frequency domain
• Transformation
T f ti is
i accomplished
li h d by
b a Fourier
F i transform
t f
Fourier:
• Any waveform can be represented by a sum of sine waves
3
Physics Of Acoustics con’t
Audio
Loudness measured in dB (decibel): logarithm
+10 dB perceived as „double“ loudness β

loudness  10log  I I 
 
0
• I0 tthreshold
es o d (just pe
perceived) ( 0-12 Jou
ce ved) (10 Joule/s
e/s . m²),
), OdB
Od
• +10 dB (double loudness) equals 10-fold energy
35
3
Audio Physics Of Acoustics con’t
Frequency  Pitch
Amplitude  Loudness
3
Analog to Digital: Theory of Sampling
Audio
From analog to digital:

0. Filter (low-pass): Remove frequencies larger than fmax
1. Sample: Measure signal value (1a: hold=store temporarily)
2 Quantize: Relate value to interval (A/D conv.
2. conv quantizes,
quantizes too)
3. Encode: Assign binary code (e.g., integer no. of interval)
Steps 1,2,3 standardized as "Pulse Code Modulation" PCM

Important factors:
• Sampling rate: Number of sampled values per second
• Quantization depth: Number of bits per digitized value
36
3 Analog to Digital: Theory of Sampling con’t
Sampling rate determined by properties of recorded sound:
Audio
• Nyquist: “For lossless digitization, the sampling rate (frequency fs)

should be at least twice the maximum frequency considered, fmax”
• Mathematically precise: "any epsilon larger than...", i.e. fs > 2fmax
• Attention:
Att ti assumes 0 quantization
ti ti error, unrealistic
li ti → quantization
ti ti
noise
• Music typically extends from 20 Hz to 20 kHz
• Speech 100 Hz to 10 kHz, major energy in band from 200Hz to 4kHz
Quantization depth determined by desired sound

quality (quant. noise): Typically 8 (256 levels) or
16 (65
(65,536
536 levels)
l l)
Samples always "per channel": (e.g., 2x for stereo)
Logarithmic Quantization:
compensates for fact that quantization
error much more audible around 0 amplitude
3
Audio Quality of Common Appliances
Audio
37
3
Audio Sampling Rates
3
Common Coding Methods
Audio
Coding = representation of sampled values by integers / bits

PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)
• integer value = (quantized) sampled value
p but requires
• simple q high
g number of bits
DPCM (Differential PCM)
• integer value = difference between current value and predicted value
• prediction based on previous values
• requires less bits than PCM for same quality
DM (Delta Modulation)
• as DPCM but only differences of 1 and -1 allowed
• requires minimal number of bits but quality can be poor
ADPCM (Adaptive Differential PCM):
• as DPCM but adapts predictor to signal characteristics
• simplest prediction: "difference remains"
• also adapts width of quantization steps to signal characteristics
• better quality than DPCM with same storage requirements
38
3
Audio Physics Of Acoustics con’t
Frequency  Pitch
Amplitude  Loudness
3 Example
Audio
Phonem: Stairs
Di h
Diphon
Half syllable
Syllable
39
3 Speech Synthesis in Frequency Domain
Audio
3 Speech Input
Audio
40
3 Speech Recognition
Audio
Sound pattern
Word model
3
Sound Enhancement
Audio
• Declicking
• Noise Reduction
• Echo suppression
41
3
Audio Declicking
Removing impulse distortions, also called declicking of

recorded sound, is performed in two steps. In a first step
impulse distortions - clicks - are detected within a signal,
which are going to be removed from the signal in the second
step.
3
Declicking con’t
Audio
42
3
Audio Noise Reduction
3
Echo Suppression
Audio
sonogram
43
Baseline JPEG Encoder Block Diagram
Baseline JPEG Decoder

Decoder Block Diagram
44
Baseline JPEG Pros and Cons
• Advantages • Disadvantages
• Memory Efficient • Single resolution
• Low complexity • Single quality
• Compression efficiency • No target bit rate
• Visual model utilization • No lossless capability
• Robustness • No tiling
• No ROI
• Blocking artifacts
• Poor error resilience
45
Noise reduction Edge Enhancement
Zooming
46
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
* 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
=
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Median Operation
9 65
8 63
7 62
61 621 59
1 651 6 60
62 59 65
57 601 63 561 rank 59
1 60 63 56 5
59 551 58
1 571 4 58
55 58 57
49 53 55 45 3 57
2 56
C1,2= 59 55
1
47
9x9 Median
Edge Detection
 What is an edge
 A large
l change
h iin iimage b
brightness
i ht off a short
h t
spatial distance
 Edge strength = (I(x,y)-I(x+dx,y))/dx
48
Roberts Operator
I ( x , y )  I ( x  1 , y  1 )   I ( x , y  1 )  I ( x  1 , y ) 
2 2
or
I ( x , y )  I ( x  1, y  1 )  I ( x , y  1 )  I ( x  1, y )
1 0 0 1
0 -1 + -1 0
 Does not return any information about the

orientation of the edge
Prewitt Operator
-1 -1 -1 -1 0 1
P1= 0 0 0 P2 -1 0 1
1 1 1 = -1 0 1
Edge Magnitude = P12  P22
P 
Edge Direction = tan 1  1 
 P2 
49
Robinson Compass Masks
-1 0 1 0 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 0
-2 0 2 -1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 -1
-1 0 1 -2 -1 0 -1 -2 -1 0 -1 -2
1 0 -1 0 -1 -2 -1 -2 -1 -2 -1 0
2 0 -2 -1 0 -1 0 0 0 -1 0 1
1 1 -1 2 1 0 1 2 1 0 1 2
0 1 2
-1 0 1
-2 -1 0
1 2 1
0 0 0
-1 -2 -1
50
2D Laplacian Operator
 2 f  x, y   2 f  x, y 
 f ( x, y ) 
2

x 2
y 2
Convolution masks approximating a Laplacian
0 -1 0 1 -2 1 -1 -1 -1
-1 4 -1 -2 4 -2 -1 8 -1
0 -1 0 1 -2 1 -1 -1 -1
0 -1 0
-1 4 -1
0 -1 0
Input Mask Output
51
Chapter 4
Image Enhancement in the
Frequency Domain
Chapter 4
Frequency Domain
52
Chapter 3
Spatial Domain
Chapter 3
Spatial Domain
53

Chapter1 MG 2pp

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Chapter1 MG 2pp

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

TEL252E

Signals and Systems

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 1

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 2

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 3

General Information (Cnt’d)

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 4

Detailed information can be found in the course

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 5

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 6

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 8

 Signal is the variation of a physical phenomenon / quantity with respect

Example 1: Voltage on a capacitor as a function of time.

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 10

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 11

THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

Continuous-Time (CT) signals: x(t), t — continuous values

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 12

Most of the signals in the physical world are CT

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 13

• Examples of DT signals in nature:

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 14

Courtesy of Jason Oppenheim.

Why DT? — Can be processed by modern digital computers

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 15

Continuous-Time vs. Discrete Time

 In CT signals, the independent variable is continuous (See

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 16

 The postfix (-time) is accepted as a convention, although some

 To distinguish CT and DT signals, t is used to denote CT

 Continuous x(t), t is real

 Signals can be represented in mathematical form:

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 17

Continuous-Time vs. Discrete Time

 It is meaningless to say 3/2th sample of a DT signal because it is not defined.

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 18

 Average power of x[n] over n1  n  n2is

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 19

Signal Energy and Power

 Signals with E    are of finite energy

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 20

 Energy signal iff 0<E<, and so P=0

 Exercise: Calculate power and energy for the above signals

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 21

 Time shift x[n]  x[n  n0 ]

 Time reversal x(t )  x(t ) (reverse playing of magnetic tape)

 Time scaling x(t )  x(t / 2) (slow playing, fast playing)

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 22

If n0 > 0  x[n-n0] is the delayed version of x[n]

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 23

t0 < 0  x(t-t0) is an advanced version of x(t)

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 24

Reflection about t=0

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 25

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 26

 It is possible to transform the independent variable with a general nonlinear

Given the signal x(t): 1

(It is a time shift to the left) t

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 27

For the general case, i.e., x(t+),

MG2011 TEL252E Signals and Systems 28

 If x(t) is periodic with T then T ) for m  Z 

 The fundamental period T0 of x(t) is the smallest value of T for which