Академический Документы
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These books can be used in a self-study or instructor led format. There are two volumes, the Text
and the Questions and Answers.
TEXTBOOK
The textbook table of contents follows the API 510 Body of Knowledge that was in effect at the
time of its writing. Each area can be studied as a stand alone module for those who do not intend to set
for the API 510 exam, but want to obtain a better understanding on a given Code subject.
The process found to most effective for general use is to study each subject of interest and
complete the quizzes at the end of that module. As regards calculations, after mastering the given
material, refer to the Advanced Material section to increase the depth of understanding. The Advanced
Material covers the calculations required for some actual circumstances that might be encountered in the
field.
For those intending to sit for the API 510 examination, at this writing the exam candidate is
allowed to use the ASME Codes and the API books on the first portion of the test only. No reference
material is allowed for the second half of the test! You are also allowed to hand write notes in the
margins of the Code and API books used for the test.
This portion contains questions from the API 510 Code and the Recommended Practices, titled
RPI 572 Inspection of Pressure Vessels, RPI 576 Pressure Relieving Devices and Chapter II -Conditions
Causing Deterioration and Failures. These questions are for memorization if the examination will be
taken!
API 510 Eighth Ed. June, 1997 with Addendums.1(Dec. 98) & 2 (Dec. 2000)
API RP 572 First Edition Feb. 1992
API RP 576 Second Edition (Dec. 2000)
API Guide to Inspection of Refinery Equipment Chapter 2
ASME Section VIII Div.1 1998 with 99 and 2000 Addenda
ASME Section IX 1998 Edition with 99 and 2000 Addenda
ASME Section V 1998 Edition with 99 and 2000 Addenda
API CODES
Scope 5
Inspection Interval 9
Metal loss including corrosion averaging 13
Corrosion rates 13
Remaining Corrosion Allowance 13
Remaining Service Life 13
Quiz # 1 14
Scope 17
Types of pressure relieving devices 17
Reasons for Inspection 17
Causes of Improper Performance 17
Frequency and Time of Inspection 17
Quiz # 2 21
Quiz # 3 22
Scope 23
Reasons for Inspection 24
Causes of Deterioration 24
Methods of Repairs 27
Inspection Records and Reports 32
Quiz # 4 34
Quiz # 5 35
Quiz # 6 36
Quiz # 7 37
Quiz # 8 38
IRE Chapter 2
Joint Efficiencies
Practical Knowledge
Section IX
Appendix
Overview
Section 1
General
Scope:
The API 510 applies to pressure vessels in the petrochemical and refining industries after they have
entered service. The ASME Code applies to the new construction of vessels. While it applies only to new
construction it is often the Code to which a vessel is repaired. There are other construction Codes to
which a vessel can be constructed, for instance the Department of Transportation (DOT) provides rules for
the construction of and shipping of compressed gas cylinders. The Code for the construction of storage
tanks is API 653 and so forth.
Section 2
References:
Section 3
Definitions:
In this section the terms used in the API 510 Code are defined such as Alteration, ASME Code, API
Authorized Inspector, Construction Code, Maximum Allowable Working Pressure, Minimum Allowable
Shell Thickness and On-Stream Inspections just to mention a few. Study this section carefully as many
questions on the Exam often come from here.
Section 4
This section lists in detail the responsibilities of the owner–user as regards the following:
Also listed are the educational and experience requirements for Authorized Pressure Vessel Inspectors and
the detailed listing of a required quality assurance inspection manual.
Multiple questions over areas of responsibility are frequently included on the examination. A fair amount
of study on these issues is highly recommended.
Often questions are asked about what must be done before entry into a vessel. Isolation, draining,
cleaning, purging and gas testing also the warning of personnel in the area, both inside and outside the
vessel, etc. Checking of safety equipment is necessary as well as inspection tools.
Some of the listed modes of deterioration are fatigue, creep, brittle fracture, general corrosion, stress
corrosion cracking, hydrogen attack, carburization, graphitization, and erosion. A general question may
be asked such as; list six modes of deterioration or a more specific question such as; what is creep
dependent upon.
Corrosion-Rate Determination:
One important aspect of vessel maintenance and operation is the determination of how frequently a vessel
needs to be inspected. This can be largely driven by the rate at which a vessel is corroding. There are
three methods recognized by API 510 for this determination.
a. A corrosion rate may be calculated from data collected by the owner/user on vessel providing
the same or similar service.
b. Corrosion rate may be estimated from published data or from the owner user's experience.
c. After 1,000 hours of service using corrosion tabs or, on-stream NDE measurements.
If the estimated rates are in error they must be adjusted to determine the next inspection date.
The continued use of a pressure vessel must be based on calculations using the current edition of the
ASME Code or the edition the vessel was constructed to. A vessel’s MAWP may not be raised unless a full
rerating has been performed in accordance with section 5.3. In corrosive service the wall thickness used in
the calculations must be the actual thickness as determined by the inspection, but must not be thicker than
original thickness on the vessel's original material test report or Manufacturer's Data Report minus twice
the estimated corrosion loss before the next inspection.
Defect Inspection:
Careful visual examination is the most important and most universally accepted method of inspection.
Other methods that may be used to supplement visual inspection are magnetic particle, ultrasonics, eddy
current, radiographic, penetrant and hammer testing (when the vessel is not under pressure). Vessels shall
be checked visually for distortion. Internal surfaces should be prepared by an acceptable method of
cleaning, there is no hard and fast rule for cleaning. External surfaces may require the removal of parts of
the insulation in an area of suspected problems or to check the effectiveness of the insulating system.
Sometimes deposits inside a vessel act to protect its metal from attack. It can be necessary to clean
selected areas down to bare metal to inspect those areas if problems are suspected from past experience or
if some indication of a problem is present.
1. No pit is greater than half the vessel wall thickness without adding corrosion
allowance into the wall thickness.
2. The total area of the pits does not exceed 7 square inches. in any 8 inch diameter
circle.
3. The sum of their dimensions along any straight line with in the circle does not
exceed 2 inches.
f. As an alternative to the above the thinning components may be evaluated using the rules of Section VIII
Division 2 Appendix 4 of the ASME Code. If this approach is used consulting with a engineer
experienced in pressure vessel design is required.
g. When corrosion is located at a weld with a joint efficiency less than 1.0 and also in the area adjacent
to the weld special consideration must be given to the calculations for minimum thickness. Two sets of
calculations must be performed to determine the maximum allowable working pressure; one for the weld
using its joint efficiency and one for the remote area using E equals 1.0 . For purposes of these
calculations the surface at the weld includes one (1) inch on either side of the weld or twice the minimum
thickness whichever is greater.
1. The thickness of the knuckle region with the head rating calculated using the
appropriate head formula.
2. The thickness of the central portion of the dished region, in which case the dished
region may be considered a spherical segment whose allowable pressure is calculated
using the Code formula for spherical shells.
The spherical segment of both ellipsoidal and torispherical heads shall be considered to be in an area
located entirely in with a circle whose center coincides with the center of the head and whose diameter is
equal to 80 percent of the shell diameter. The radius of the dish of torispherical heads is to be used as the
radius of the spherical segment. The radius of the spherical segment of ellipsoidal heads shall be
considered to be the equivalent spherical radius K1D, where D is the shell diameter (equal to the major
axis) and K1 is as given in Table 1.
Section 6
Inspection and Testing of Pressure Vessels
And Pressure-Relieving Devices
General:
Section 6 requires that pressure vessels be inspected at the time of installation unless a Manufacturer's
Data Report is available. Further all pressure vessels must be inspected at frequencies provided in Section
4. These inspections may be internal or external and may require any number of nondestructive
techniques.
The inspection may be made while the vessel is in operation as long as all the necessary information can
be provided using that method.
Risk-Based Inspection:
Risk based inspection includes the assessment of the likelihood of failure along with consequences of
failure. When chosen, RBI must be assessed using a systematic evaluation of all forms of degradation that
could be reasonably be expected to affect a vessel in any particular service. After a complete and well-
documented assessment the results can be used to formulate an appropriate vessel inspection plan.
External Inspection:
The frequency for the external inspection of above the ground vessels shall be every 5 years or at the same
interval as the internal or on-stream inspection, whichever is less. This inspection should be performed
when the vessel is in service if possible.
Things to be checked shall include but are not limited to the following:
a. Exterior insulation
b. Supports
c. Allowance for expansion
d. General alignment
e. Signs of leakage
Buried vessels shall be monitored to determine their surrounding environmental condition. The frequency
of inspection must be based on corrosion rate information obtained on surrounding piping or vessels in
similar service.
Vessels known to have a remaining life in excess of 10 years or have a very tight insulation systems
against external corrosion do not need to have the insulation removed for inspection however the
insulation should be inspected for its condition at least every 5 years.
The period between internal or on-stream inspections shall not exceed 10 years or one-half the estimated
remaining corrosion-rate life whichever is less. In cases where the remaining safe operating life is
estimated at less than 4 years the inspection may be the full remaining safe operating life up to a
maximum of 2 years. Internal inspection is the preferred method On Stream may be substituted if all of
the following are true.
When the corrosion rate is known to be less than 0.005 inch per year and the estimated remaining life is
greater than 10 years internal inspection of the vessel is unnecessary as long as the vessel remains in the
same service, complete external inspections are performed and all of the following are true:
The non-corrosive character of the contents has been proven over a five-year period. Nothing serious is
found during the externals. The operating temperature of the vessel does not exceed the lower temperature
limits for the creep-rupture range of the vessel metal. The vessel cannot be subject to accidental exposure
to corrosives. Size and configuration make internal inspection impossible. The vessel is not subject to
cracking or hydrogen damage. The vessel is not plate-lined or strip-lined.
Pressure Test:
Whenever a pressure test becomes necessary they are to be conducted in a manner in accordance with the
vessel's construction Code. The following concerns should be addressed when pressure testing a vessel.
a. The test temperature should be at least 30 oF, above the minimum design metal temperature for
vessels greater than 2 inches thick and 10 oF for vessels 2 inches in thickness or less, but not
greater than 120oF.
c. When the test pressure will exceed the set pressure of the lowest relief device, these devices
shall be protected by blinding, removal, or clamping (gags).
Pressure-Relieving Devices:
One of the major concerns for pressure relief devices is their repair. Pressure relief devices must be
repaired by qualified organizations having a fully documented written quality control system and repair
training program for repair personnel. No hard and fast rule is given for the testing of relief devices the
interval between tests is dependent on the service conditions of the device. There are minimum of 15
items that should be addressed in the written quality control documentation. Such as a Title page,
Revision log, Contents Page, Statement of Authority, Organizational Chart, etc.
Records:
Pressure vessel owners and users must maintain permanent and progressive records on their pressure
vessels. Items that should be included are Manufacturer's Data Reports, vessel identification numbers, RV
information, results of inspection and any repairs or alterations performed.
General:
Section 5 covers repairs and alterations to pressure vessels by welding and the requirements that must be
met when performing such work. These repairs and alterations must be performed to the edition of the
ASME Code that the vessel was built to.
Authorization:
Prior to starting any repairs or alterations the approval of the API 510 Inspector and in some cases an
engineer experienced in pressure vessels must be obtained. The API 510 Inspector may give approval to
any routine repairs if the Inspector has satisfied himself that the repairs will not require pressure tests.
Approval:
The API Inspector must approve all repairs after inspection and after witnessing any required pressure
tests.
Defect Repairs:
No crack may be repaired without prior approval of the API Inspector. If such repairs are required in a
weld or plate they may be performed using a U- or V-shaped grove to the full depth and length of the
crack. The U or V is then filled with weld metal. If the repair will be to an area that is subject to serious
stress concentrations an engineer experienced in pressure vessel must be consulted. Corroded areas may
be built up after proper removal of surface irregularities. All welding for repairs must comply with
Section 5.2 of this Code. The amount of NDE and inspection shall be included in the repair procedure.
Welding:
All repair and alteration welding must be in accordance with the applicable requirements of the ASME
Code, except as permitted in 7.2.11.
The repair organizations must use qualified welders and welding procedures in accordance with
applicable requirements of Section IX of the ASME Code.
Qualification Records:
Qualification Records must be maintained for all welding operations and must be available for review by
the API Inspector prior to all welding operations.
Heat Treatment-Preheating:
Alterations and repairs can be performed on vessels that were originally postweld heat treated by using
only preheating within specific limitations. Postweld heat treatment in these cases would not then be
required. This alternative applies to only P-Nos. 1 and P-Nos. 3 materials of the ASME Code and should
be used only after considering the original intent of the postweld heat treatment. In some services the
heat treatment was required due to the corrosive nature of the contents of the vessel. In such cases this
type of procedure may not restore the metallurgical condition needed to combat corrosion.
For this reason consulting with an engineer experienced with pressure vessels is required. Two techniques
for these types of repairs or alterations are described in Section 5.2.3 and are very similar to those found
in paragraph UCS-56 of Section VIII Division 1 of the ASME Code. The major differences are the
minimum preheat temperature and the holding time and temperature after the completion of the welded
repair or alteration. Details and applicability of these procedures will be discussed in detail during the
coverage of paragraph UCS-56 of the ASME Code.
a. The weld area shall be preheated and maintained at a minimum temperature of 350 oF (175 oC)
during welding. The maximum interpass temperature shall be 450 oF (230 oC).
b. The initial layer of weld metal shall be deposited over the entire area with 1/8 inch (3-millimeter)
maximum diameter electrodes. Approximately one-half the thickness of this layer shall be removed by
grinding before subsequent layers are deposited. Subsequent layers shall be deposited with 5/32-inch
(4-millimeter) maximum diameter electrodes in a manner to ensure tempering of the prior beads and
their heat-affected zones. The final temper-bead reinforcement layer shall be removed substantially
flush with the surface of the base material or the previous weld layer.
c. Heat input shall be controlled within a specified range of welding current and voltage.
d. The weld area shall be maintained at a temperature of 500 oF +or – 50 oF (260 oC +or – 28 oC) for a
minimum of 2 hours after completion of the weld repair.
f. The weld shall made using the SMAW process. The maximum bead width shall not be more than four
core diameters.
g. This technique is restricted meet the exemptions found in ASME Section VIII Div.1 UCS-56(f) (1)
through (4).
The API 510 Code permits postweld heat treatment to be applied locally, this means that the entire vessel
circumference may not be required to be included in the heat treatment. Just as in the alternative to
postweld heat treatment above consideration to applying this local treatment must be made with regards to
service. It does not apply to all situations the following four steps must be applied prior to using this type
of heat treatment.
b. Suitability of this type of procedure is reviewed and consideration is given to such things as
base metal thickness, hardness, and thermal gradients.
Prior to the repair or replacement of corroded or missing clad material a repair procedure and must
written. Some of the concerns that must be addressed are as follows; out gassing of the base metals,
hardening of the base metal during repairs, preheating and interpass temperatures and postweld heat
treatment.
The design of welded joints included in the API 510 are in compliance with those of the appropriate code.
All butt joints shall be full penetration and must have complete fusion. Fillet weld patches may be
allowed as temporary repairs and can be applied to the inside or outside of vessels but require special
considerations. The jurisdiction where the vessel is operating may for instance prohibit their use. Patches
to the overlay in vessels must have rounded corners; this also true of flush (insert) patches.
Material:
All materials for repairs must conform to the ASME Code. Carbon or alloy steels with a carbon content
which exceeds 0.35 percent may not be used in welded construction.
Inspection:
The acceptance of welded repairs or alterations should include NDE that is in agreement with the ASME
Codes that apply. If the ASME Code methods are not possible or practical, alternative NDE may be used.
Testing:
After repairs a pressure test must be applied if the API Inspector believes one is needed. Normally
pressure tests are required after an alteration. If jurisdictional approval is required and it has been
obtained NDE may be substituted for a pressure test. If an alteration has been performed a pressure vessel
engineer must be consulted prior to using NDE in place of pressure test.
Filler Metal
In general the filler metal used in repairs must have a specified minimum tensile strength equal to or
exceeding that of the base material. The following shall also be met.
a. The repair thickness shall not be more than 50 percent of the required base metal thickness,
excluding corrosion allowance.
b. The thickness of the repair weld shall be increased by a ratio of minimum specified tensile strength of
the base metal and minimum specified tensile of the filler metal used for the repair.
c. The increased thickness of the repair shall have rounded corners and shall be blended into the base
metal using a 3-to-1 taper.
d. The repair shall be made with a minimum of two passes
Rerating:
Rerating a pressure vessel by changing its temperature ratings or its maximum allowable working
pressure may be done only after meeting the requirements of API 510 given in this section. Calculations,
compliance to the current construction code, current inspection records indicating fitness, pressure testing
at some time for the proposed rerating and approval by the API Inspector are required. The rerating is
only complete when the Inspector has overseen the attachment of an additional nameplate with the
required information given in this section.
Examples
Metal loss equals the previous thickness minus the present thickness.
Problem #1
Determine the metal loss for a tower shell course which measured .600" in during its last internal
inspection in March of 1989. The present reading is .570" March 1993.
Metal loss = Previous thickness minus the present thickness .600" Previous
-.570" Present
.030"
Corrosion rate equals the metal loss per given unit of time, i.e., per year.
Problem #2
Using the data of Problem #1 calculate the corrosion rate of the tower.
Metal Loss
Corrosion Rate =
Time
.030 "
Corrosion Rate = .0075 in./per year
4 Yrs.
Corrosion allowance equals the actual thickness minus the required thickness.
Problem #3
The tower shell course in Problem #1 has a minimum thickness required by Code of .500 in. Calculate
the corrosion allowance. The actual thickness is .570 in. as of March 1993.
Remaining service life equals the corrosion allowance divided by the corrosion rate.
Problem #4
Internal inspection equals half of the remaining service life, but not greater than ten (10) years.
9.33 Yrs.
= 4.6 Yrs.
2
Quiz #1
3. Define rerating.(3.17)
9. What metals might be subject to brittle fracture even at ambient temperatures? (5.2)
10. Name five methods other than visual that might be used to inspect a vessel.(5.5)
11. When a new Code vessel is installed, must a first internal inspection be performed? (6.1)
12. A vessel was last inspected internally in July of 1983. During that inspection it was determined to
have a remaining life of 16 years. What is the latest date of the next internal inspection? (6.4)
Overview
Scope:
This recommended practice covers automatic pressure relieving devices commonly used in the
petrochemical and oil refining industries. The recommendations found in RP 576 are not intended to
replace and regulations that may exist in a jurisdiction.
The three major types of pressure relief valves are the safety valve, relief valve and the safety relief valve.
Pressure relief valves are classed based on their construction, operation and applications.
Safety Valves
A safety valve is a spring-loaded device containing a seat and disk arrangement. It also has a part just
above the disk referred to as a huddling chamber. When the static pressure beneath the disk has risen to a
point where the force exerted on the disk begins to overcome the springs downward force the disk slowly
opens. As this happens the pressure beneath the disk is exposed to the huddling chamber. The huddling
chamber adds a much greater area exposed to pressure than the disk alone. This results in a sudden rapid
opening to the venting systems releasing the pressure to safe point at which time the valve will close.
Safety valves have an open spring and usually have a lifting lever.
Safety valves are used for steam boiler drums and superheaters. They may also be used for general air and
steam services. The discharge piping may contain vented drip pan elbow or a short piping stack vented to
the atmosphere.
Safety valves are not fit for service in corrosive service, where vent-piping runs are long, in any back
pressure service or any service where loss of the fluid cannot be tolerated. They should not be used as a
pressure control or bypass valve and are not suited for liquid service.
Relief Valve
A relief valve is a spring-loaded device that is intended for liquid service. This type of valve begins
opening when the pressure beneath its seat and disk reaches the set pressure of the valve. The valve
continues to open as the liquid pressure increases until it is fully open. The relief valve closes at a
pressure lower than its set pressure for opening. Relief valves capacities are rated for an overpressure
from 10% to 25% depending on their use. For instance a relief valve set at 100 psi might allow the
system it is protecting to rise to an ultimate pressure of between 110 psi to 125 psi. This should be
considered when choosing the relief valve set pressure. These types of valves have closed bonnets and
may or may not have lifting levers.
Relief valves are normally used for incompressible fluids. Relief valves are not intended for use with
steam, air, gas or vapor service. They should not be used in services piped to a closed header unless the
effects of any constant or variable back pressure have been accounted for. They are also not fit for use as a
pressure control or bypass valve.
Safety Relief Valves
A safety relief valve is a direct spring-loaded pressure relief valve that may be used as either safety or
relief valve depending on the application. A safety relief valve is normally full open at 10% over pressure
when in gas or vapor service. When installed in liquid service, full lift will be achieved at approximately
10% or 25% overpressure, depending on trim type.
A conventional SRV is a direct spring loaded pressure relief valve whose operational characteristics
( opening pressure, closing pressure , and relieving capacity) are directly affected by changes in the back
pressure. A conventional has a bonnet that encloses the spring and forms a pressure-tight cavity. The
bonnet is cavity is vented to the discharge side of the valve.
Conventional SRVs should not be used in services where any built up back pressure exceeds the allowable
overpressure. Where the CDTP cannot be reduced to account for the effects of variable back pressure. On
ASME Section I steam boilers drums or ASME Section I superheaters. They should also not be used as
pressure control or bypass valves.
A balanced SRV is a direct spring-loaded pressure relief valve that incorporates a bellows or other means
for minimizing the effect of back pressure on the operating characteristics of the valve. Whether it is
pressure tight on its downstream depends on its design.
Balanced SRVs are used in flammable, hot and/or toxic services where high back pressures are present at
the valve discharge. Balanced SRVs are found in service for gas, vapor, steam, air or liquids. Balanced
SRVs are also utilized in corrosive service to isolate and protect the spring, bonnet cavity and discharge
side of the valve from process material. They are also used when the discharge must be piped to remote
locations. They should not be used on ASME Section I steam boiler drums or superheaters or as pressure
control/bypass valves.
A pilot operated safety relief valve (POSRV) is a pressure relief valve whose main relieving valve is
controlled by a small spring loaded (self-actuated) pressure relief valve (pilot valve). It is a control for the
larger valve and may be mounted with the main valve or remote from the main valve. The ASME Code
requires that the main valve be capable of operating at the set pressure and capacity even if the smaller
fails.
Pilot operated relief valves are used under conditions where any of the following are true; a large relief
valve is required, low differential exists between the normal operating pressure and the set pressure of the
valve, very short blown down (time between opening and closing) is required, back pressures on the outlet
of the valve are very high, process service where their use is economical, process conditions require
sensing at a remote location.
POSRVs are not suited for service with dirty, viscous (thick) fluids or fluids that might polymerize
(harden) in the valve. Any of these conditions might plug the small openings of the pilot system. If the
operating temperatures might exceed the safe limit of the diaphragms or seals or if the operating fluids
might chemically attack these soft parts of the valve.
A pressure and/or vacuum vent valve (also known as a pressure and/or vacuum relief valve) is an
automatic pressure or vacuum-relieving device actuated by pressure or vacuum in the protected
equipment. These valves fall into three basic categories, weight loaded pallet vent, pilot operated vent
valve, and spring weight loaded vent valve.
Pressure and/or vacuum vent valves are normally used to protect atmospheric and low-pressure storage
tanks against large enough pressure to damage the tank. Single units composed of both pressure vent
valves and vacuum vent valves are also known as conservation vent valves, and are normally used on
atmospheric storage tanks containing materials with a flash point below 100 o F. However, they may also
be used on tanks storing heavier oils. They are not normally used in applications requiring a set pressure
greater than 15 lbf/in 2 .
The combination of a rupture disk holder and rupture disk is known as a rupture disk device. A rupture
disk device is a non re-closing pressure relief device actuated by the static pressure differential pressure
between the inlet and outlet of the device and designed to function by the bursting of a rupture disk.
Rupture disks fall into the following basic design categories, Conventional (uses a pre-bulged solid metal
disk designed to rupture when over pressured on its concave side), Scored Tension-Loaded (designed to
open along pre-scored lines), Composite Rupture Disk ( is flat or domed metallic or nonmetallic multi-
piece construction) Reverse-Acting (opposite of the conventional as it is designed to rupture on its convex
side) and last the Graphite Rupture Disk (manufactured from graphite impregnated with a binder material
and designed to burst by bending or shearing).
Use where pre-bulged disks are placed in systems that operate at 65 to 85% of the disk’s
predetermined rupture pressure, depending on the type of rupture disk.
Where the usual service life of one year for a pre-bulged can be tolerated.
Find the answers to these questions by using the stated API 510/576 paragraphs at the end of the question.
Quiz #2
1. How often should a safety relief valve be tested? (API 510 6.6)
2. Welding is used to repair a vessel made of P No. 1 material one inch thick. The vessel was originally
postweld heat-treated. Describe the method used to avoid PWHT of the repair? (API 510 7.2.3.1)
3. What does the term ‘Accumulation’ mean when referring to pressure relief devices? (RP 576 3.3.1)
4. Describe the types of pressure relief valves. (RP 576 4.1 to 4.8 and Section VIII UG-126)
5. You notice that a pressure relief device has a closed bonnet without a vent hole. What type of valve is
it? (RP 576 4.3)
6. While reviewing maintenance records you notice that bulged rupture disks in a unit are three years old.
Is this O.K.? (RP 576 4.9.3)
7. A pilot-operated safety valve has been installed in heavy crude service is this O.K. (RP 576 4.7.2)
Find the answers to these questions by using the stated API 576 paragraph at the end of the question.
Quiz #3
2. Name three causes of improper performance of a pressure-relieving device. (RP 576 5.1 to 5.10)
3. The spring of a relief valve broke. What probably caused it to break? (RP 576 5.3)
4. The valve shop is setting safety relief valves using water is this acceptable? (RP 576 5.4)
5. You are asked to set a schedule for the inspection of relief devices; what will determine the time
between the setting of valves? (RP 576 6.4)
6. What should the operating history of a pressure relief device include? (RP 576 7.2)
7. You are asked to visually inspect an RV before it is taken to the shop. What should this inspection
cover? (6.2.9)
8. What are the applications of a pressure/vacuum vent valve on an atmospheric tank? (4.8.1)
Overview
Section 1
General
Scope:
This recommended practice addresses the following items; description of types of vessels, construction,
maintenance, reason for and method of inspection, causes of deterioration, repair methods and
records/reports.
Section 2
Types of Pressure Vessels
The definition of a pressure vessel per API 572 is a container that falls within the scope of the ASME
Code Section VIII Division 1 and is subjected to an external or internal design pressure greater than 15
psi. Section VIII Division 1 should be consulted for the exact definition and exemptions. The definition of
a pressure vessel is found in the ASME Code Section VIII Division 1, page 1 in the first paragraph.
Pressure vessels can have many different shapes, they may be spheres (balls), a cylinder with various
heads attached such as flat or hemispherical and may consist of inner and outer shells (jacketed). Many
methods of construction are used. The most common is the cylindrical shell made of rolled plate and
welded with heads that are attached by welding. Riveting was used prior to the development of welding.
Vessels are no longer made using riveting, but some riveted vessels are still in service today. Vessels are
also made of the hot forging and multi-layer (cylinders inside of cylinders) techniques. Multi-layer vessels
are found primarily in high pressure service.
The vast majority of vessels are made of carbon steels. For special services the carbon steel may be lined,
clad or weld metal surfaced with corrosion resistant materials such as stainless steels. Some vessels are
constructed entirely of various metals such as monel, nickel, titanium, or stainless steel. The material
chosen will be determined by the required service conditions. Temperature, pressure and the fluids to be
contained are the primary concerns in material selection. For reasons of economy different parts of a
vessel may be made of different materials using only the most expensive where needed. Many pressure
vessels are simply containers and do not have internal equipment; others have internals such as catalyst
bed supports, trays, baffles, or pipe coils.
Section 3
Construction Standards
The first unfired pressure vessels were constructed to the design of the user or manufacturer. This was
true until about 1930 after that time the API/ASME Code or the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers Code (ASME) was used. In 1956 the API/ASME Code was discontinued and the ASME Code
was adopted as the standard for the construction pressure vessels within its scope. Section VIII Divisions
1 and 2 of the ASME Code are the unfired pressure vessel Codes. Section VIII Division 1 is the Code the
vast majority of vessels are built to; Section VIII Division 2 used for vessels in high-pressure service or
where lower factors of safety is desired. Division 2 has more restrictions on construction, materials,
inspection and nondestructive examination than Division 1. These restrictions usually result in a vessel
that would be thinner than that required by Division 1 and the resulting cost savings could be significant
is some instances. Heat exchangers are built using both the ASME Code and the Standards of Tubular
Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA).
Maintenance Inspection
The basic rule for the maintenance of a vessel in service is to maintain it to the original design and the
edition of the Code it was constructed under. If the vessel is re-rated this is may done using the original or
latest edition of the Code. This implies that persons responsible should be familiar with the original
construction edition of the Code and the latest edition of the Code if a vessel has been re-rated. In
addition personnel responsible for these vessels must be familiar with any national, state, county or city
regulations. The ASME has minimum requirements for construction, inspection and testing of pressure
vessels that will be stamped with the Code Symbol however jurisdictions may have more restrictive
requirements. Compliance with ASME Code may not be enough to satisfy a jurisdiction's requirement.
Section 5
Reasons for Inspection
The main reason for inspection is to determine the physical condition of a vessel. With this information
the causes and rate of deterioration can be established and safe operations between shutdowns can be
determined. Correcting conditions causing deterioration and planning for repairs and replacement of
equipment can also be done using the inspection information. Scheduled shutdowns and internal
inspections can prevent emergency shutdowns and vessel failures. Periodic inspection allows the for the
forming of a well-planned maintenance program by using data such as corrosion rates to determine
replacement and repair needs. External visual inspections along with the thorough use of various
nondestructive examination techniques can reveal leaks, cracks, local thinning and unusual conditions.
Section 6
Causes of Deterioration
The causes of deterioration are many but fall into several general categories as follows: inorganic and
organic compounds, steam or contaminated water, atmospheric corrosion. These types of corrosive agents
fall into the class of chemical and electrochemical attack. Attack is also possible from erosion and, or
impingement. The attack could come from any combination of the above examples.
Corrosion is the prime cause of wear in pressure vessels. The most common internal corrodents are sulfur
and chloride compounds. Caustic, inorganic acids, organic acids and low pH water can also cause
corrosive attack in vessels.
Erosion is the wearing away of a surface that is being hit by solid particles or drops of liquid. It is similar
to sandblasting and is usually found where changes in direction or high-speed flow are present. It occurs
in such places as inlet nozzles and the vessel wall opposite the nozzle. Outlet nozzles are likely spots
when fast flowing products are in use. In some instances corrosion and erosion are found together.
Metallurgical and physical changes can occur when a vessel material is exposed to fluids the vessel
contains. Elevated operating temperatures also contribute to these problems. The changes that take place
may be severe enough to result in cracking, graphitization, hydrogen attack, carbide precipitation,
intergranular corrosion, embrittlement and other changes.
Mechanical forces such as thermal shock, cyclic temperature changes (higher to lower temperatures on a
frequent basis), vibrations, pressure surges, and external loads can cause sudden failures. Cracks, bulges
and torn internal components are often a result of mechanical forces.
Faulty materials can build in failure into a pressure vessel or one of its components. Bad materials can
result in leakage, blockage, cracks and even speed up corrosion in some cases. The selection of an
improper material for new construction of or for a repair to a vessel will often result in the same type of
failures as will proper materials that have manufacturing or fabrication defects.
Faulty fabrication includes poor welding, improper or lack of heat treatment, tolerances outside those
permitted by Codes and improper installation of internal equipment such as trays and the like. Any of
these types of faulty fabrications may result in failures due to cracks or high stress concentrations, etc., in
vessels.
Many things determine the frequency of inspection for pressure vessels. Chief among the reasons is
corrosion rates that are determined by the service environment. Unless there are insurance or legal
reasons, the frequency of inspection should be based on information from the first inspection performed,
using either on stream or internal methods. Normally inspection planning will allow for the next
inspection to occur when at least half the original corrosion allowance remains. Other factors such as a
need for frequent cleaning may provide an opportunity to shorten the inspection frequency. If the process
fluids or operating conditions change, shorter inspection frequencies may be needed to determine what
effects the new conditions may have had.
Opportunities for inspections will require the input of all groups involved; process, mechanical, and
inspection personnel. The opportunity may have to be made if any laws require a frequency or the
insurance company has a requirement for it in the policy written on the equipment. A convenient time for
inspections, of course, is any time equipment is removed from service for cleaning. Also if a vessel or
exchanger was removed for operational reasons, an inspection might then become needed to insure the
integrity of the equipment before returning it to service.
Another consideration for the inspection of vessels is the review of the in service operational records to
look for pressure drops and out of the ordinary conditions that might indicate a problem.
Section 8
Methods of Inspection and Limits
To perform a proper inspection it is important to know the history of the vessels to be inspected. Knowing
what repairs have been required in the past and inspecting the repair after it has been in service may help
to develop better repair methods. It may also help to locate similar problems. In every case, careful visual
inspection is a requirement. Knowing the service conditions of a vessel allows the concentration of efforts
in areas known to have problems in a particular service.
Safety precautions before entering a vessel are of the utmost importance. Vessels have small openings and
often many internal obstructions that make getting out of one quickly nearly impossible. The bottom line
is: make sure it is safe to enter a vessel. Such things as isolation of lines by blinding, purging and
cleaning along with gas testing prior to entry cannot be overlooked. In some cases protective clothing and
air supply systems are called for if entry is desired before cleaning to look at the vessel's existing
conditions for indications of problems. Always inform personnel inside and outside a vessel that
inspection personnel are entering the vessel. Loud noises made by inspection or maintenance might scare
others, causing injury.Preparatory work needed for vessel inspection should include checking in advance
to make sure all equipment is present and is in usable condition.
External inspections should start with ladders, stairways, platforms and walkways connected to the
vessel. Loose nuts, broken parts and corroded materials may be searched for by visual inspection and
hammer testing for tightness. Since corrosion is most likely to occur where water can collect, these areas
should be inspected carefully, using a pick or similar object. Slipping hazards such as slick treads should
be looked for and noted on the inspection report. Foundations and supports must be inspected for the
condition of the fireproofing. The settling of foundations, Spalling (flaking) and cracking of the
fireproofing are always a concern. In cases where equipment is supported by cradles, moisture between
the cradle support and the vessel may cause corrosion. If the area where a vessel and a cradle join has
been sealed with a mastic compound, the mastic seal should be checked gently with a pick to check its
water tightness. Some settling of any foundation is to be expected. However, if the settling is noticeable,
the extent must be determined for future reference.
Anchor bolts can be examined by scraping away and looking for corrosion. The soundness can be
determined with blow of a hammer to the side of the bolt or its nut. Checking the nuts for tightness and
the bolts with ultrasonics for breaks is sometimes appropriate. Any distortion of the bolts may indicate
serious foundation settlement.
Concrete supports are inspected with same concerns as concrete foundations. Close attention to any seals
and the possibility of trapping moisture because of faulty seals should be investigated.
Guy wires are cables that stretch from different points of a vessel to the ground where they are anchored to
underground concrete piers (dead men). Inspection of these guy wires must include checking the
connections for tightness and the cables for the correct tensions. The connections consist of turnbuckles
used for tightening and U bolt clips for securing. All connectors must be checked for proper installation
and the presence of corrosion. The cable must be checked for corrosion and for broken strands.
Nozzles and adjacent areas are subject to distortion if the vessel foundation has moved due to settling.
Excessive thermal expansion, internal explosions, earthquakes, and fires can cause damage to piping
connections. Flange faces should be checked for squareness to reveal any distortion. If evidence of
distortion is found cracks should be inspected for, using non-destructive examination. All inspections
should be external and internal whenever possible. Visible gasket seating surfaces must be inspected for
distortion and cuts in the metal seating surfaces. Wall thickness readings must also be taken on nozzles
and internal or external corrosion monitored.
Grounding connections must be inspected for proper electrical contact. The cable connections should be
tight and properly connected to the equipment and the grounding system. All grounding systems should be
checked for continuity (no breaks) and resistance to electrical flow. Continuity checks are usually made
using electrical test equipment such as an Ohm meter. The resistance readings are recommended to be
between 5 and 25 Ohms.
Auxiliary equipment such as gauge connections, sight glasses, and safety valves may be visually inspected
while the vessel is still in service. Inspection while a vessel is in service allows the presence of excessive
vibrations to be detected and noted. If excessive vibrations exist, engineering can determine if any
additional measures are required to prevent fatigue failures.
Protective coatings and insulation should be inspected for their condition. Rust spots or blistering are
common problems associated with paint and are easily found by visual inspection. Scraping away a loose
coating film will often reveal corrosion pits. These pits should be measured for depth and appropriate
action taken. Insulation can usually be effectively visually inspected. If an area of insulation is suspected,
samples may cut out and examined for its condition. Insulation supporting clips, angles, bands, and wires
should be examined.
External surface corrosion appears in forms other than rust. Caustic embrittlement, hydrogen blistering
and soil corrosion are also found on the external surfaces of equipment. The area of a vessel that needs
special attention often depends on its contents. When caustic is stored or used in a vessel, the areas around
connections for internal heaters should be checked for caustic embrittlement. In caustic service, deposits
of white salts often are indications of leaks through a crack. Hydrogen blistering is normally found on the
inside of vessels, but can appear on the outside if a void in the vessel's material is close to the outer
surface. Unless readily visible, leaks in a vessel are best detected by pressure testing. Cracks in vessel are
normally associated with welding and can be found using close visual inspection. In some services
nondestructive testing to checks for cracks is justified and should be performed. Other concerns when
performing external inspection are bulges, gouges, and blistering. Hot spots when found in service should
be monitored and thoroughly evaluated by an engineer experienced in pressure vessels.
Surface preparation will depend on the type of problems that a vessel may have in a given service.
Ordinarily the cleanliness required by operations is all that is needed for many inspections. If better
cleaning is required, the inspector can scrape or wire brush a small area. If serious conditions are
suspected, water washing and solvent cleaning may not be enough to reveal problems. In these instances,
power wire brushing, abrasive grit blasting, etc., may be required.
Detailed internal inspections should start at one end of a vessel and progress to the other end. A
systematic approach such as an item checklist will help to prevent overlooking hidden but important
areas. All parts of vessel should be inspected for corrosion, hydrogen blistering, deformation, and
cracking. In areas where metal loss is serious, detailed thickness readings should be taken and recorded. If
only general metal loss is present, one thickness reading on each head and shell may be enough. Larger
vessels require more measurements.
Pitting corrosion will require local examination by first scraping the surface and then and measuring the
pit depth. Pit gauges allow for measuring pit depth if an uncorroded area adjacent to the pit is available to
gauge from. In the case of large pits or grooves, a straight edge and steel rule often will allow
measurement by spanning the large area and lowering the steel rule into the pit and measuring the depth.
Hammer testing is often a good method of finding thin areas. Experience is needed to interpret the sounds
made by hammering. Usually a dull thud will indicate a loss of metal or thick deposits. Hammer testing
must never be used for inspecting vessels or components under pressure. If cracks are suspected or found
their extent may be determined by cleaning and nondestructive testing.
Welded seams deserve close attention when in services where amine, wet hydrogen sulfide, caustic,
ammonia, cyclic, high temperature and other services. Welds in high strength steel (above 70,000 psi
tensile) and coarse grain steels, and low chrome alloys should always be checked carefully for cracking.
All of the above conditions promote cracking in welds and adjacent base metals. Nozzles should be
checked for corrosion and their welds for cracking at the time of the vessels internal inspection. Normally
ultrasonic thickness readings will reveal any loss of metal in nozzles and other openings in a vessel.
Internal equipment such as trays and their supports are visually inspected accompanied by light tapping
with a hammer to expose thin areas or loose attachments. Conditions of trays must be determined to check
for excessive leakage caused by poor gasket surfaces or holes from corrosion. Excessive leakage can cause
operational problems and may lead to poor performance of a vessel or unscheduled shut downs.
Inspection of metallic linings must determine if the lining has been subjected to service corrosive attack,
that linings are properly installed, and that no cracks or holes are present in the lining. Most problems
with linings are found by careful visual inspections. Tapping the lining lightly with a hammer can reveal
loose lining or corrosion. Welds around nozzles deserve special attention due to cracks or holes that are
often found in these areas. If the surfaces of the lining are smooth, thickness measurements using
ultrasonic techniques may be performed. If required, small sections of lining can be cut out and measured
for thickness. A very useful method of tracking the corrosion rate of linings is by the welding of small
tabs at right angles to the lining when the lining is first installed. These tabs are made of the same
material and thickness as the lining and can be easily measured at the time of installation and at the next
inspection to determine the rate of corrosion taking place in the vessel. Remember that both sides of the
tab are exposed to the corrosion and the lining's loss must be determined by dividing the tab's loss by two.
A bulge in a liner can be caused by a leak in the liner permitting a pressure or a product build-up between
the liner and the protected base metal.
Concrete and refractory linings often spall (flake away) or crack. This damage is readily detected during a
visual inspection. Minor cracks may take some gentle scraping to find. If bulging is obvious cracks may
also be present. If any break is present, fluid has probably leaked in between the lining and the outer shell
and may have caused corrosion. Light tapping with a hammer can reveal looseness that is normally
associated with leakage of linings.
Thickness measuring techniques such as ultrasonics, limited radiographic techniques, corrosion buttons,
and the drilling of test holes; are used to determine if any wall loss has occurred. The most common
technique is ultrasonics. Ultrasonics can detect flaws and determine thickness also. Its principle of
operation involves the sending of sound waves into the material and measuring the time it takes the sound
to return to the sending unit, referred to as a transducer. Sound travels through a given material at a
known speed, and when properly calibrated, the UT equipment uses the known speed and time of travel to
determine the thickness in the area being tested.
In thickness measurements using radiographs, the placement of a device such as step gage (a device of a
known material and thickness) in the radiographic image is compared to the image of the piping or vessel
wall and the thickness determined by measurement.
Corrosion buttons are made of a material that are not expected to corrode in a given service and then
installed in pairs at specific locations in the vessel. Measurements are taken by placing a straight edge
across the two buttons and then gauging the depth with a steel rule or some other measuring device.
When corroded surfaces are very rough, test holes through the vessel may be used to measure the wall
thickness. A variation on test holes is depth drilling. In this technique, small holes are drilled to a known
depth (not all the way through) in the new vessel wall, then plugged with corrosion resistant plugs to
protect the bottom of the hole from corrosion. During internal inspections the plugs are removed and
depth readings are taken. Any wall loss that has occurred is detected by the hole depth becoming more
shallow than the original reading.
Metallurgical change tests can be made using many of the same techniques described in mechanical
changes. Additional tests include hardness chemical spot, and magnetic tests. Portable harness testers
such as the Brinell will detect poor heat treatment, carburization and other problems that involve a change
in hardness. Chemical tests to a small portion of a metal will reveal the type of metal to determine if the
wrong metal has been installed possibly during a pervious repair. Magnetic tests are used to determine if
a material such as austenetic stainless steel; normally not magnetic, have become carburized, which will
allow the austenetic stainless to become attracted to a magnet.
Testing
Hammer testing used during visual inspection will reveal conditions such as; thin sections, tightness of
bolts and rivets, cracks in linings, lack of bond in refractory and concrete linings. The hammer is also
used to remove scale for spot inspection. Hammer testing is an art learned from experience and caution is
warranted whenever using this method. It is not smart to hammer on anything under pressure and
hammering on some piping systems can dislodge scale or debris and plug up a portion of the system such
as a catalyst bed.
Vacuum tests are conducted by creating a vacuum inside the vessel and observing the vacuum gage for
any loss of vacuum that might occur. If the vacuum remains unchanged the assumption is made that no
leak exists.
Testing temperature can be very important with some pressure vessel materials due to the brittle
characteristics of these metals at low temperatures. The ASME recommends that the test temperature be
at least 30 oF above the minimum design metal temperature to prevent the risk of brittle fracture. A brittle
fracture can be compared to glass breaking and shattering. For that reason every effort must be made to
prevent it. In combination with a pneumatic test and its stored energy; a brittle failure would be a
devastating bomb. For all materials, the general recommendation for test temperature is 70 oF minimum
and 120 oF maximum. For safety when conducting a pressure test, no unnecessary personnel should be
allowed in the area until the test is complete. Pneumatic tests must follow a procedure described in the
ASME Code that raises the pressure in small steps with short stops at each step.
Pressure testing of exchangers can be performed when they are first shut down and before bundle
removal in order detect any leaks that might have been present during recent service. If leaks are detected
during the initial test, partial disassembly can be performed and the test pressure reapplied to locate the
source of the leaks. Heat exchangers may also be disassembled and cleaned, inspected, repaired if needed,
then reassembled and tested. If a leak is detected in the exchanger after re-assembly, disassembly will
again be required to repair the leak. The method of testing an exchanger will depend on its design. Some
can be tested with their channel covers removed if of the fixed tube sheet design with the pressure applied
to the shell side. If a tube in the bundle is discovered to be leaking at other than the tube sheet roll, it may
be plugged with a tapered plug, which effectively removes that tube from service. If the leak is located
where the tube is rolled (expanded) into the tube sheet, an attempt to re-roll the tube is usually made and
the test pressure reapplied. Often tube bundles are tested out of their shells if of the floating head design.
Leaks are easily detected, but this approach requires a separate shell test. During pressure tests leaks in
shells, tubes, gasketed areas, and distortion are looked for in the exchanger parts.
Limits of thickness must be determined prior to inspection and must be known in order to perform an
effective inspection. The retiring thickness and the rate of deterioration are needed to determine the
appropriate action should a problem be uncovered during an inspection. The importance of inspection
records becomes obvious when it is required to make a decision whether to repair, replace, or just to
continue the operation of a vessel. If the retiring thickness is known prior to the inspection, a plan of
action in the event of excessive wall loss can be prearranged. Almost all vessels, when new, will contain
excess thicknesses above what are required by the Codes.
Inspection records and reports are important and are required by most Codes and jurisdictions such as
the State, API, and the NBBPVI NB-23. These reports are of three types: Basic Data, Field Notes, and
Continuous File. The basic data includes original manufacturer's drawings and data reports as well as
design information. Field notes are notes about and measurements of the equipment and may be written
or entered into a computer database. Usually field notes are in the form of rough records inspections and
repairs required. Continuous files include all information about a vessel's operating history, previous
inspection reports, corrosion rate tables (if any) and records of repairs and replacements. Copies of
reports containing the location, extent, and reasons for any repairs should be sent to all management
groups such as Engineering, Operations, and Maintenance departments.
Heat Exchangers are used to transfer heat from one gas or liquid to another gas or liquid without the two
fluids mixing. Heat exchangers fall into classes: condensers and coolers. A condenser has the effect of
changing a gas fluid to a liquid or partial liquid fluid and ordinarily uses water as the coolant. Coolers
lower the temperature of a fluid and may use water or another process fluid of a lower temperature as the
coolant. Sometimes air is used to lower the temperature of a fluid. The equipment is then referred to as an
air cooler.
Shell and Tube-Bundle exchangers are made in several types. The tubes are installed into a tube sheet by
rolling (expanding) them into the tube sheet holes. In heat exchangers, after rolling tubes, the ends are
sometimes welded to the tube sheet for sealing purposes. In some cases the tubes are inserted into the tube
sheet and packing rings are installed to seal the area around the tube ends. The method of construction
used is dependent on the service intended for the exchanger. There are four basic design types of shell and
tube heat exchangers. They are: One Fixed Tube Sheet with a Floating Head (the most common), Two
Fixed Tube Sheets, One Fixed Tube Sheet with U-Tubes, and Double Tube Sheet (used when even the
slightest leak cannot be allowed).
Reboilers and Evaporators perform the opposite function of the condenser or cooler. They do what their
names imply boil and evaporate. In general they use steam, or a hotter fluid from a process to boil or
evaporate another fluid. The Reboiler is normally used to boost heat back up to a desired level at some
intermediate step of a process stream.
Some Other types of heat exchangers include Exposed Bundle, Storage Tank Heaters, Pipe Coils (either
single or double pipe), Box-Type Heater Coils, and Plate-Type.
Inspection of Exchanger Bundles should start with the establishment of any general corrosion patterns.
Inspecting an exchanger bundle when it is first removed can reveal the type(s) and locations of corrosion
and deposits. Visual inspection techniques include light scraping and hammering testing with a light ball
peen hammer (4 to 8 oz) to locate corrosion and thinning. The inside of the tubes may be partially
inspected using borescopes, fiber optics, and specialized probes. Since only the outside of tubes in the
outer portion of a bundle can be seen, inner tubes must be inspected using NDE techniques.
Quiz #4
3. When carbon steel will not resist corrosive fluids, what method of construction is normally used for
such a vessel? (572 2.3)
5. Prior to 1930, what specifications were unfired pressure vessels built to in refineries? (572 3.0)
6. Why is it important to have access to previous editions of the ASME Codes? (572 4.0)
7. Name three types of information gained from the inspection of a pressure vessel. (572 5.1)
8. List the basic forms of deterioration. Name the effects these basic forms have. (572
6.1,6.2,6.3,6.4,6.5,6.6,and 6.7)
9. What is the most important factor in determining the inspection frequency of a pressure vessel? (572
7.1)
10. Why are occasional checks of operating pressures while equipment is in operation important? (572
7.2)
Quiz #5
1. What should an inspector be aware of before starting the inspection of a pressure vessel? (572 8.1)
2. Careful visual is important to determine what other types of inspections might be required. Name
three other types of inspection. (572 8.1)
3. Before an inspection starts in a vessel, who else besides the safety man should be informed? (572 8.2.1)
4. Name five tools an inspector should have to perform an inspection. (572 8.2.2)
5. List at least six items that should be inspected on the external of a pressure vessel. (572
8.3.2,.3,.4,.5,.6,.7,.8,.9,.10,.11,.12,.13)
6. Abrasive grit blasting, power wire brushing etc., are usually required under what conditions? (572
8.4.2)
7. If a vessel has had previous internal inspections, what should be done prior to your inspection? (572
8.4.3)
8. Where will most of cracks found in a pressure vessel be found? (572 8.4.3)
9. Why is a systematic procedure important when inspecting a pressure vessel? (572 8.4.4)
10. Under what operating conditions should weld seams in a pressure vessel be given special attention?
(572 8.4.4)
Quiz #6
1. When examining linings, name the three most important conditions to check. (572 8.4.5)
2. Describe the spark tester method of inspecting nonmetallic linings. (572 8.4.6)
3. How may loose nonmetallic linings be found using a hammer? (572 8.4.6)
4. Where a corroded surface is very rough, what may be done to measure thickness? (572 8.4.7)
5. How may cracks be made to stand out from the surrounding areas being inspected? (572 8.4.8)
6. Who should make the decision to trepan metal from a vessel for metallurgical evaluation? (572 8.4.8)
7. How may carburized austenetic stainless steel sometimes be detected? (572 8.4.9)
9. When testing a vessel pneumatically what should be on hand to aid in the visual examination? (572
8.5.2)
10. If it is possible to use internal pressure to test a vacuum vessel, what advantage does that method
offer? (572 8.5.2)
Quiz #7
2. If a given exchanger begins leaking for the first time in its service life, what should be done? (572
8.5.3)
4. Before taking credit for excess thickness found in a vessel when doing calculations for retirement or
rerating, what must also be considered? (572 8.6)
7. Why should care be taken when arc gouging a crack before a welded repair? (572 9.0)
8. What must an inspector consider when recommending the filling of pits with an epoxy? (572 9.0)
10. Who should receive copies of all inspection reports? (572 10.2)
Quiz #8
1. Explain the difference between condensers, coolers and air coolers. (572 A.1)
2. Show by sketch what is meant by One Fixed Tube Sheet with a Floating Head, Two Fixed Tube
Sheets, One Fixed Tube Sheet with U Tubes. (572 A.2.2, 2.3, 2.4)
9. Why is it important to inspect exchanger bundles when they are first pulled from a shell? (572 A.9.1)
10. Name the likely locations for corrosion in exchangers. (572 A.9.2)
Introduction
Chapter II is under revision at this time, it is to be replaced with API RP 571, Recognition of Conditions
Causing Deterioration or Failure at some future date. Accordingly our coverage of the subject will be
based on the present API 510 Authorized Pressure Vessel Inspector Body of Knowledge dated August
1994. Of the information contained in Chapter II, only knowledge that pertains to pressure vessels may
be included in the examination questions. This is per the published Body of Knowledge. The coverage of
Chapter II will be limited to the required information on the test.
Corrosion is a major source of expense in refinery and chemical plants. Many times a piece of equipment
will corrode its way into retirement as opposed to simply wearing out. The three major groups of
corrosion are corrosive products in crude oils, corrosion from chemicals used or processed, and
environmental corrosion.
Corrosive components found in crude oil that cause the most metal loss in pressure vessels are thought to
be one or more of the following: Hydrogen chlorides and inorganic and organic chlorides, Hydrogen
sulfide, mercaptans, and organic sulfur compounds, Carbon Dioxide, Organic acids, and Nitrogen
compounds. Most of the above mentioned components attack the front end of a process system.
Crude oils contain salt which can never be totally removed. The salt will generate various chemical
compounds when broken down in a processing systems. Some of the compounds are: Hydrogen chloride
and Organic and Inorganic chlorides. Such things as Magnesium and Calcium chloride, when dissolved
in water and heated, attack the metal in the form of Hydrochloric acid which is very corrosive. This
process is called hydrolysis.
Hydrogen sulfide is believed to be the most active of the sulfur compounds in causing corrosion. Some
hydrogen sulfide is present in the crude oil, and more may be generated during the refining process.
Outside of corrosion, the most serious problems caused by Hydrogen Sulfide are blistering and
embrittlement.
Carbon Dioxide, when combined with water, is corrosive. The water and carbon dioxide combine to form
carbonic acid. The water will usually be introduced from two sources: the decomposition of bicarbonates
in or added to crude oil or from steam used to aid in distillation of crude oil.
Organic Acids, while not very corrosive at low temperatures, can be very corrosive at their boiling
temperatures. When organic acids have corroded carbon steel, a very smooth surface is left and metal loss
is not readily apparent during visual inspection.
Nitrogen Compounds in crude oil alone will not cause corrosion; however, in catalytic cracking,
decomposition occurs and by-products of this decomposition form Ammonia and Cyanide. These two
chemicals, while not causing corrosion directly, contribute to it by breaking down a protective layer of
scale which has formed on the metal leaving the metal subject to Hydrogen Blistering and other problems
discussed in the above paragraphs. The Ammonia and Cyanide will directly cause pitting and worm-
holing type attack in copper and brasses.
Corrosive Materials added to the process add significantly to metal loss caused by corrodents already
present in the crude oil that is being refined. Chemicals commonly added in refining processes are
Sulfuric Acid and Hydrogen Fluoride, Phenol, Phosphoric Acid, Caustic (sodium hydroxide), Mercury,
Ammonia, Chlorine, and Aluminum.
Alkylation Units utilize either Sulfuric Acid or Hydrofluoric Acid as a catalyst. Sulfuric Acid is the least
corrosive of the two chemicals and corrosion occurring in equipment using Sulfuric Acid may be very
erratic attacking particular points in the process stream. Sulfuric acid is generally less corrosive at high
concentrations of 85 % or more. Hydrofluoric Acid is very corrosive to steel unless it is kept at
concentrations above 65% Hydrogen Fluoride.
Phosphoric Acid is used as a catalyst in polymerization units either in liquid or deposited as pentoxide on
clay pellets. Unless water concentrations are above a certain level, corrosion is rare from Phosphoric
Acid. When water is present in the required concentrations, Phosphoric Acid will attack carbon steel very
aggressively. Penetration of 1/4 in. carbon steel in 8 hours can occur.
Caustic is used primarily for neutralization of acids and grease manufacture. Caustic can be used and
stored in carbon steel vessels and is generally not corrosive as long as the vessel has been stress relieved
and temperatures are kept at a safe level. At temperatures above 200 oF, it will cause general corrosion in
carbon steel.
Mercury is found in instrumentation and can enter vessel by mishap. If the mercury enters it will cause
stress corrosion attack in copper and monel.
Ammonia is used for refrigeration and neutralizing acids in plants. If Ammonia is allowed to contact
copper-based alloys in pH ranges of 8.0 and above, severe corrosion as general metal loss occurs, and
stress corrosion cracking then occurs. Blue salt deposits on equipment are a clear indication of general
corrosion by Ammonia.
Chlorine is used to treat water for cooling towers and to manufacture Sodium Hypochlorite for treating
oils. If water is not present, Chlorine corrosion of carbon steel is minor.
Aluminum Chloride, a catalyst, will not contribute to corrosion as long as water is not present. It will
hydrolyze in water and form Hydrochloric Acid and cause severe pitting corrosion in carbon steel.
Austenitic stainless steel under the above conditions will be subject to intergrannular corrosion and stress
corrosion cracking.
Environmental Corrosion in refineries most commonly affects carbon steel. The water and oxygen
present in the atmosphere will cause severe corrosion on unprotected carbon steel. This type of corrosion
is usually Galvanic and can be severe if water is allowed to penetrate insulation.
Important Corrosion types include Intergranular, Graphitic corrosion of cast iron, Stress Corrosion
Cracking, Polythionic Acid, Dezincification, Galvanic, Contact Corrosion, and Biological Corrosion. The
following paragraphs give a general definition to the various types of corrosion.
Intergranular Corrosion can occur in austenetic stainless steels when they are heated up to a range from
750 oF to 1650 oF and cooled down. In the temperature range mentioned above, complex carbides are
formed of chrome and other elements which then migrate to grain boundaries leaving those areas lacking
the chrome which is intended to help resist corrosion. This loss of chrome is followed by corrosive attack
around grain boundaries, and Intergranular Corrosion occurs.
Graphitic Corrosion is the low-temperature corrosion of gray cast iron in which metallic iron is converted
into corrosion products, leaving the graphite intact.
Stress Corrosion Cracking is the spontaneous cracking of metals under the combined action of stress and
corrosion.
Polythionic Corrosion is a result of iron sulfide scale reacting with oxygen and water. This normally
occurs at the time of shutdowns of vessels.
Dezincification is a corrosion that occurs when copper-zinc alloys containing less than 85% copper are
used in water service. It occurs in three forms: plug, layer , and intercrystalline.
Biological Corrosion is related to the presence of organisms (bugs) in a contact with a metal. They can
be fairly large (macro) or very small (micro) organisms. An example of a macroorganism is a barnacle.
Examples of microorganisms are bacteria, slime, and fungi. One of the primary places that
microorganism biological corrosion is found is on underground piping in contact with soil. These
organisms either produce a corrosive, such as sulfuric acid from sulfur compounds, or they contribute to
the formation of an electrolyte solution which speeds up contact or crevice corrosion.
Erosion of metals is found frequently in vessels and piping of refineries and chemical plants. It amounts
to a wearing away by the abrasive action of a moving stream of a liquid or gas. If solids are contained in
the gas or liquid, the erosion will be accelerated and could be compared to blasting with a water and sand
mixture.
The Effects of High Temperature on Strength of a metal can result in the failure of the metal suddenly
(stress rupture) or slowly (creep).
Creep happens to metal held at high temperatures for long periods of time and is defined as the flow or
plastic deformation at stresses that would not cause metal flow at a lower temperature. It is based on time
at an elevated temperature and stress level.
Stress Rupture is a brittle failure that gives very little warning, with little if any deformation, and is
related to stress at high temperature. It can be considered the end result of creep in some metals.
Quiz #9
4. Where does Hydrogen Chloride evolve from in a process stream? (Chapter II 202.022)
6. May Hydrogen Sulfide cause corrosion even at low temperature? If so, where can it be found? (202
Chapter II .023)
7. Where can Carbon Dioxide come from in process streams? (Chapter II 202.024)
9. Above what concentration is Sulfuric Acid not very corrosive? (Chapter II 202.032)
10. Describe the following types of corrosion: Intergranular, Polythionic Acid, Dezincification, Galvanic,
Crevice Corrosion and Biological.( Chapter II 202.06)
Objectives
B. Joint Categories.
C. Joint Types.
Introduction
Section VIII Division 1 has a system of identification for welds in vessels and vessel parts. This system
assigns Types to welds; the form of weld (double welded, ect) determine its Type. The locations of welds
in a vessel or vessel part determine their Category. In some instances the Type will be mandatory based
on Category and Service. In other cases it will be optional; the designer makes a choice from the
acceptable Types. Radiography requirements also depend on Type, Service and Category.
The Code also assigns a way of measuring the quality of a butt joint, which is based on the Type, and
extent of radiography used.
Definitions
The following are definitions for use in Part UW. Doing calculations on shells, heads, nozzles and the
like will depend on knowing these definitions.
Welded Joints
Weld Types
3. Type is the description of a welded joint. For example, a single-welded butt joint with backing that
remains in place.
Weld Categories
4. Determination of Category for a joint depends on the location of the joint in a vessel or vessel part. As
an example the circumferential seam joining two shell courses is a Category of weld.
Lethal Service
For determination of a Butt joint's service restrictions by Types (how made) and Categories (locations)
permitted in a vessel read UW-2.
Vessels used to contain lethal substances require that all major butt welded joints be fully radiographed
(with some exceptions for heat exchangers).
If they are Category A joints they must be of Type No. (1) of Table UW-12. If they are Category B joints
they must be of either Type No. (1) or Type No. (2). Similar restrictions apply to the other classes listed
above.
A quick reference system for specifying joint requirements is the assigning of categories by location; to
welds in a vessel. For instance for a vessel in lethal service the Code requires that butt joints be of a
specific Type based on their physical location in the vessel and that the butt welds be fully radiographed.
A statement like "All category A joints shall be Type No. (1)." is a short hand way of saying the following:
" All longitudinal welds within main shells, communicating chambers, transitions in diameter, or nozzles;
any welded joint within a sphere, within a formed head, or within the side plates of a flat sided vessel;
circumferential welded joints connecting hemispherical heads to main shells, to transitions in diameter,
to nozzles, or to communicating chambers shall be Type No. (1).".
As you read through the Code paragraphs think of how difficult it would be to restate a complete
description every time you find a specified requirement based on joint Category.
The best way to understand and thereby learn joint category is by the use of graphics. Fig. UW-3 of
Paragraph UW-3 provides a brief graphical representation. An expanded use of graphics for each
Category follows.
The term "Category" as used here in defines the location of a joint in a vessel, but not the type of joint.
UW-3(a)(1) Category A. Longitudinal welded joints within the main shell, Communicating chambers,
transitions in diameter, or nozzles; any welded joint within a sphere, within a formed or flat head, or
within the side plates of a flat-sided vessel; circumferential welded joints connecting hemispherical
heads to main shells, to transitions in diameter, to nozzles, or to communicating chambers.
The term "Category" as used here in defines the location of a joint in a vessel, but not the type of joint.
UW-3(a)(2) Category B. Circumferential welded joints within the main shell, communicating chambers,
nozzles, or transitions in diameter including joints between the transition and a cylinder at either the large
or small end; circumferential welded joints connecting formed heads other than hemispherical to main
shell, to transitions in diameter, to nozzles or to communicating chambers.
The term "Category" as used here in defines the location of a joint in a vessel, but not the type of joint.
UW-3(a)(3) Category C. Welded joints connecting flanges, Van Stone laps, tubesheets, or flat heads to
main shell, to formed heads, to transitions in diameter, to nozzles, or communicating chambers; any
welded joint connecting one side plate to another side plate of a flat sided vessel.
The term "Category" as used here in defines the location of a joint in a vessel, but not the type of joint.
UW-3(a)(3) Category D. Welded joints connecting communicating chambers or nozzles, to main shell, to
spheres, to transitions in diameter, to heads, or to flat sided vessels, and those joints connecting nozzles to
communicating chambers (for nozzles at the small end of a transition in diameter, see Category B).
a. D
b. C
c. E
d. A
1. A complete set of radiographs shall be kept on file until the final acceptance of the inspector.
2. Personnel performing and evaluating radiographs shall be qualified using SNT-TC-1A as a guideline
for written practices used in their qualification.
3. That paragraph T-285 of Article 2 is a guide only and that final acceptance of radiographs is based on
the ability to see the correct penetrameter's image and the specified hole or wire size as applies.
4. How repairs of defects shall be made in accordance with UW-35 and the techniques for reinspecting
the weld after repair. The repair need not be radiographed if prior to the repair it has been
demonstrated to the inspector's satisfaction that Ultrasonic Testing can disclose the defect. In which
case ultrasonics can be use to examine the repair for acceptance.
6. That the limits of elongated indications are based on the materials thickness.
7. Those unacceptable aligned indications are based on total length of a group and the material's
thickness.
UW-51 contains the unacceptable indications for Full Radiography. Also definitions of nominal
thicknesses for welded joints and weld repairs. Details of Spot Radiography are covered in UW-52.
Spot radiographs use the same techniques as those in UW-51, but of course are not for the full length of
the weld. The basis for selecting Spot radiography is the desire to use a joint efficiency that will come
from Column B of table UW-12. The small print note above the subparagraphs explains the Code's intent
for the use of spot radiography. The following are highlights of the requirements for Spot Radiography.
1. One spot radiograph for every 50 ft of weld or fraction thereof for a joint efficiency from column b of
Table UW-12.
2. A sufficient number of spots shall be radiographed to examine each welder or welding operator in the
50-ft increment. In the case where welders weld on opposite sides of the same weld one shot will serve
to examine both.
3. The inspector chooses the location of the spot radiography. If the inspector approves and cannot be
present the fabricator can then choose the location of the spot radiography. Notice that there is no
specific location; the welders should never be able to predict the inspector's choice of location.
4. The spot radiography used to pick a joint efficiency from column b of Table UW-12 will not satisfy the
requirements of other paragraph such as UW-11 (a)(5)(b); a spot radiograph required for the choosing
of a joint efficiency from column A of Table 12.
5. Spot radiographs must follow the same rules as full radiographs for techniques. The minimum length
of the spot examined must be 6 inches.
6. Indications described as cracks or zones of incomplete fusion or lack of penetration are unacceptable.
7. Slag inclusion or cavity evaluation is based on the thickness of the weld excluding any weld
reinforcement (cap). The thickness is based on thinner member if two different thickness that have
been joined by a butt weld. If a fillet is welded over a full penetration weld its throat must included in
the thickness (t). Indications in a line are described with acceptance standards.
8. Rounded indications are not a factor in the acceptability of welds and are not required to be fully
radiographed.
9. When a spot radiograph is acceptable the entire weld increment represented is accepted. For example
if a longitudinal weld has 65 feet of weld metal only the first 50 feet could be accepted by a single 6
inch spot radiograph. The remaining 15 feet is represented in the next declared 50 feet increment.
10. If the first spot radiograph reveals welding that does not comply then two additional spots in the same
weld increment away from the first spot shall be radiographed (tracers). The choosing of the two
spots follows the same rule as the first spot radiograph.
11. If the tracers pass then repair and radiography is allowed for the area that was rejected in the first spot
radiograph.
12. If either of the tracers fail there are two options. Cut out the entire increment, reweld then apply spot
radiography again or apply full radiography and repair all defects found.
The spot radiography described above is not applied to any specific Category of weld. In a given 50 feet
of weld increment there may be Category A, B, C, and D butt welds. The inspector will choose the exact
location of the spot radiograph. In cases where spot radiography is a specific requirement of another
paragraph of the Code the location for the spot radiograph is stated within that paragraph. The spot
radiography of UW-52 cannot serve double duty; it will not satisfy the spot radiography requirements of
any other paragraph. It allows the use of a joint efficiency from column B of Table UW-12 for all
categories of butt joints in that 50 feet increment. If the 50 feet increment were to stop in the middle of a
joint the efficiency of that joint could not come from column B until the next 50 feet increment was spot
radiographed.
The Code demands 100 % Quality Assurance for some butt-welds (Butt-Welds in Lethal Service are
one example). In other services, choices for level of Quality Assurance for butt-welded joints can range
from 100 % down to 60 %.
The Quality of a butt-welded joint determines its Joint Efficiency in the Code. Joint Efficiency depends
on the Type of butt joint and the amount of radiography applied. There are other Types of joints besides
butt-welded allowed in the Code. However they cannot produce Code acceptable radiographs. The term
"Joint Efficiency" is a hold over from the days of riveted vessels. More will be said about this in the
coverage of UW-12.
There are three levels of radiography per Code. Full, Spot and None. The Code demands Full RT in some
cases and allows Full RT, Spot RT or None in others.
UW-11(a) Full Radiography specifies when Full Radiography must be performed. There are five
instances sited.
1. Butt welds in the shell and heads of vessels used to contain a lethal substance.
2. When the least nominal thickness at a butt weld exceeds a limiting thickness, which is based on the
type of material used in the vessel's welded construction.
3. Butt welds in the shells and heads of unfired steam boilers having an operating pressure greater than 50
psi.
4. Butt welds in nozzles, communicating chambers, etc. in (1) or (3) above attached to vessels sections or
heads that exceed certain limits on thickness or diameter.
5. Categories A&D butt joints. Where full radiography is not mandatory; but desired to obtain a joint
efficiency from column A of Table UW-12. Spot radiography must also be applied to Category B and C
butt joints.
UW-11(b) Spot Radiography. The next option, if full radiography is not mandatory under 1 through 5
above, is spot radiography. This spot radiography can be applied to Category A, B, C, or D butt joints and
will allow a joint efficiency from Column B of Table UW-12.
UW-11(c) No Radiography. If radiography is not mandatory under any Code requirements it may be
omitted for butt-welded joints. If this is the case the joint efficiency must come from Column C of Table
UW-12.
UW-11 contains the when and where for radiography and ultrasonic examinations. The effect of the
degree of radiography is reflected in paragraph UW-12 with a resulting Joint Efficiency "E". The "E" will
be used in the thickness required or pressure allowed calculations for shells, heads etc. The following
pages contain graphical representations of the UW-11.
(a) Full Radiography. The following welded joints shall be examined for their full length in a manner
prescribed in UW-51:
UW-11 (a)(1) All butt welds in the shells and heads of vessels used to contain lethal substances [see UW-
2(a)];
[UW-2(a) limits Category A butt welds to Type 1 and Category B to Type 1 or 2 of Table UW-12].
(a) Full Radiography. The following welded joints shall be examined for their full length in a manner
prescribed in UW-51:
UW -11(a)(2) All butt welds in which the least nominal thickness at the welded joint exceeds 1 1/2 in. or
exceeds the lesser thickness prescribed in UCS-57. Category B and C butt welds in nozzles and
communicating chambers that neither exceed NPS 10 nor 1 1/8 in. wall thickness do not require any
radiographic examination;
(a) Full Radiography. The following welded joints shall be examined for their full length in a manner
prescribed in UW-51:
UW-11(a)(3) All butt welds in the shells and heads of unfired steam boilers having a design pressure
exceeding 50 psi. [see UW-2(c)];
[UW-2(c) limits Category A Butt Welds to Type 1 and Category B to Type 1 or 2 of Table UW-12].
(a) Full Radiography. The following welded joints shall be examined for their full length in a manner
prescribed in UW-51:
UW-11 (a)(4) All butt welds in nozzles and communicating chambers, etc., attached to vessel sections or
heads that are required to be fully radiographed under (1) or(3) above; however, except as required by
UHT-57(a), Categories B and C butt welds in nozzles and communicating that neither exceed NPS 10 nor
1 1/8 in. wall thickness do not require any radiographic examination;
(a) Full Radiography. The following welded joints shall be examined for their full length in a manner
prescribed in UW-51:
UW-11(a)(5) All Category A and D butt welds in vessel sections and heads where the design of the joint or
part is based on joint efficiency by UW-12(a), in which case:
(a) Category A and B butt welds connecting the vessel sections or heads shall be of Type No. 1 or
Type No. 2 of Table UW-12;
(b) Category B or C butt welds [but not including those in nozzles or communicating chambers
except as required in (2) above] which intersect the Category A butt welds in vessel sections or heads or
connect seamless vessel sections or heads shall, as a minimum, meet the requirements for spot
radiography in accordance with UW-52. Spot radiographs required by this paragraph shall not be used to
satisfy the spot radiography rules as applied to any other weld increment.
UW-11
Exercises
1. For a vessel in lethal service what butt joints must be radiographed in addition to all butt joints in the
shell and heads?
2. A joint efficiency from Column A of Table UW-12 is desired for a Category A butt joint in a shell, what
extent of radiography must be applied to this Category A butt joint? What additional requirement must be
met?
3. If the least nominal thickness of a butt joint in a vessel exceeds a certain thickness based on the
material used in its construction what amount of radiography must be applied?
4. Full radiography is required by UW-11(a)(2) may it be assumed that all butt joints have been fully
radiographed? Why or why not?
5. A vessel shell contains a Category A butt welded longitudinal joint and a Category D butt welded joint.
Must both of these be fully radiographed to use a joint efficiency from Column A of Table UW-12?
There is a relationship between efficiencies and stresses in the Code; that when understood, will allow
making calculations with more confidence. What is joint efficiency? What is stress?
STRESS
Stress as it relates to internal pressure on a vessel is a load in the vessel's material. Stress is measured in
pounds per square inch. Our examples use a material that will fail at 60,000 pounds per square inch.
ULTIMATE STRESS
The Code allows the working stress in a material to be only a fraction of its Ultimate Stress. The term
used is Maximum Allowable Stress. The Maximum Allowable Stress is about 28.5% of the Ultimate
Stress for a given material. In the first example above the material is loaded to only 28.5 % of the second
example, which failed at 60,000 pounds per square inch. The limiting of stress in the Code gives a safety
factor of about 3.5 to 1. This is under ideal conditions with no known flaws in the vessel's material. This
of course would be seamless material properly inspected or a welded material joined by a Code approved
method and fully radiographed as required in the Code. Most vessels are constructed using welding and
welding will introduce flaws into the vessel material. How many and how bad are the flaws? This is
answered by the use of nondestructive examination, primarily visual and radiographic.
If a large enough flaw is present in the base material or the weld, failure can occur at a much lower value
of stress.
In the Code formulas the Stress Allowed must be multiplied by the joint efficiency 'E'. So SE always
appear in the formulas. The reason for using E is to make an adjustment for how certain it is that the
welded joint is equal to a seamless piece of material. In the case of full radiography the conclusion that
the material is as strong as seamless is made and an Efficiency for a Type No. 1 joint can be 1.0 . For a
Type NO. 2 .90 can be used. Spot Radiography allows lower joint efficiencies and No Radiography still
lower.
SE = 15,000 psi x .85 = 12,750 psi. The stress allowed in the calculation for thickness is now 12,750 psi
and will result in the need for a thicker material in the vessel's construction.
Welding is costly and the thicker the material the more costly both become. Radiography has a cost and a
benefit. The direct cost is the cost of performing radiography. The indirect cost is the cost of repairing
the rejectable conditions revealed by radiography. The benefit is the use of thinner material resulting in
lower material and welding cost. Under certain conditions Full Radiography is required and the costs will
be unavoidable.
THE RT AFFECTS THE E WHICH IN TURN AFFECTS THE t.
The term joint efficiency as used in the Code is a really a way of stating how close too in strength; after
joining; the joint is to an equivalent seamless piece. The best available weld joint obtained by the arc or
gas-welding process is a Type No. 1 that has been fully radiographed. A Type No. 1 fully radiographed
butt-welded joint results in a part with a joint efficiency of 1.0. It may be considered as being as strong as
a solid piece of the same material. Welded tension tests coupons normally fail in the base metal.
UW-12 states that the joint efficiency depends only on the type of joint and the degree of examination of
the joint. The resulting joint efficiency shall be as given in Table UW-12.
The term Joint Efficiency as used today is really a measure of the quality of a joint. The term dates back
to the days of riveted vessels and was a measure of how closely a particular riveted joint approached the
strength of a seamless piece. Some believe that the term Joint Efficiency should be replaced with the term
Quality Factor because it would be more reflective of what is really being determined by the modern
Codes. After debate the Code Committee decided to leave things, as they were in order not to create
confusion in industry. The following graphics will help in understanding the concept.
In the case of a riveted shell a true circle could never be accomplished due to the natural offset in
alignment. Still the term joint efficiency has hung on. Riveted construction was eliminated from the
Code after 1971. As before we will utilize graphics to help in understanding joint efficiencies. Modified
Table UW-12 which follows with its graphics will explain joint types and the limits of radiography.
Table UW-12 lists the joint efficiencies E to be used in the formulas when calculating the required
thickness or allowed pressure on vessel components such as heads or shells. Paragraph UW-12 must be
understood to correctly apply Table UW-12.
UW-12(a): A value of E not greater than that given in column (a) of Table UW-12 shall be used in the
design calculations for fully radiographed butt joints, except that when the requirements of UW-11(a)(5)
are not met the a value of E not greater than in column (b) of table UW- 12 shall be used.
Translation: Category A, B, C and D butt joints in shells or heads; must be fully radiographed in order to
take an E of 1.0 for Type 1 or .90 for Type 2 joints when doing calculations. For Category A&D in shells;
the additional Spot RT described in UW-11 (a)(5)(b) must be applied to intersecting category B and C
butt joints. This means; if a longitudinal butt joint (Category A) in a shell has had Full RT you cannot
take a joint E from Column A until you perform Spot RT on the Category A (Hemi heads only), B or C
girth joints (as applies) following the rules of UW-52.
UW-52 states that at least one 6" shot will be performed every 50' of weld metal and will inspect the work
of every welder in that increment. More than one 6" shot will be required if all welders are not checked
in the one radiograph.
If the Spot RT were not performed the long joint's E would come from Column B (.85 for a Type 1 or .
80 for a Type 2). The E used in calculations for the seamless elliptical head above is addressed in UW-
12(d).
UW-12(b): A value of E not greater than that given in column (b) of Table UW-12 shall be used in the
design calculations for spot radiographed butt welded joints [see UW-11(b)].
Translation: If a joint efficiency from column b can be lived with and the Code does not require Full
radiography, Spot RT can be used. Spot RT can be specified for the entire vessel per UW-11(b), if it is,
the rules of UW-52 must be followed. This means one 6 inch radiograph every 50 feet of weld metal;
which must show the work of every welder or welding operator who has welded in the 50 foot increment.
If two welders weld for instance; on opposite sides of a 50 foot weld one shot will do to prove both
welders.
Notice this Spot RT differs from that of UW-11(a)(5)(b). UW-11(a)(5)(b) is applied to circumferential
joints only (B, C or an A that joins a Hemi hd). This RT may be applied to either longitudinal or
circumferential joints or their intersections if so chosen by the inspector per UW-52(b)(3).
The above example has 100 feet of weld total. All the welders are in the radiographs. Everybody got their
picture taken. This vessel would be marked RT 3. Individual joints can be chosen for Spot RT and a joint
efficiency from column b used for that component or joint. If that is done the marking becomes RT 4. All
of this assumes Full RT is not mandatory.
UW-12(c): A value of E not greater than that given in column (c) of Table UW-12 shall be used in design
calculations for welded joints that are neither fully radiographed nor spot radiographed [ see UW-11(c) ].
Translation: If no radiography is performed all joint efficiencies come straight from Table UW-12 column
(c) based on the type of joint used.
Of course this is not an option if Full RT is required by Code.
The seamless elliptical head calculations in the above example would require an E of .85. This is per UW-
12(d). As you will see in UW-12(d) seamless components are special cases.
UW-12(d): Seamless vessel sections and heads shall be considered equivalent to welded parts of the same
geometry in which all Category A welds are Type No. 1. For calculations involving circumferential stress
in seamless vessel sections or for thickness of seamless heads E = 1.0 when the spot radiography
requirements of UW-11(a)(5)(b) are met. E = .85 when the spot radiography requirements are not met, or
when the Category A or B welds connecting seamless vessel sections or heads are Type No. 3, 4, 5, or 6 of
Table UW-12.
Type No. 3, 4, 5 and 6 joints will not produce interpretable radiographs per the ASME Code. Therefore
the E used to calculate a seamless component using one of these Types must be taken as .85 by default.
Translation: UW-12 (d) requires the same action as UW-12(a) except that the shell or head does not have
Category A joints. The exception is a seamless hemispherical head without a flange. When welded on a
shell it will have a Category A joint and therefore can never be seamless. In the part of UW-12(d) that
says "shall be considered equivalent to welded parts of the same geometry in which all Category A welds
are Type No. 1" what it is implied but not directly stated, is that full radiography of the Category A Type 1
welds is required to make the two equals.
When any of the above examples is joined to another component by a Type 1 or 2 joint then the Spot RT of
UW-11(a)(5)(b) must be performed to allow an E of 1.0 in their calculations. Examples: Categories, A
(Hemi head) or B (head with skirt) or When any of the above examples is joined to another component by
a Type C (weld neck ).
The most confusing part of doing Code calculation is the picking of a joint efficiency. The temptation to
go straight to Table UW-12 and use one of the efficiencies listed there is automatic. That is a hit and miss
proposition and will only on occasion yield the proper Joint E. First of all, the E has a double meaning
that is not readily apparent. E in one sense applies to the welded joints and in the second it applies to a
seamless component such as a seamless head or shell. There are three main types of stresses acting on a
pressure vessel that are of concern.
3. Stress In heads.
Circumferential stress applies stress in a shell along its length. This stress acts to split a shell along its
length and is often referred to as Hoop Stress. The shell may be seamless or may contain longitudinal
seams. In either case failure in the circumference will usually occur similar to that shown in the drawing
above. A Code calculation is required to determine the thickness required or pressure allowed on the shell
for circumferential stress.
There are two possible cases for a vessel's circumferential stress calculation with a single shell course.
The shell is seamless or it has a longitudinal seam. The UG-27 circumferential formulas are used for
calculation of thickness required or pressure allowed in both cases. The difference between the two
conditions is in how the E is picked for use in the calculation. We will examine the two separately.
E = 1.0 when the spot radiography of UW-11(a)(5)(b) has been applied to the circumferential joint. This
is per UW-12(d).
E = .85 when the spot radiography of UW-11(a)(5)(b) has not been applied to the circumferential joint.
This is per UW-12(d).
For a seamless shell course there are only two possibilities for the E when doing Hoop Stress
Calculations.
E = 1.0
or
E = .85
The E used for the calculation of a vessel with a butt welded longitudinal joint (seam) depends on several
factors.
1. What type of butt joint has been used to make the long joint?
(Per Table UW-12 limitations only two are allowed)
a. Type No. 1
or
b. Type No. 2
There are many combinations which can be made from the factors above, all resulting in different joint
efficiencies. Examples of a few problems should help in the understanding of the other situations. In the
following examples all vessels have less than 50 linear feet of welds total and were made by the same
welder.
Shells
Example A: Shell course with a Type No. 1 longitudinal seam that has been fully radiographed. The
vessel has ellipsoidal heads on both ends and the Spot RT of UW-11(a)(5)(b) has been applied.
Fully radiographing the Type No. 1 Category A longitudinal seam and performing the Spot RT of UW-
11(a)(5)(b) allows the use of an E from column A of Table UW-12. The E from Column A , for a Type
No. 1 is 1.0 This is in agreement with Paragraph UW-12(a).
Example B: Shell course with a Type No. 2 longitudinal seam that has been fully radiographed. The
vessel has ellipsoidal heads on both ends and the Spot RT of UW-11(a)(5)(b) has been applied.
Fully radiographing the Type No. 2 Category A longitudinal seam and performing the Spot RT of UW-
11(a)(5)(b) allows the use of an E from column A of Table UW-12. The E from Column A , for a Type
No. 2 is .90. This is also in agreement with Paragraph UW-12(a).
Fully radiographing the Type No. 1 Category A longitudinal seam but not performing the Spot RT of
UW-11(a)(5)(b) requires the use of an E from column B of Table UW-12. The E from Column B , for a
Type No. 1 is .85. This is in agreement with Paragraph UW-12(a).
Example D: Shell course with a Type No. 2 longitudinal seam that has been fully radiographed. The
vessel has ellipsoidal heads on both ends and the Spot RT of UW-11(a)(5)(b) has not been applied.
Fully radiographing the Type No. 2 Category A longitudinal seam but not performing the Spot RT of
UW-11(a)(5)(b) requires the use of an E from column B of Table UW-12. The E from Column B , for a
Type No. 2 is .80. This is also in agreement with Paragraph UW-12(a).
The conclusion drawn from examples C and D above is that applying full radiography to the longitudinal
joint offers no benefit unless accompanied by the Spot RT of UW-11(a)(5)(b). The Type No.1 joint E of
example C is the same as if it was only Spot Radiographed since it's E must come from Column B of Table
UW-12. This is also the case for the Type No. 2 of example D. These joints would have the same joint E
if they had been spot radiographed. Full Radiography was a waste. The Code does this to discourage
more than one level of radiography between butt welded joints. It is unlikely you will ever see actual cases
like examples C and D.
LONGITUDINAL STRESS / CIRCUMFERENTIAL JOINTS
At this point we will begin discussing the Longitudinal Stress that causes stress around vessel walls and in
Circumferential Joints. Commonly referred to as the girth.
Longitudinal stresses tend to tear the vessel into two pieces, separate shell courses or pop off the head.
This is the second calculation required for a shell.
For our examples we will use a vessel with two shell courses and ellipsoidal heads on both ends. Keep in
mind that we are calculating the stresses on Circumferential Joints (Girth Joints) ; those which are
affected by longitudinal stress. Longitudinal stress rarely determines the required thickness or allowed
pressure on a shell. The reason is ; the stress created by internal pressure in the longitudinal direction is
only half that of in the circumferential direction. Normally circumferential stress governs and determines
the required thickness or pressure allowed for a shell. The Joint Efficiency for these Categories of butt
welds may be taken directly from Table UW-12 based on their Type. Radiography applies when they are
of Type No. 1 or Type No. 2. RT does not apply to Types 3, 4, 5 and 6.
Shells
Example A: Two seamless shell courses closed with ellipsoidal heads without radiography applied to
circumferential Type No.1 butt joints. The E used for longitudinal stress calculations of both shell courses
is .70.
Example B: Two seamless shell courses closed with ellipsoidal heads with spot radiography applied to
circumferential Type No.1 butt joints. The E used for the calculations of both the shell courses is .85.
Example C: Two seamless shell courses closed with ellipsoidal heads with full radiography applied to
circumferential Type No.1 butt joints. The E used for the calculations of both the shell courses is 1.0 .
If the above vessels had been made using Type No. 2 joints the joint efficiencies would be .65, .80 and .90
respectively based on the same radiography.
Stress In Heads
The last E to consider is the one used to calculate thickness required or pressure allowed for formed and
forged heads. Internal pressure creates stress that acts to rupture the walls of heads.
Each kind of head has a Code formula for its calculations. Two classes of heads are joined to vessels by
circumferential joints. One class is joined to the shell with a Category B or C circumferential butt joint;
these are heads that have a flange. Some examples are Torispherical, Ellipsoidal and forged Flat heads.
Forged Flat heads are joined by Category C circumferential joints and are treated the same for
determining their E as the other two. The other class is joined to the shell with a Category A butt joint; it
is a Hemispherical head with out a flange.
The first examples have ellipsoidal heads that may be joined to the shell using a Type No. 1 or Type No. 2
joint. It is also representative of a torispherical head since both have a flange (skirt). The ellipsoidal head
forms a Category B joint with the shell and is seamless.
The second examples have formed hemispherical heads without a flange. The joint formed by the
attachment of the hemispherical head to the shell is a circumferential Category A. Hemispherical heads
may be joined using either a Type No. 1 or a Type No. 2 joint provided no service restriction from UW-2
applies. If a service restriction applies the Category A butt joint must be of Type No. 1. The shell used in
all examples is over 24 inches in O.D. and over 5/8 inch thick. Per Table UW-12 only Type No.1 or Type
No. 2 joints are allowed for these conditions. When seamless heads, that have a flange (skirt), are attached
to shells a Category B joint is created. This Category B joint will have a joint efficiency based on its Type
and the amount of radiography that was applied.
Stress In Heads
This joint efficiency will not be used in the calculation of the head's required thickness or its pressure
allowed. This E is used in the longitudinal stress calculations for the shell. The Category B joint may be
thought of as belonging to the shell. For a seamless head which is joined by a Category B butt joint
there are only two possibilities for the E used in the head calculations. The E used will either be 1.0 or .
85. The E is determined based on the requirements of UW-12(d). The question then becomes has Spot RT
been applied to the Category B butt joint. If it has the E is 1.0. If it has not the E is .85.
Example A: Category B butt joint of Type No. 1 or Type No. 2 has not received Spot RT. E = .85 for the
head's thickness or pressure calculation. The shell's longitudinal stress calculation E will be .70 or .65
depending on which Type of joint was used.
Example B: Category B butt joint of Type No. 1 or Type No. 2 has received Spot RT. E = 1.0 for the
head's thickness or pressure calculation. The shell's longitudinal stress calculation E will be .85 or .80
depending on which Type of joint was used.
Heads
The last case to consider for seamless heads that form a Category B or C joint with a shell is when the
joint is of Type No.3, 4, 5 or 6 of Table UW-12. Since these types are not considered radiographicable by
the Code the Spot RT cannot be applied. UW-12(d) states that the head under this condition shall always
be calculated using E = .85. The shell's longitudinal calculations would use an E based on the Type No. of
the joint and this E would then come directly from Table UW-12.
The most common mistake in the calculation of seamless heads attached by Category B joints is the
use of the E found in table UW-12 based on the type of joint.
That E belongs in Longitudinal shell calculations. The E used for the seamless head is based only on the
application of Spot RT. If Spot RT has not or cannot be performed ( as is the case for Types 3, 4, 5, or 6)
an E of .85 shall be used. If it can and has E = 1.0. END OF STORY. Until they change the Code
again!
The last formed head of concern is the Hemispherical. A hemispherical head formed from a solid piece of
plate without a flange is only seamless as long as it is lying on the shop floor; when welded to another
component such as a shell it now has a Category A joint. Read UW-3(a)(1) again to confirm this
statement. The Category A joint formed after welding to a shell belongs to the hemispherical head. The
rules regarding seamless shells and heads in UW-12(d) specify that the spot radiography of UW-11(a)(5)
(b) must be applied to use an E of 1.0 for a seamless head's thickness or a shell's circumferential stress
calculation. Since our hemispherical head will always have a Category A joint (seam) the conditions of
UW-12(d) do not apply. The bottom line is; that a formed hemispherical head without a flange can never
be seamless. Spot radiography on the Category A joint does have a use if the hemispherical head is
welded to a seamless shell or to a shell in which all Category A&D butt joints have been fully
radiographed.. The shell's circumferential stress could then be calculated using an E of 1.0 .
ATTENTION - ATTENTION
HEMISPHERICAL HEADS ONLY CONTAIN CATEGORY A JOINTS.
Heads
The following examples will use a formed hemispherical head and a seamless shell.
Example A: Seamless shell course with a hemispherical head. Spot RT has not been applied. The
Category A joint may be a Type No.1 or a Type No. 2 of Table UW-12. E = .65 or .70 .
Example B: Seamless shell course with a hemispherical head. Spot RT has been applied. The Category
A joint may be a Type No.1 or a Type No. 2 of Table UW-12. E = .80 or .85 .
Example C: Seamless shell course with a hemispherical head. Full RT has been applied. The Category
A joint may be a Type No.1 or a Type No. 2 of Table UW-12. E = .90 or 1.0 .
Summary Of Part UW
The main points of Part UW for the API Exam are the following:
The Spot RT described in UW-11(a)(5)(b) is used for Seamless or equivalent components. This spot
radiography is different than applying spot radiography to the entire vessel. Typically Exam problems will
be stated in this manner 'A seamless torispherical head is being replaced due to corrosion. The head has
an O.D. of 60 inches and is joined by a Type No. 1 joint . UW-11(a)(5)(b) has been applied '. The
statement that UW-11(a)(5)(b) has been applied will be the only thing you need to determine the E to use
in the head's calculation. This can also be stated as the vessel's Data plate is stamped RT 2. RT markings
and their meanings will be explained in the coverage of Paragraph UG-116 REQUIRED MARKING.
This will also serve as a review of paragraphs UW-11 and UW-12.
Exercises UW-12
Exercises UW-12
Paragraph UW-40 gives the particulars of postweld heat treatment required in the applicable part in Sub-
section C. This paragraph lists the methods that are acceptable to the Code. For instance, UW-40 (a)(1)
says that heating the vessel as a whole in an enclosed furnace is preferable and should be used if practical.
Heating the vessel in more than one heat in a furnace can be done, but an overlap of the heated sections
shall be at least five (5) feet. Also, the portion outside the furnace shall be shielded. Vessels can be heat
treated as sections, joined then locally heat treated at the circumferential joints.
Heat can be applied internally and the vessel externally insulated as long as the given considerations are
met. The minimum temperatures for post-weld heat treatments are given in Table UCS-56.
It must be remembered that this paragraph applies to the vessel in a shop new construction setting. The
banding described here must be applied all the way around the vessel and include any nozzle's welds and
the like.
The API 510 allows the use of Local Post Weld Heat Treatment that does not require the entire
circumference of the vessel be included in the heat treatment. This of course is aimed at field repairs. In
the API 510 Code the procedure is required to be reviewed by a qualified engineer. There should be
preheat applied in accordance with the material of construction. A distance of not less than two times the
base metal thickness on each side of a welded repair is required to be locally post weld heat treated; it
must include any nozzles or attachment welds in the local postweld heat treatment area. A suitable
number of thermocouples (at least two) shall be used to monitor the temperature during treatment.
In the beginning of this paragraph it is stipulated that before applying the content of the paragraph
satisfactory weld procedure qualifications of the procedures to be used shall be performed in accordance
with Section IX. Included are the requirements for the condition of postweld heat treatment or lack there
of, in the weld procedure.
The exemption given in tables UCS-56 and UCS-56.1 are not permitted under some circumstances. If
post weld heat treatment is a service requirement as set forth in UCS-68 or welding is being done on
ferritic materials greater than 1/8" thick by the electron beam process are two examples.
Maximum furnace temperature at the time vessel or part is placed in it shall not exceed 800 oF. The rate
at which the heating shall be increased is specified. Variation in the part temperature shall be held at or
above the specified temperature for the period of time given in Table UCS-56 or UCS-56.1. The furnace
design cannot allow the flames to touch the part or vessel. The furnace must be cooled at a given rate.
The next important aspect is welded repairs. Here repairs performed on P-NO 1 Groups Nos., 1, 2, and 3
materials and P-No 3 Groups Nos., 1, 2, and 3 materials and weld metals used to join these materials may
be made after final PWHT, but prior to final hydrostatic test, without additional PWHT, provided PWHT is
not a service requirement.
The depth of the repair based on the material P-number is restricted, non-destructive testing after removal
of the defect is required. An approved welding procedure is required and the repair must be made using
the shielded metal arc process with low hydrogen electrodes. The electrodes must be properly handled
and the weave bead used is restricted to four electrode core diameters. There are two repair techniques
described. One method for P-1 materials. The second method can be used for P-No 1 or P-No 3 materials
restricted to the stated group Nos. P-No 3 materials can only be repaired using the Half Bead weld
repair and Weld Temper Bead reinforcement technique. The description of this procedure is almost
identical to the one in the API 510 Code. Preheats temperatures and preheat maintenance times are some
what different.
Objectives
A. Calculate the required thickness or pressure allowed on cylindrical shells using formulas based on
inside or outside radius (Part MAWP).
B. Calculate the thickness required or pressure allowed for 2 to 1 Ellipsoidal, Standard Torispherical and
Hemispherical heads (Part MAWP).
C. Calculate the thickness required for Circular Unstayed Flat heads (Part MAWP).
F. Calculate Hydrostatic and Pneumatic Test pressures. Describe Procedures for Tests.
Example 1. Given a cylindrical vessel shell with the following variables, solve for pressure allowed in the
cylinder using both formulas.
P=?
t = 0.500"
S = 15,000 psi
E = 1.0
R = 18.0"
Ro = 18.5"
If calculations for a thickness required are being made the same approach may be taken. The next step in
this instruction will be to apply cases where this is an appropriate option. Our next example will deal
with corrosion.
Example 2. A cylindrical vessel shell has been found to have a minimum thickness of .353". Its original
thickness was .375". May this vessel remain in service given the following variables?
P = 300 psi
t = 0.353"
S = 13,800 psi
E = .85
R = 12.0" + (.375-.353) = 12.022 This adjusts is for the corroded inside radius
Ro= 12.0" + 0.375 (orig. t) =12.375" This finds the original outside radius
ANSWER: YES
338.46 psi > 300 psi
Important adjustments must be made for both approaches. The case of inside radius requires an increase
of the inside radius due to corrosion. If the outside radius is not given, the original thickness must be
added to the original inside radius to determine the outside radius; but the thickness used in the pressure
allowed calculation of App:1 (1-1) must be the existing thickness given in the stated problem. As can be
seen from the above examples either method yields the same results as long as the rules are followed
properly. The method you use is a matter of personal preference. These adjustments, along with others
such as static head, add to the difficulty of otherwise simple arithmetic. In every case, careful work is a
requirement for successful calculations.
As a check on the calculations for pressure allowed, calculations for thickness required can be performed.
Our next examples are used to determine if the vessel may operate at the 300 psi desired and be in
compliance with the Code.
Example 3. Using the same variables as Example 2. above, calculate the thickness required for the shell
using 300 psi.
ANSWER:
The slight difference in the thickness’ required has to do with the inside radius increasing to 12.022
inches from the original 12.0 inches due to corrosion. Both of the above answers are correct using 300
psi. By increasing the pressure used in the thickness calculations to 338.46, the thickness’ required are
identical for both formulas.
For the next part of our instruction we will begin doing some simple shell calculations using UG-27
Thickness of Shells under Internal Pressure.
In this paragraph, formulas are given for the calculation of minimum thickness and maximum pressure
for cylindrical and spherical shells. Special attention must be paid to circumferential stress within the
cylindrical shell. This stress category normally will determine the minimum thickness or maximum
working pressure of the vessel.
1. Make a simple drawing of the vessel or head you are calculating values for. This helps to identify the
variables in the next step.
2. List what is required to know. We will call these givens. These will come from the stated problem.
3. State all the code paragraphs that apply, i.e., UG-27, UG-22, etc.
Drawing:
Givens:
t=
P=
R=
S=
E=
etc.
Problem # 1
Find the Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP) of a 12 inch inside diameter shell. This vessel
will be subjected to an internal pressure and will operate at a temperature of 700 degrees F. This shell is
seamless carbon steel and has an allowable stress value of 16,600 psi. Its wall thickness is .406 . No
corrosion is expected. Circumferential welds are not considered in this problem. This is a demonstration
of formula UG-27(c)(1) and does not reflect the choosing of a joint efficiency.
Drawing:
Givens:
P=?
t = .406 *
R = 6.0 Remember this formula uses Radius not Diameter.
S = 16,600 psi
E = 1.0
Mill Under tolerance must be considered when designing a vessel shell using pipe. For most pipe, it is
12.5 % of the nominal thickness. This will usually require ordering the next schedule up to meet a
required thickness. The example above could arrive with a thickness of as little as .355".
Problem # 2
Find the minimum required thickness of a cylindrical shell designed for a working pressure of 100 psi at
350 degrees F. The shell's inside radius is 2'-0". The longitudinal joint is category A (UW-3), type 1
(table UW-12) - no radiography was performed. The shell is made of SA-515 grade 60 carbon steel rolled
plate with an allowable stress of 15,000 psi. The vessel is in water service. Again, circumferential welds
are not considered for the sake of simplicity.
Drawing:
Givens:
t= ?
P= 100 psi
R= 24"
S= 15000
E= .70 (Table UW-12)
PR
t=
SE - 0.6 P
100 x 24 2400
t= = = .2298 "
(15,000 x .70 ) - (0.6 x 100) 10440
We have now calculated the pressure allowed on a seamless shell in Problem # 1. We have also found the
thickness required of a seamed, rolled plate shell in Problem #2. To this point we have not considered a
circumferential weld joint. The next problem will consider joining together two courses of seamed and
rolled plate to make one shell.
Problem # 3
Determine the minimum required thickness of a cylindrical shell designed for an internal pressure of 50
psi at a design temperature of 100 degrees F. No corrosion is expected. The shell is made of two courses
butt welded circumferentially using Type 1 welds which have been spot radiographed per UW- 11(a)(5)(b).
The shell long joints are butt welded also and are Type 1, Category A fully radiographed. The material is
SA-515 grade 70, stress allowable is 17,500 psi. The inside diameter is 10'-0". Both heads will later be
joined to the shell and will have Spot RT in accordance with UW-12(a) and UW-11(a)(5)
This problem will require us to consider two different cases in order to come to the solution. First we will
work the problem to solve for the thickness required to resist longitudinal stresses. Second to resist
circumferential stresses. Are you clear on the difference between the two? It's easy to be confused. The
Longitudinal Stress is the stress that acts to pull apart two shell courses or pop a head off of the end of a
vessel. It creates stress in the shell and welds around a vessel. Circumferential Stress can be thought of
as trying to split a shell along its length. It creates stress in the shell and welds along the length of the
vessel. Circumferential Stress is normally the controlling stress for thickness or pressure calculations.
UG-27 Internal Pressure Cylindrical Shells
Case Study 1
Drawing:
Givens:
t= ?
P= 50 psi
D= 10'-0"
R= 5'-0" = 60 "
S= 17500
E = .85 from table UW-12
50 x 60 3000
t= = = .1007
(2 x 17,500 x .85) + (0.4 x 50) 29770
Drawing:
Givens:
t= ?
P= 50 psi
D= 10'-0"
R= 5'-0" = 60 "
S= 17500
E = .85 from table UW-12
50 x 60 3000
t= = = .1007
(2 x 17,500 x .85) + (0.4 x 50) 29770
Drawing:
Givens:
t= ?
P= 50
R= 60"
S= 17500
E= 1.0 ( UW-12 (a) and UW-11(a)(5))
50 x 60 3000
t= = = .1717 "
(17,500 x 1.0 ) - (0.6 x 50) 17470
Use the Overview portion of UG-27 starting on page 7 to determine formulas and use the Part UW section
to determine joint efficiencies.
1. Calculate the thickness required for a seamless shell made of SA-106 gr. B pipe. The O.D. is 12.75
inches. UW-11(a)(5)(b) has been applied.
The shell will operate at 500 psi. The stress allowed on the shell material is 15,000 psi.
Givens: Drawing:
t=
P=
S=
E=
R or Routside=
2. What is the maximum allowed working pressure on a shell made of SA-515 gr.60? The shells inside
radius is 52 inches, and the shell’s thickness is .850 inches. The allowable stress for the shell's material is
15,000 psi at 500 oF. The joint efficiency of the shell's Category A joints is 1.0 .
Givens: Drawing:
t=
P=
S=
E=
R or Routside=
State Code Paragraph(s) and Formula(s):
There are three types of calculations for formed heads listed in the API 510 Body of Knowledge:
Ellipsoidal, Torispherical and Hemispherical. The candidate is responsible for performing calculations for
thickness required and pressure allowed in all cases. The formulas that will used will all come from
paragraph UG-32. The variables change somewhat from type to type.
A sketch and the formulas for thickness of each kind are below.
PD
t=
2SE - 0.2 P
0.885PL
t=
SE - 0.1P
PL
t=
2SE - 0.2P
There are five geometry's listed in UG-32. You will be responsible for the calculations of three:
Hemispherical, Ellipsoidal and Torispherical.
Givens: The same pressure and stress values will be used for all heads.
P= 100 psi
S= 17500 SA-515 Gr70 plate 650 degrees F.
E= .85 for spot RT of Hemispherical head joint to shell
E= 1.0 for seamless heads ( Ellipsoidal and Torispherical )
L= 48" for the inside spherical radius for the hemispherical head
L= 96" for the inside crown radius of the torispherical head
O.D. = 96" for the torispherical head
D= 96" inside diameter of the ellipsoidal and hemispherical heads
t= Required wall thickness, inches
Problem # 1
Given the above data find the required thickness of a seamless ellipsoidal head.
Drawing:
PD
t=
2SE - 0.2 P
100 x 96 9600
t= = .2744 "
(2 x 17,500 x 1.0) - (0.2 x 100) 34980
Problem # 2
Using the same data, calculate the required thickness of a hemispherical head that does not have a straight
flange.
Drawing:
Solving for t:
100 x 48 4800
t 0.1614 "
(2 x 17,500 x 0.85) (0.2 x 100) 29730
Problem # 3
Determine the required "t "of this torispherical head. (These are also called ASME flanged and dished
heads, by the way). This head has an O.D. equal to its inside crown radius AND the knuckle radius is
equal to 6% of its inside crown radius.
Drawing:
0.885PL
t=
SE - 0.1P
Solving for t:
0.885 x 100 x 96 8496
t= = = .4857 "
(17,500 x 1.0) - (0.1 x 100) 17490
2. A Torispherical head has corroded to a thickness of .353 " ; its inside crown radius is 56 inches. The
head's material has a stress allowable of 13,800 psi at 500 oF. The shell is seamless and the spot
radiography of UW-11(a)(5)(b) has been applied to the vessel. Can this head remain in service at 100 psi
per Code?
Givens: Drawing:
t=
P=
S=
E=
L=
State Code Paragraph(s) and Formula(s):
3. A Hemispherical head is being considered as a replacement on a vessel with a MAWP of 200 psi. The
head's Inside diameter will be 64 inches. What would be its required thickness if the head's material has a
maximum allowable stress of 17,500 psi? The Category A type 1 joint that attaches the head will be spot
radiographed.
Givens: Drawing:
t=
P=
S=
E=
L=
State Code Paragraph(s) and Formula(s):
4. What would the required thickness for an Ellipsoidal head be given the same variables as used in
Problem # 3 above? The Category B weld that will attach this head would not have UW-11(a)(5)(b)
applied.
Givens: Drawing:
t=
P=
S=
E=
D=
State Code Paragraph(s) and Formula(s):
API 510 Module
PART UG - GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
Those attached by fillet welds and those attached by other than Types Nos. 1 or 2 are not radiographical by
the Code rules. Seamless circular flat heads which are butt welded must follow the rules for
circumferential butt welds contained in UW-11 and UW-12(d) when choosing the Efficiency for their
thickness calculations. These heads are treated in the same way as formed heads for their E used in
calculations. If a flat head is attached using fillet welds, it cannot be radiographed, and if the flat head is
seamless the E used to calculate its thickness will always be 1.0 .
If the Circular Unstayed Flat Head were constructed of two half moon pieces using a butt weld, the head
would then contain a Category A joint per UW-3. The Type of butt weld and the amount of radiography
would determine the E; the resulting E would be the joint efficiency used in the head's thickness
calculation.
The only formula that will be used for the calculations on the test is the one of UG-34 (c)(2) #1.
Thickness required will be the only type of problem asked according to the API 510 Body of Knowledge.
t = d CP
SE
The definitions of the variables in the formula are shown in the figures of Fig. UG-34. The d is the inside
diameter of a head or shell as given in each figure; the C is a factor that depends on the method of
attachment, shell dimensions and other factors listed in UG-34 (d). The E was discussed above; t and P
are thickness and pressure. The C can get a little tricky in figures (e),(f), (g)and (b-2) of Fig. UG-34. In
these four figures there is a note that states: C = 0.33 x m; where in the other figures it is stated that C
will equal a specific value, 0.17 etc. also all figures list a minimum C value. Figures (e), (f),(g) and
(b-2) require an extra calculation to determine the C before the head's thickness can be calculated using
the formula above. Again that calculation is C = 0.33 x m.
The term m is defined in the nomenclature of UG-34 as being the thickness required of the shell divided
by the actual thickness of the shell.
tr
m=
ts
Problem # 1
A Seamless Flat Unstayed Circular Head having a diameter of 10 inches is attached to a cylindrical shell
similar to Fig. UG-34 (e). The vessel will have a MAWP of 100 psi at 400 degrees F., the head and shell
are made of SA-515 Gr. 70 carbon steel with an allowable stress of 17500 psi. The shell's thickness is .
375." Corrosion is not expected. Find the minimum thickness of this head.
Drawing:
Givens:
Shell t = .375 "
Head t = ?
P = 100 psi
d = 10.0 in
S = 17500 @450 oF
E = 1.0 For any seamless head attached by fillet welding.
C = 0.33 x m
From: UG-34(c)(2) t = d CP
SE
Step 1. Calculate the thickness required of the shell using the UG-27(c)(1)
circumferential stress formula.
PR
t=
SE - 0.6 P
100 x 5 500
t= = = .02866 "
(17,500 x 1.0 ) - (0.6 x 100) 17,440
Step 2. Calculate the value of m.
tr .02866
m= = .076
ts .375
C = 0.33 x m
Now since the minimum C can be per figs. (e) (f) and (g) is 0.20 use this in the calculation of the head
t = d CP
SE
t = 10 0.20x100
17,500 x 1.0
t = 10 20
17,500
t = 10 .0011428
t = 10 x .0338053 =.3380"
Problem # 2
A Forged Flat Circular Unstayed Head has been attached to a shell similar to fig. (b-1) of Fig. UG-34.
The circumferential weld attaching the head to the shell is a single welded butt joint with a backing strip
which remains in place. The Data Report for the vessel indicates that no radiography has been performed.
The heads inside diameter is 26 inches. The vessel's name plate indicates a MAWP of 150 psi. The
allowable stress of the forged heads material is 15,000 psi per the Data Report. Uniform corrosion has
occurred to this head leaving the flat part with a minimum thickness of 1.252". Can this vessel remain in
service without repair or replacement of the head?
Drawing:
Givens:
t=?
P = 150 psi
d = 26"
S = 15,000 psi
E = .85 per UW-12(d).
C = 0.17 per fig. (b-1)
From UG-34(c)(2): t = d CP
SE
t = 26 0.17 x 150
15,000 x .85
t = 26 25.5
12,750
t = 26 .002
Use UG-27, UG-34 and part UW to determine the formulas and efficiencies.
1. A flat head similar to the one in fig. (b-2) of Fig. UG-34 is attached to a shell using a double welded
butt joint. The entire vessel meets the requirements of UW-11(a)(5)(b). The center portion of the flat
head has corroded down to an unacceptable thickness. What will be the head's thickness required after
build up by welding? The shell has a thickness of 1/2". The shell and head skirt have an inside diameter
of 42 inches. The head's material has a maximum allowable stress of 13,800 psi and the shell's material
has an allowed maximum stress of 15,000 psi. The vessel's NamePlate is marked with a MAWP of 75 psi
@ 350 oF.
Givens: Drawing:
t(shell) =
t (head)=
P=
S(shell)
S(head) =
E(shell) =
E(head) =
d=
External calculations depart significantly from internal calculations simply because under external
pressure the vessel is being crushed . Internal pressure wants to tear the vessel apart.
Because of the crushing or buckling load, the Length the Outside Diameter and the Thickness of the
vessel are important. External pressure problems are based on the thickness of the shell to the outside
diameter ratios. There are two types of external pressure calculations, the type we will use is when the
O.D to (Do)thickness ratio (t) is greater than 10 and the other type, not on the test, is when it is less
than 10.
In order to solve these types of problems two charts will be required. The first chart is used to find a
value called Factor A and then Factor A is used to find a Factor B in the second chart. The value of
Factor B found is the number needed to solve the problem using the formula given in paragraph UG-28
(c)(1) step 6. The charts will be supplied with the test question as they are not found in Section VIII
Division 1.
The following is the step by step solution to the Pressure Allowed on an existing vessel of a known
thickness with a Do to t ratio greater than 10.
Problem: A vessel is operating under an external pressure of 250 psi. The operating temperature is 500
oF. The outside diameter of the vessel is 40 inches. Its length is 70 inches. The vessel's wall is 1.25
inches thick and is of SA-515-70 plate. Its specified minimum yield is 38,000 psi. Does this thickness
meet Code requirements?
Givens:
P = 250 psi
Temp = 500 oF
t = 1.25
L = 70 inches
Do = 40 inches
From UG-28 (c)Cylindrical Shells and Tubes. The required minimum thickness of a shell or a tube
under external pressure, either seamless or with longitudinal butt joints, shall be determined by the
following procedure.
Do
(1) Cylinders having values 10
t
Testing to see if this paragraph applies:
Step 1. Our value of Do is 40 inches and L is 70 inches. We will use these to determine the ratio of:
L 70
= = 1.75
Do 40
Step 2. Enter the Factor A chart at the value of 1.75 determined above.
Step 3. Then move across horizontally to the curve Do/t = 32. Then down from this point to find the
value of Factor A which is .0045 .
Step 4. Using our value of Factor A calculated in Step 3, enter the Factor B (CS-2) chart on the bottom.
Then vertically to the material temperature line given in the stated problem (in our case 500 oF).
Step 5. Then across to find the value of Factor B. We find that Factor B is approximately 13000.
Step. 6 Using this value of Factor B, calculate the value of the maximum allowable external pressure Pa
using the following formula:
4B
Pa =
3( Do )
t
4x13,000 52,000
Pa = = = 541.66 psi
3(32) 96
1. A vessel under external pressure has been found to a thickness of 1.123 ". The vessels is 8'-2" long and
operates at a temperature of 300 oF. The vessel’s outside diameter is 54 inches. It is made of a material
with a minimum yield of 30,000 psi. Presently the external working pressure is 350 psi. May this vessel
continue to operate in accordance with the Code? Show all work and quote code paragraphs used.
Givens: Drawing:
P=
Temp.=
t=
L=
Do =
(a) Maximum
The maximum temperature used in design shall be not less than the mean metal temperature (through the
thickness) expected under operating conditions for the part considered [see 3-1(g)]. If necessary, the
metal temperature shall be determined by computation or by measurement from equipment in service
under equivalent operating conditions.
(b) Minimum
The minimum metal temperature used in design shall be the lowest expected in service except when lower
temperatures are permitted by the rules of this Division (see UCS-66). The minimum mean metal
temperature shall be determined by the principles described in (a) above. Consideration shall include the
lowest operating temperature, operational upsets, auto refrigeration, atmospheric temperature, and any
other sources of cooling [except as permitted in (f)(3) below].
(c) Design temperatures listed in excess of the maximum temperatures listed in the tables of Subsection C
are not permitted. In addition, design temperatures for vessels under external pressure shall not
exceed the maximum temperatures given on the external pressure charts.
(d) The design of zones with different metal temperatures may be based on their determined temperatures.
(e) Suggested methods for obtaining the operating temperature of vessel walls in service are given in
Appendix C.
(f) Impact testing per UG-84 is not mandatory for pressure vessel materials which satisfy all of the
following.
(1) The material shall be limited to P-No. 1, Gr. No. 1 or 2 and nominal thickness of:
(a) 1/2 inch for materials listed in Curve A of Figure UCS-66
(b) 1 inch for materials listed in Curve B, C, or D of Figure UCS-66
(2) The completed vessel shall be hydrostatically tested per UG-99(b), (c), or (k).
(3) Design temperature is no warmer than 650 degrees F and no colder than -20 degrees F.
Occasional operating temperatures colder than -20 degrees F are acceptable when due to
lower seasonal atmospheric temperature.
(4) The thermal or mechanical shock loadings are not a controlling design requirement.
(See UG-22)
UG- 22 Loadings
(b) weight of the vessel and normal contents under operating or test conditions (this includes
additional pressure due to static head of liquids);
(c) superimposed static reactions from weight of attached equipment, such as motors, machinery,
other vessels, piping, linings, and insulation;
(e) cyclic and dynamic reactions due to pressure or thermal variations, or from equipment
mounted on a vessel, and mechanical loadings;
UG- 25 Corrosion
The user or his designated agent (design engineering firm) shall specify allowances other than those
allowed by the rules of this division. Any vessel subject to corrosion must have a suitable drain opening at
the lowest practical point in the vessel.
In the Code there are two types of Maximum Allowable Working Pressures (MAWP). One is for the
vessel itself; the one most think of and refer to all the time. The other is the one for each part of a vessel
referred to in UG-98 as the part MAWP. Think of it in this way: a vessel has a shell, heads, chambers,
nozzles, etc., and pressure allowed or thickness required calculations must be performed for each one to
determine the MAWP of the vessel. When doing these calculations, you cannot take credit for any extra
thickness designed into the vessel as a corrosion allowance. The weakest of the vessels parts, considering
loadings such as the static head of the contents, weight of insulation, wind, earthquakes, etc., will
determine the MAWP of the entire vessel. It is the weakest link in the chain. The pressure referred to
here can be internal or external.
The MAWP of a vessel is the pressure allowed in a vessel at its top in its normal operating position and
at its maximum operating temperature. The MAWP can be determined for more than one designated
operating temperature, using for each temperature the applicable allowable stress value.
Much More will be said about how to determine the vessel MAWP in the coverage of calculations for
Static Head in a vessel.
The procedures for hydrostatic and pneumatic tests are contained in paragraphs UG-99 and UG-100.
These procedures have many similarities and some important differences. Both of these tests can be
applied to most vessels. The following are the highlights of each type of pressure test from the approach
of a welded repair to a vessel that been in service. These highlights are not meant to replace reading the
paragraphs.
Hydrostatic
Pneumatic
1. If the test is required it shall be conducted after welded repairs.
2. The welded repairs shall be subjected to the tests required by UW-50.
3. The test pressure must at least be 1.1 times the MAWP
4. The test pressure shall be adjusted for lowest ratio of stresses.
5 5. The metal must be maintained at least 30 oF above MDMT.
6. The test pressure shall be raised at a gradual rate to not more than 1/2 the test pressure and
then raised by 1/10th of the test pressure until the test pressure is reached.
7. A visual inspection must be made at the test pressure divided by 1.1. The visual may be
waived if the requirements listed in UG-100 are met.
The following written procedures will help to clarify the process. The ratio of stresses adjusts for the
different strengths of materials at different temperatures. This will be explained during classroom
instruction.
1. Calculate the test pressure using the rules of UG-98 and UG-99.
2. Any fluid in compliance with UG-99 may be used. The temperature of the testing fluid and the vessel
shell shall be as described in UG-99 and API 510.
4. Install a calibrated gage of the proper pressure range as described in UG-102 directly to the
vessel. If the gage is not readily visible to the operator controlling the applied pressure, an additional
gage shall be provided where it will be visible to the operator throughout the duration of the test.
5. If the test pressure will exceed the setting of lowest relief device, relief devices shall be removed ,
blinded or have test clamps installed.
6. Vents shall be provided at all high points to purge air while the vessel is being filled.
7. Before applying pressure, inspect all test equipment to insure it is tight and that low pressure filling
lines and other appurtenances that should not be subjected to the test pressure have been disconnected.
9. Slowly raise the vessel to the test pressure. Hold for an appropriate time based on vessel size.
10. Lower the vessel to the test pressure divided by 1.3 and make a visual inspection of all joints and
connections.
Essentially when calculating the ratio of stresses you are determining the MAWP of the vessel in its cold
condition where the stress allowable is higher for its material of construction.
Problem: Calculate the required hydro test pressure for a vessel using the following conditions.
16,300
1.05
15,500
1. Prior to administering a pneumatic test, insure that the NDE of UW-50 for welded repairs has been
applied.
2. Calculate the test pressure using the rules of UG-98 and UG-100.
3. The metal temperature during pneumatic test shall be maintained at least 30 oF above the minimum
design metal temperature to minimize the risk of brittle-fracture.
5. Install a calibrated gage of the proper pressure range as described in UG-102 directly to the
vessel. If the gage is not readily visible to the operator controlling the applied pressure, an additional
gage shall be provided where it will be visible to the operator throughout the duration of the test.
6. If the test pressure will exceed the setting of lowest relief device, relief devices shall be removed
,blinded or have test clamps installed.
7. Before applying pressure inspect all test equipment to insure it is tight and that low pressure filling
lines and other appurtenances that should not be subjected to the test pressure have been disconnected.
9. The pressure in the vessel shall be gradually raised to not more than one-half the test pressure.
Thereafter, the test pressure shall be increased in steps of approximately one-tenth of the test pressure
until the test pressure has been reached.
10. Lower the vessel to the test pressure divided by 1.1 and hold for a sufficient time to make a visual
inspection of all joints and connections.
Problem: Calculate the required pneumatic test pressure for a vessel using the following conditions.
16,300
1.05
15,500
Finally apply the procedure given UG 100 for performing a pneumatic test!
1. Slowly raise the pressure to approximately one-half 404.25 psi which equals 202.125
The Code has some definite requirements for the selection and uses of gages for the tests described in UG-
99 and UG-100. Directions for location, number of, range of and the calibration of the indicating gage(s)
is located in UG-102. The high points of UG-102 are below.
1. An indicating gage shall be connected directly to the vessel. If it is not readily visible to the operator of
the test equipment an additional gage shall be used which is visible to operator for the duration of the
test.
2. When doing large vessel pressure tests it is recommended to have a recording gage in addition to the
indicating gage.
3. Dial type indicating gages shall have a range of about double the maximum test pressure, but in no
case shall the range of the gage be less than 1 1/2 times nor more than 4 times the maximum test
pressure.
4. Digital gages having a wider range may be used as long as they provide the same or greater accuracy of
the dial type.
5. All gages shall be calibrated against a standard deadweight tester or a calibrated master gage.
UG-99/100/102
Exercises
1. A vessel made of SA-240 304L plate is being hydrostatically tested after an alteration. The vessel's
MAWP is 225 psi at 400 oF. The allowable stress at operating is 14,700 psi and 16,700 psi at the test
temperature.
2. A pneumatic test of a vessel will be conducted to a pressure of 310 psi. Describe the steps for raising
the vessel to the test pressure. At what pressure shall the visual examination take place?
The fillet weld sizing of UW-16 can be solved in either of two ways. That is, you may determine if a fillet
weld leg size provides an adequate fillet weld throat size per Code or based on the thicknesses of the shell
and nozzle determine the minimum throat size required and convert that to leg size.
In the latter case, usually the leg size decimal value is rounded to the next fractional 1/16th inch.
In these examples we will work it both ways using the same shell and nozzle thicknesses. The examples
will be restricted to only Fig UW-16.1 (i).
Problem: A nozzle is being attached to a shell as shown in Fig. UW-16.1 (i) using two equal
size fillet welds. The shell's thickness is 7/8 in. and the nozzle's thickness is 1/2 inch. The fillet
welds are 3/8 inch in leg size. Does this meet Code?
t 1 + t 2 1 1 t min
4
And
t 1 or t 2 not less than
the smaller of 1 in.
4
or .707 t min.
t 1 and t 2 are the throat sizes of the welds as depicted in Fig. UW-16.1(i).
We could stop here and answer the question with a No! But let's
finish up with the second test of size required for an illustration of the
technique required.
.265 in. > .250 in. . Fillet welds are adequate in the second test. However a fillet weld size must pass
both tests!
Case 2.: Based on material thicknesses determine the minimum leg size of equal sized fillet welds to
the next 1/16th inch. In our problem thicknesses are 7/8 inch (shell) and 1/2 inch (nozzle). We have
already determined that 3/8 inch leg fillet welds are too small. So let's determine what size of equal
leg fillet welds are required rounded up to the next 1/16th inch.
1. A fillet weld has a leg size of 1 1/8". What is its throat size?
2. A fillet weld has a throat size of .600". What is its leg size rounded up to the next fractional 1/16"?
The main things of interests in this paragraph to the API 510 inspector are the following:
All references to dimensions apply to the finished construction after deduction for material added as
corrosion allowance.
Openings not subject to rapid fluctuations in pressure do not require reinforcement other than that
inherent in the construction under the following conditions:
No two isolated unreinforced openings, in accordance with the above shall have their centers
closer to each other than the sum of their diameters.
For a good start on this paragraph you must become familiar with UG-37 (a) nomenclature. Read each of
the given symbols. Then compare the symbols with the drawing of Fig. 37.1, Nomenclature and Formulas
for Reinforced Openings. Classroom instructions if used, and example problems will address this lengthy
subject.
This paragraph tells the distance in any direction that can be count as reinforcement in your calculations.
This means that if a vessel wall has excess metal above that required by calculation, how far on each side
of the opening can you take credit for this extra metal as reinforcement? If a nozzle with excess thickness
is inserted into the hole, how much of the excess thickness in the inside projection can be counted as
helping add strength back to the vessel wall at the opening? Also considered is how much of the nozzle
excess thickness above the hole in the vessel can be counted as reinforcement for the opening.
UG-41 Strength of Reinforcement (This is informative only, you are not responsible for this on the exam)
Where the Code specifies that if you add reinforcement, such as a pad, that the pad must have a strength
that is equal to or greater than the material of the head or shell. If such metal is not available and a lower
strength material is used, a stress reduction must be taken during the calculations for reinforcement.
After the above calculation, the stress reduction factor is multiplied times the actual area of the repad, and
the lesser area that is determined must be used in the calculations for reinforcement.
Example: Given: Reinforcement pad cross-sectional area equals 2 square inches and the stress reduction
factor equals .857. Find the area that may be used in reinforcement calculations.
However, if the material used is stronger than the material being reinforced, no credit may be taken for
the higher strength material used as reinforcement. For the calculations you must use the strength of
reinforcement as being the same as the vessel or head being reinforced.
This paragraph addresses cases where the limits of reinforcement for more than one opening overlap each
other. Extra metal in a vessel above what is required to resist internal pressure can be counted toward
reinforcing an opening. The distance counted as reinforcement on each side of an opening (parallel to it)
is defined in UG-40. If two openings are close enough to each other that their limits overlap then special
consideration must be given to the reinforcement of both openings. If two openings are spaced closer than
two times their average diameters, it is not allowed to take double credit for extra wall thickness in the
overlapped area.
The extra wall thickness in the shaded area in the drawing above cannot be counted as helping reinforce
both the openings. It can be counted for one or the other but not both. The minimum spacing for the
openings above to avoid this situation is 4 in. . It must be divided between the two in proportion to the
ratio of the two opening's diameters. In this case, 50/50. If the openings where different diameters the
ratio of their openings would be calculated and the shade area split up accordingly.
The next situation involves more than two openings spaced closely together. In that configuration, the
minimum distance between any two of these openings shall be 1 1/3 times their average diameters and the
area of reinforcement between any two openings must be at least equal to 50% of the total area required
for the two openings. This means you are not allowed to set the openings too closely to each other and
take any credit for the shaded areas.
If the openings are closer together than permitted by UG-42(b), no credit is allowed for any of the metal
between the openings, and the reinforcement calculations must be performed as given in UG 42 (c) as
shown below. The nozzle wall thicknesses of the individual openings cannot be figured in as available
reinforcement. The calculation becomes one for a single larger hole. Again no credit is allowed for metal
between the individual openings or any of the nozzle thicknesses. Its just one big hole containing all the
other openings and its reinforcement will be the one calculated.
UG-40/41/42/45
Exercises
1. A vessel opening is being reinforced with a pad. The pad has an allowable stress of 15,000 psi. The
vessel's wall has an allowable stress of 14,800 psi. What is the resulting ratio of stress to be used in the
pads area calculation?
2. A 6 in. nozzle is being added in a vessel wall next to an existing 4 in nozzle. What is the closest they
may be placed together with out overlapping their areas of reinforcement?
3. Three nozzles are to be installed such that they clustered so closely together that they are less than 1
1/3 their average diameters apart. How will the area of reinforcement be calculated?
Openings that do not require reinforcement calculations are outlined in UG-36 (c) (3). All other openings
must have the rules of reinforcement applied. The rules of reinforcement are taken from paragraphs UG-
36 through UG-43. The limits where these rules apply are taken from UG-36 (b) (1).
The following is an outline for an approach to the understanding of reinforcement calculations. First, the
basic requirement is that around any opening in a vessel the vessel wall must be reinforced with an equal
amount of metal as was removed from the vessel wall required for pressure (thickness required).
This reinforcement may already exist in the form of excess wall thickness above that required to resist the
pressure. It may be found in the nozzle wall excess thickness or in the attachment welds. If it does not
meet the requirements considering the above mentioned excess thicknesses after corrosion allowance has
been removed then a reinforcement pad will be required.
At this point we are ready to begin applying all the rules which were given in the preceding paragraphs.
The following graphics depict the various areas that must be considered when performing reinforcement
calculations. Through this type of breakdown the concept can be better understood, this is of course an
oversimplification.
GIVEN AS A: The dark cross hatched area is the diameter of the finished opening multiplied times the
minimum thickness that is the required by the calculations of UG-27 for a shell or UG -32 if the opening
is in a head, etc.
B. The vessel and the nozzle walls usually have excess thickness above that required to resist pressure.
This excess thickness is counted toward reinforcement. Corrosion allowance cannot be included in areas
A1 or A2 below.
GIVEN AS A1 and A2. The shaded areas are the extra metal.
GIVEN AS A3
D. The welds used to attach the nozzle to the shell count as area available for reinforcement. Interior weld
area has been eliminated because the exam does not cover inward projections.
GIVEN AS A4 Out Side Fillet Only For Exam No Interior Projection on Exam!!!
E. The required cross-sectional area shall be the area of the shell or head required to resist pressure which
is given as A. If the sum of A1+A2+A4 is equal to or greater than A the opening is adequately reinforced
If not, more reinforcement must be added. Usually this will be in the form of a reinforcement pad. Its area
is found as follows.
This type of problem can get complicated very quickly because of the number of steps involved. However
the API 510 Exam Body of Knowledge has simplified this type of problem by doing this:
In the following example, the problem will be worked using those guidelines. Remember this type of
problem is worth no more than the simplest calculation possible on the exam. Plan your study time with
this in mind. The problem may not even be on the exam. Also, unless you are really comfortable with
these problems, it is best to do them last. They eat up a lot of time and you could find yourself rushing
through the remaining problems.
The API 510 Body of Knowledge has placed the following limits on reinforcement problems.
1. All fr = 1.0
2. All F = 1.0
3. All E = 1.0
4. All required thicknesses are given
5. There will be no nozzle projecting inside the shell
Although it has not been listed under reinforcement, sizing of the fillet
welds will probably be required since it is elsewhere in the material.
Problem:
Givens:
1. The required thickness of the shell is .690"
2. The required thickness of the nozzle is .033"
3. The nozzle will not pass through a vessel Cat A weld : E = 1.0
4. The nozzle will enter the vessel normal to the vessel wall : F = 1.0
6 5. The nozzle and shell are of the same strength or the nozzle has a greater strength: f r = 1.0
6. A corrosion allowance of .125" is required.
Step 1. Check the fillet weld throat size. The fillet weld throat in this
Figure of UW-16 is indicated as t c. In the nomenclature of
paragraph UW-16, tc is required to be not less than the smaller of 1/4"
or 0.707 t min. . Our t min. is the nozzle, which is .432".
= d(E1t-Ftr)-2tn(E1t-Ftr)(1-fr1 )
A1 OR Area available in shell; use larger
= 2(t+t n )(E1t-Ftr)-2tn(E1t-Ftr)(1-fr1 )
If the sum of all the areas are not equal to or greater than A; the area
required for the repad is found by subtracting the sum from A.
A41 2
= Outward nozzle welds = (.500) x 1.0 = 0.250” Area of outward fillet.
A1+A2+A41 = .3606 + .42059 + .250 = 1.03119” < 4.1469” how large must the repad be?
1. When calculating reinforcement, from what parts must a corrosion allowance be deducted (where)?
3. How many points are reinforcement calculations worth on the exam? How many points is hydrostatic
test calculation worth on the exam?
5. How many sets of specimens are required for a weld procedure test coupon 1 3/4 inches thick?
6. When welding a procedure test plate for impact testing what must the P No. and Group No. be? What
type of heat treatment must be applied to the test plate?
7. Name the two types of test specimens required for all welding procedures. Hint: Where do they come
from?
UCS-66 Materials
Low temperature should always be a consideration when designing a vessel of carbon and low alloy steels
simply because low temperature is defined to be different temperatures for different metals and their
respective thicknesses. Example UCS-66 (3) states that if the governing thickness of a non-welded part
exceeds 6", and the minimum design metal temperature (MDMT) is colder than 120 F, impact tested
materials shall be used. This example has been used to point out how relative the term low temperature is.
Turn your attention to figure UCS-66 Impact Test Exemption Curves. In this figure you will find a graph
and listing of carbon and low alloy steels. It is limited to 4 inches for welded construction. This is
because above 4 inches, welded construction must be impact tested. A good essay or multiple choice
question could be taken from this material. Understanding figure UCS-66 is essential.
Figure UCS-66.1, titled Reduction of Minimum Design Metal Temperature (MDMT), without impact
testing allows for the reduction of the MDMT when a material in tension is being used below the
maximum allowable design stress of that material.
UCS-67 details three cases where impact tests shall be made on carbon and low alloy steel welds when
qualifying the a low temperature welding procedure. This is done if impact tests are required for the base
metal.
UCS-68 Design
Design rules for carbon and low alloy steels stipulate requirements as to how construction will be
performed. The main points are: mandatory joint types, required post weld heat treatments below -50 F
and their exemptions. Also notice a reduction of 30 F below that of Figure UCS-66 for P-1 materials if
post welded heat treatment is performed when it is not otherwise required.
The first paragraph of UG-84 states that impact testing is required of all weldments, aterials, etc., that
required to be tested in Subsection C. From this point, the search begins to see if a material or weld is
required to be impact tested. The goal is to find an exemption. The search will begin in UG-20(f) and
progress through UCS 66, 67 and 68. If no exemption is found impact tests are required. The best
approach is to list these by steps.
UG-20
Step 1. UG-20(f)
UG-20(f) lists an exemption from impact testing for materials that meet
ALL of the following requirements.
1. Material is limited to P No. 1 Gr. No. 1 or 2 and the thicknesses don't exceed
the following:
(a) 1/2 in. for materials listed in Curve A of Fig. UCS-66;
(b) 1 in. for materials from Curve B, C or D of Fig. UCS-66.
UCS-66 Materials
Step 2. UCS-66 (a)
Turn your attention to Fig. UCS-66 Impact Test Exemption Curves and Table UCS-66. The
Graph and Table are used to determine the minimum temperature a material thickness can be operated at
without mandatory impact testing. The graph has four curves: A, B, C and D. In Fig. UCS-66 along
with the graph is a listing of carbon and low alloy steels. This listing of materials is used to determine the
curve on the Graph or in the Table for a given material. After finding the curve for the material, there are
two choices. Use the graph of Fig. UCS 66 or the Table UCS 66 to determine the minimum temperature
for a given thickness. It is recommended to use the Table. The Table and the Graph are the same. The
Table is a lot easier to use with accuracy. USE THE TABLE. If the material thickness is operated at or
above the temperature listed in Table UCS-66, impact tests are not required. If the material thickness is
to operate below the given minimum temperature, impact testing is required. The temperature found in
the table is the MDMT of that material thickness without Impact Testing being required.
Step 3. UCS-66(b)
When a material in tension is being used at some stress value below its allowable design stress at the
MDMT, a reduction in temperature is permitted This reduction is subtracted from the given temperature
for the material in Table UCS 66. If after taking the reduction, the resulting temperature is colder than
the minimum design metal temperature desired for the vessel, impact testing is not required. This is
called the coincident Ratio. When a material is operating at a relatively high temperature it has lower
stress allowed than at room temperature. Many vessels operate alternating between elevated and low
temperatures. The lower stress allowed at the elevated temperature will require thicker material than
needed at the lowest temperature.
The thicknesses required for the two temperatures can be different, and normally the thickness required
for the vessel is determined using the higher temperature stress allowed. So if at the lower temperature
and often lower pressure we have extra wall thickness we can take credit for. How much is determined by
07/01 REV 5 Fast Track Technical 131
calculating the coincident Ratio, then entering Fig. UCS-66.1 at the calculated Ratio? Normally on the
API 510 Exam, the Ratio is stated, and then all that is required is to apply the graph of Fig.UCS-66.1.
If the vessel is in a fixed stationary position and its coincident Ratio is below 1.0, the reduction allowed by
UCS-66(b) and Fig. UCS-66.1 may be taken only when the following is true.
UCS-68(c) Notice a reduction of 30 oF below that of Figure UCS-66 for P-1 materials if post welded
heat treatment is performed when it is not otherwise required in the Code. This means that 30 oF can be
subtracted from the temperature found in Table UCS-66. If the adjusted temperature is below that desire,
Impact Tests are not required. It is exempt. If a statement about heat treatment is made in a particular
problem the task becomes finding out if heat treatment was required or not. If it is not mentioned, it must
be concluded that it was not performed and therefore the exemption cannot be taken.
Givens:
Material SA-516-70 normalized PLATE
Thickness 2"
Min. Yield 38 KSI
MDMT -25F
coincident Ratio = .85
Step 1 Check for the exemptions of UG-20(f).
Our material applies to Curve D of Figure UCS-66 and exceeds the 1" limit for exemption. It also exceeds
the upper and lower temperature limits of 650 oF and - 20 oF.
Step 2 Checking Table UCS-66 and entering at our thickness on the left and moving across to
Curve D column, we find the MDMT of this thickness to be – 4 F. This exemption does not apply.
- 4F
- 15F
- 19F
New MDMT allowed without impact tests is - 19 oF. Our MDMT will need to be - 25F so we are not
exempted.
Step 4 Checking UCS-68, we find that we cannot take a reduction because PWHT is a
requirement of UCS-56 for this material's thickness.
Answer: Impact tests are required for the values of the MDMT of - 25F.
UG-20/UCS-66/68
Exercises
1. Name four steps (paragraphs) when looking for exemptions from impact testing.
4. What is the minimum design temperature allowed for a 1 1/2 in thick plate of SA-515 Gr. 70?
5. If the coincident Ratio is 0.6 for the plate of question number 4 what is it new minimum temperature
with out impact tests?
The material for pressure parts must be handled in a particular way per the Code. For instance, the Code
specifies that materials for parts of a vessel should be laid out and marked in such a way as to easily
maintain trace ability after the vessel is completed.
Several techniques for identification markings are allowed and are described in this paragraph. Stamping
is the preferred method of marking vessel parts; however, as built drawings and tabulation sheets are also
acceptable. The manufacturer must maintain trace ability to the original markings. For instance, when
cutting parts for the vessel from plate the heat number stamped on the piece of plate should be transferred
prior to cutting the plate. They may be transferred immediately after cutting if a provision for control of
such transfers has been made in the Manufacturer's Quality Control System. If a particular material
should not be die stamped, plates must be made and attached with the required markings. A record of
these markings must be maintained which will allow positive identification of the vessel parts after
construction.
If a Code vessel manufacturer buys parts that are formed, such as heads, from another, the manufacturer
of the head shall transfer the markings as applies to the material specification that the part is made from.
The part manufacturer can use only materials allowed by the Code. In addition, the part Manufacturer
must supply a Partial Data Report. A Manufacturer's Partial Data Report is not required if the part was
formed or forged, etc., without the use of welding. The markings of the Part Manufacturer must be
present on the part.
1. Plate is the only pressure vessel material that must always have a Mill Test Report (MTR)or Certificate
of Compliance (C of C) provided. The inspector shall examine these documents for compliance to the
material specification.
2. All other product forms must be marked in accordance with their material specification. For example,
pipe marked SA-106 gr. B.
3. All materials to be used in a vessel must be inspected before fabrication to find as best as is possible
defects, which would affect the safety of the vessel. The following describes the inspections required.
a. Cut edges of and parts made from rolled plate for serious laminations, shearing cracks, etc.
b. Materials, which will be impact tested, must be examined for surface cracks.
c. When forming a Category C corner joint as shown in fig. UW 13.2 with flat plate thicker than
1/2 in., the flat plate must be examined before welding by magnetic particle or dye penetrant
nondestructive examination. Exceptions from this NDE are given for certain joints of fig. UW-
13.2 .
d. The inspector must assure himself that thickness and other dimensions of the material
comply with the requirements of this Division.
f. The inspector must verify that all required tests have been performed and are acceptable
(impact tests, NDE etc.).
g. The inspector must confirm material I.D.'s have been properly transferred.
h. The inspector must confirm that there are no dimensional or material defects, perform internal
and external inspections and witness pressure tests.
S/N 0000001
Year 1994
In the QW-200.1 paragraphs you are given the definition of a Welding Procedure Specification (WPS);
what its contents must consist of, as well as what changes may be made with out re-qualifying the WPS.
Also, here you are directed that the format may be of any form desired as long as every essential,
nonessential and supplementary essential variable (when required) is included or referenced as outlined in
QW-250 through QW-265. That statement permits the use of any computer generated WPS or PQR
forms along with any other method the Code user may desire to use. Remember however all of the
variables listed for a given process must be addressed correctly.
In the paragraphs of QW-200.2 the same type of information for the Procedure Qualification Record
(PQR) is listed as was given for a WPS in the previous paragraph, starting with the definition. As in the
WPS, you are given the required contents for a PQR. We are told that changes in a PQR are not permitted
except for editorial changes such as the recording of a P-Number incorrectly when filling out the original
PQR. Addendum is permitted if it meets the definitions as given in this paragraph. Examples of
permitted addendum are given to clarify its meaning. Finally, we are instructed that it is possible to have
multiple WPS s with one PQR (done by adjusting non-essential variables on the WPS to suit production)
and also to have multiple PQRs with one WPS (done by supporting different essential variables by using
multiple PQRs). According to the above paragraphs WPSs must contain all variables both essential and
non-essential. PQRs are required to address only essential variables. Placing only essential variables on a
PQR is not usually done in actual practice, but that is possible in the simplest of welding procedures.
QW-200.3 gives the purpose and an explanation of the use of P-Numbers. It is stated here that a P-
Number is assigned to base metals dependent on characteristics such as composition, weldabilty, and
mechanical properties where it can logically be done. Group Numbers are introduced here, stating that
Group Numbers are assigned among P-Numbers to classify the metals for procedure qualification where
notch toughness requirements (impact tests such as Charpy V-notch) are specified. You are also
cautioned here that these assignments do not imply that base metals within a P-Number may be
indiscriminately substituted.
The combination of welding procedures is permitted as given in paragraph QW-200.4. That is to say,
more than one WPS can be used in a production joint, and they may include one or a combination of
processes. QW-451 is referenced to make sure the reader is aware that limitations are placed on the base
metal thickness and the deposited filler metal thickness of each procedure.
The types of tests required to qualify a procedure are given in paragraphs QW-202.1 through QW-202.5.
Referenced therein are mechanical tests, groove and fillet welds, weld repair, dissimilar base metal
thickness and stud welding. In each of the paragraphs, other QW paragraphs are referenced for details
and exceptions that might exist.
QW-203 states that unless required otherwise by welding variables of QW-250, a qualification in any
position qualifies the procedure for all positions. So, most PQR s can be performed on plate since the goal
is to prove that the metal or metals can be successfully joined as opposed to proving the skills of a welder
or welding operator.
Beginning with QW-250, welding variables are specified with an explanation of each type. Please notice
the definitions of essential and nonessential variables given in QW-251.2 and QW-251.3 Welding
Variables Procedure Specifications (WPS) start at QW-252 and end at QW-265. These paragraphs are in
tabular form and cover the different welding processes recognized in Section IX. Within these tables for
each process are lists of variables, and whether or not they are essential, nonessential or supplementary
essential. These paragraphs in tabular form are labeled as ‘Brief of Variables’ and reference where in the
other code paragraphs of QW-400 the specific requirements and definitions can be found.
This article contains within it all of data for the variables that pertain to Welding Procedure Specifications
and Welder Performance. These include joints, base metals, filler metals, preheat, postweld heat treatment
and electrical characteristics.
By using the tabular paragraphs and reading the written paragraphs they reference, requirements for a
welding procedure or a welder's performance test can be interpreted. Since metals are given P-Numbers
and their P-Numbers greatly affect their applications, they are listed by P-Number; for qualification in the
tabular forms of paragraph QW-422 which is 52 pages long.
In QW-423.1, it is given that base material for welder's qualification to a WPS may be substituted with a
different base material, and lists the permissible substitutions.
QW-430 starts the F-numbers for electrodes and welding rods, these paragraphs are also in tabular form.
QW-440 addresses weld metal chemical composition. As can be seen there are 12 A-Numbers. As the A-
Number must be listed on the WPS, one should become acquainted with A-Numbers. However Section IX
does not provide information on how to determine the ‘A’ number. Section II part C Filler Materials must
be consulted for determination of the number. For reference when performing a WPS review on the exam
just remember it can not be omitted. An A number must listed, you will have no way of determining if it is
the correct one for the filler metal listed on the WPS/PQR. Testing on this aspect has been dropped from
the exam.
The remaining paragraphs of Article IV deal with thickness limits for tension and bend tests, diameter
limits, fillet welds, test specimens and their order of removal. Also given are the configurations of test
jigs. In short, Article IV is where you will be constantly sent for the data required of weld tests in
accordance with the ASME Code.
Remember that it is possible to write a perfectly good welding procedure using Section IX that will not
meet one of the construction codes. An important paragraph for understanding Section IX is QW-492
"Definitions", if in doubt go here first for clarification. Lastly, non-mandatory appendix A has sample
forms that list the necessary information for the WPS, PQR and WPQ.
Technique
Change in String or Weave Bead: Nonessential, but if other than that stated on the WPS, the WPS must
be revised to reflect the change for production.
07/01 REV 5 Fast Track Technical 146
Change in Method of Cleaning, Change in Method of Back Gouge, Change from Manual to
Automatic, Addition or Deletion of Peening: Same as string or weave bead above something must be
stated in all of these blocks.
Procedure Qualification Record
The next document required by the ASME Code is the Procedure Qualification Record. Its purpose, to
record the values of essential variables that were actually used during the qualification test and to report
the mechanical properties obtained using the essential variables of the WPS. One should know that only a
listing of the essential variable’s values used while welding the test specimen is required on the PQR. The
suggested ASME forms provide spaces to list supplementary essential when required and nonessential
variables if so desired. If these non-essential variables are listed they should be the values actually used to
weld the test coupon.
A range of thickness qualifications for base metal and deposited weld metal is allowed in the ASME Code.
Let's say a test plate had a thickness of ¼”. If the test coupons taken pass mechanical tests, the procedure
would be good for base metals 1/16” minimum to a maximum of ½”. When qualifying welding procedures,
make sure that the thickness used for the test coupon will cover the thickness used in production.
Deposited weld metal should be given the same consideration, as should the combination of weld
processes. Always be sure the thickness used will cover your maximum production needs or you may be
re-qualifying a procedure. The thickness qualified by the PQR may only support part of the range of
thickness desired on the WPS. If that were the case, another PQR would be needed to finish out he range
of T on the WPS and to weld all of WPS range in production
Welder Performance Qualification Record
This document lists all of the values used by the welder when performing his test weld coupon. It also
gives the thickness ranges he is qualified for. To best understand the welder’s essential variables, turn to
table QW-353 and review it. You will notice that the welder has four (4) categories of essential variables.
Joints involve the addition or removal of backing. Base metals are concerned with P-Numbers. Filler
metals address F-number ranges and the thickness of deposited weld metal. Lastly, the addition of a more
difficult position than the one originally tested for or a change in vertical progression from up to down or
down to up. The change of one of these essential variables will require the welder to requalify. The
ASME Codes place the responsibility on the manufacturer or contractors to insure all welders are
qualified for production welds.
Review of WPS s and PQR s
On the examination, the API candidate will be given a WPS and a PQR and asked to identify the errors or
unsupported requirements contained in these documents. You will be asked specific questions about
individual blocks on the WPS/PQR. You will not be required to review the entire document as was the case
in the past. This exam is multiple choice in format, so normally 3 to 6 questions come from the review.
When reviewing the WPS, look for information, which has been omitted. Every Essential and
Nonessential variable should be addressed. Also, common errors are made in such things as base metal
classifications, base metal thickness’. Remember the PQR test coupon T can and may only support part of
the range desired by the WPS.
Backing is often over looked. Since the addition or deletion of backing is a nonessential variable the best
course would be to state with or without in the WPS. Retainers and Root Gap must also be listed on the
WPS. These should not be left blank something should be in those spaces.
Sizes of electrodes are again nonessential and listing all sizes that are manufactured of a certain
classification that will be used for production is wise. If a 1/32 ” rod is given for WPS and 1/8” rod is used
for production the WPS will need to be revised, but not re-qualified.
Remove the practice WPS and PQR from Section 5 of this book beginning on page 200 and place
them along side this text. Follow along step by step as we review them together. Also remove the
paragraph QW-253 from Section IX. This paragraph is a tabular listing of the variables that must be
addressed for the SMAW process. It will be used as a check list to make sure that every thing that should
be addressed has been.
Begin with the WPS and PQR titled Confusion Welding.
1. Turn to the last page (the back of the PQR) and look at the block titled Toughness Tests QW-170. We
observe that there are no Charpy notch toughness test results so we can ignore the supplementary
variables of QW-253 for SMAW. (Impact test results and hence Supplementary Essentials are
Excluded on the Exam)
2. This PQR does not have a signature, a mistake here.
3. Turn to the front of the WPS and see if the Supporting PQR numbers match those on the PQR. The
numbers match, so no mistake here.
4. Now using QW-253 we will do a block by block review beginning at the top of the WPS front page.
Front of the WPS
Joints (QW-402)
4. The size of electrodes allowed for use must be listed. It cannot be blank. This is a MISTAKE
by omission.
1. Thickness Range - Since we are using only one electrode for production the weld metal
thickness range will be same as the base metal thickness range. This means this could be left
blank and would be answered by default. To better understand this, look at the WPS, notice
we have spaces to list up to three electrodes. For example, say we used E-6010 and E-7018,
then each would require a weld metal thickness range.
Positions (QW-405)
1. Positions are instructions to the user, that is what positions are permitted in the production of
a weld using this WPS. It is a non-essential variable as listed in QW-253. It has been
addressed and therefore no mistake exists. It would rather difficult to use a WPS that only
allowed the 6G position. In most cases such a WPS would be revised or re-written to include
more than a single position. This is not however a mistake, since the non-essential variable
has been addressed.
Preheat (QW-406)
1. The minimum preheat has been given as 60 oF. Preheat becomes essential when welding is
performed with a preheat greater than 100 oF less than that qualified by the PQR. Preheat
must be stated on the WPS, it is needed to confirm that the PQR was not performed with a
preheat more than 100 oF below that stated for production welds on the WPS. There is not a
mistake unless preheat is not given.
2. The interpass temp is listed, and that’s fine however it is not required on this WPS because
there are no toughness test results present on the PQR.
3. Preheat maintenance is not addressed, this is an error by omission. All essential and non-
essential variables listed for a given process must be listed. The important thing to remember
is that preheat maintenance is listed in QW-253 for the SMAW process, and it must be
addressed. The statement None would have been good enough.
1. This one is easy. There will be NONE and that is all that is needed to address the item. Of
course the PQR should not show Post Weld Heat Treatment in order to support this WPS.
Gas (QW-408)
1. Shielding gas is not used with this process.-Ignore this block for SMAW
1. Current AC or DC , Straight or Reverse, Amps and Volts must be addressed and can be
totally wrong for a given electrode. If it is addressed it is not a mistake. Welders find many
mistakes here because they know that it won’t work. As far as the review for the test goes, if
it is addressed right or wrong it good to go and there is no mistake here to list on the answer
sheet. This true of all non-essential variables.
2. The rest of the variables do not belong to the SMAW process and any thing placed on these
lines can be and should be ignored for the test.
1. This form is for listing details of different process passes and filler metals. With only one
filler metal and process such as we have in this WPS/PQR it is normally left blank. If it is
not and any differences are found with it and the body of the WPS they are meaningless and
should be ignored. DO NOT list any of these as mistakes on the answer sheet.
The first statement to be made about review of a PQR is that PQRs do not require non-essential variables
be listed on them. Confirmation of this statement is found in paragraph QW-200.2. Since non-essential
variables need not be recorded on the PQR they can be and should be totally ignored during the PQR
review. There cannot be a mistake on a non-essential variable listed on a PQR. It is not required to be
there and if it is, it cannot be wrong. WPSs can be written from PQRs that are very old, the interest in
the PQR is in the essential variables that it supports. These include the P No., F No., base metal
thickness, postweld heat treatment, and the rest of the essential variables for a given process.
Preheat (QW-406) must be addressed and cannot be greater than 100 oF above that stated to
be used in production on the WPS. 175 oF is so there is a mistake here. This PQR would not
qualify the WPS for 60 oF preheating.
Back of PQR
Since there are two tensile specimens present and the test results indicate pass, there are no
mistakes here. You can do the arithmetic to check and see if there is a mistake there. Multiply
the width times the thickness and determine the area. Divide the area in to the ultimate load and
this should yield the ultimate unit stress. Since this PQR does list the actual material used for the
test coupon you can go to the P No.s listed in Section IX and check for the ultimate strength of
SA-53 gr. B. If QW-403 states only the P NO. of the material used to make the coupon then there
is no way to determine if the material failed at or below its specified minimum ultimate strength.
Basically all that can be done is to check to see if the math is correct and that two samples are
present.
In this block we show one side bend, one blank space and two face bends. The mistakes are as
follows:
1. You cannot mix types of bends, it must be 4 side or 2 face and 2 root. Side bends would be
permitted(optional) for a ½” coupon. See the notes of QW-451.1
2. It always requires 4 bend tests.
Toughness tests have not been performed, fillet weld tests don’t apply to groove weld
procedures, and we have already checked for a signature.
Remove Wee Welders WPS and PQR from the appendix and review those for mistakes just as was
done with Confusion Weldings’ WPS and PQR.
Back of PQR
Toughness test results are not present so Supplementary Essential Variables do not apply
during the review.
The PQR has a signature.
WPS
PQR
The static head of water is equal to 0.433 psi per vertical foot above the point where the pressure
will measured. For example the static head of water at a point in a vessel with 10 feet of water above it is
calculated by multiplying 10 x 0.433 psi..
10 x 0.433 = 4.33psi
The 4.33 psi is being exerted totally by the weight of the water. No other external pressure
having been applied. If an external source of pressure is applied it would be added to the static head
pressure of the water at any given point in the vessel.
Suppose an external pressure from a pump of 100 psi is applied to the above vessel.. This
pressure would be added to the 4.33 psi that already exists from the static head for a total pressure at that
point of 104.33 psi.
Case 2. When do you add the static head pressure in vessel calculations?
Case 4. How do you calculate static head on ellipsoidal and hemi heads?
Example: A vessel has an elevation of 18 feet and is mounted on a 3 foot base. What is the static
head pressure of water at the 11 foot elevation which is located at the bottom of the top shell course?
You must realize it is the number of vertical feet above the GIVEN elevation in question which
causes the static head at that point. To find the static head you must subtract the elevation of the
GIVEN point from the TOTAL elevation given for the vessel.
Givens:
Since the bottom of this shell course is at the 11 foot elevation the pressure it will see is 100 psi + the
static head.
Or
103.03 x 20 20606
t .1379"
(15,000 x1.0) (0.6 x103.03) 14938.18
Example: A vessel has an elevation of 40 feet including a 4 foot base. The engineer has calculated
the following part MAWP'S to the bottom of each part based on each part's minimum thickness and
corroded diameter. Determine the MAWP of the vessel.
Therefore the bottom of the middle shell course MAWP determines the MAWP of the entire vessel.
Example: A vessel has an inside diameter of 48 inches. Determine the depth of a hemispherical and
a 2 to 1 ellipsoidal head with a 2 inch straight flange. The approach here is based on the fact that the
heads diameters will match the vessel's diameter and therefore will be the same. In this case 48
inches.
Hemispherical Head
Our hemispherical head has an inside diameter of 48 inches which means it has a radius of 24 inches.
The radius is the depth of the hemispherical head
An ellipsoidal head's I. D. will be the same as the shell's. The inside diameter of an ellipsoidal head
is also its major axis. This fact is the basis of finding the depth of a 2 to 1 ellipsoidal head. Notice
that we are strictly talking about 2 to 1 ellipsoidal heads. The 2 to 1 refers to the ratio of the Major
Axis to the Minor Axis of a ellipse which is used to form the head.
Of course only half of the Minor Axis is used for the head.
Example: Calculate the hydrostatic head of water for the following heads on a vessel with a Total
Elevation of 70'. The vessel's I. D. is 64 inches. The top head is a 2 to 1 ellipsoidal and has a 2 inch
flange. The bottom head is a hemispherical and is welded to the shell at the 8 foot elevation.
64" is the Major Axis and the Minor axis equals 1/2 the Major Axis.
64" divided by 2 equals 32" which equals the entire Minor Axis
However an ellipsoidal head uses only half the Minor Axis for its dished portion. 32" divided by 2
equals 16 ". To this you must add the length of the straight flange 2" So the depth of our ellipsoidal
head is 18 inches.
The I.D. of the hemi head equals the I.D. of the vessel therefore:
64" equals the diameter and the radius is one-half of the diameter.
64" divided by 2 equals 32" which equals the radius of this head.
Ellipsoidal
Hemispherical
64.666' x 0.433 psi = 28.0 psi to the bottom of the hemi head.
A. A 100 foot tall column is being hydrostatically tested. The vessel's MAWP is 100 PSI at 750F. The
vessel's material has an allowable stress of 13,500 PSI at MAWP, its material allowable stress at 70F, the
test temperature is 15,000 PSI. What is the required hydrostatic test pressure?
B. The vessel above is under full hydrostatic test pressure in an operating unit during the summer. A
plant wide evacuation alarm sounds and all test personnel leave. Four hours later, upon the all clear, the
test crew finds that the gauge pressure on vessel has risen to an unacceptable pressure. How could this
have been avoided?
C. The test gauge for the test above is located at the 30' elevation of the vessel, what will be its gauge
pressure during the test and at what pressure shall the visual inspection take place as read from the gage
at the 30' elevation?
15,000PSI
1.3100 144.44 PSI
13,500PSI
Solution B: Per UG-99(h), a relief valve set at 1 1/3 the pressure could have been installed.
Solution C: test pressure/1.3 plus static head at 30' elevation. Per UG-99(g)
144.44/1.3 = 111.11 + 30.31 = 141.42 psi (inspection psi as read at 30' elev.)
Drawing:
A 60 foot tower consisting of four (4) shell courses was found to have varying corrosion rates in each
course. Minimum wall thickness readings were taken after 4 years and 6 months of service . All original
wall thicknesses included a 1/8" corrosion allowance. The top course's original thickness was .3125".
The present thickness is .3000". The second course downward had an original thickness of .375". During
the inspection it was found to have a minimum wall thickness of .349". The third course was measured at
.440" its original thickness was .500". The bottom course had an original thickness of .625" and
measured to be .595".
Determine the metal loss for the top course, the corrosion rate for the second course, the corrosion
allowance remaining in the third course, the retirement date for the bottom course.
TOP COURSE.
Metal loss equals the previous thickness minus the present thickness.
Previous .3125"
Present -.3000"
.0125" Metal Loss
SECOND COURSE.
Previous .3750"
Present -.3490"
.0260" Metal Loss
THIRD COURSE.
Remaining Corrosion Allowance equals the actual thickness minus the required thickness.
Remaining service life equals the remaining corrosion allowance divided by the corrosion rate.
1.Required Thickness
3.Corrosion Rate
Problem #1
Calculate the required thickness of a 60 inch I.D. cylindrical shell. It is constructed of SA-516-70 rolled
steel plate. The vessel's Category A&D Type 1 joints are fully radiographed. All Category B joints are
Type 1 also and have been spot radiographed per UW-11(a)(5)(b). The vessel MAWP must be 350 PSI at
450F. The shell will see 11 psi of static head at its bottom.
SOLUTION:
DRAWING:
Givens:
tr = ?
D = 60.0" R = 30"
P = 350 + 11psi static head
S = 17,500 from stress table
E = 1.0 per UW-12(a)
PR
t=
SE - 0.6P
361 30
t .6266 "
(17,500 1.0) (0.6 361)
ANSWER t = .6266 "
Problem #2
A vessel is constructed using two courses of rolled and welded SA-515-60 plate. The maximum design
temperature is 750F. All joints used in shell courses are Type 1 those used to join heads are Type 2. The
vessel's name plate is stamped with the following: HT, W, RT 3. The vessel is 48 inches O.D. and has a
thickness of .500 inch. What would be the vessel's MAWP based on the MAWP of the shell?
DRAWING:
Givens:
t = .500"
P=?
S = 13,000 from stress table
E = .85 RT 3 for Type 1
OD = 48.0" Ro = 24.0"
APPENDIX 1
SEt
P=
R0 - 0.4t
SOLUTION:
13,000.85 .500
P 232.14 psi
( 24.0) (0.4.500)
Problem #1
A hemispherical head formed from solid plate is 48.0 inches in inside diameter and has a thickness of .
500 inch. This head will be attached to a seamless shell which has not had radiography on the Category A
Type 1 weld that attaches the head to the shell. The vessel is horizontal and operates at 500 PSI water
pressure with an allowable stress on the head's material of 15,000 PSI. Does the head's thickness meet
Code? Show calculations.
SOLUTION:
DRAWING:
Givens:
t = .500"
D = 48.0" L = 24.0"
P = 500 PSI + (0.433 psi x 4') = 1.732 =501.732
S = 15,000
E = .70
UG-32(f)
PL
t=
2SE - 0.2P
501.732 24.0
tR .5761"
(2 15,000 0.7) (0.2 501.732)
Answer: NO.
Problem #2
An Ellipsoidal head of seamless construction is welded to a seamless shell. The weld joint was spot
radiographed per UW-11(a)(5)(b). The head's inside diameter was originally 36 inches. Uniform
corrosion has occurred on the internal surfaces of the head leaving a wall thickness of .240". The original
thickness of the head was .375". The MAWP of the vessel is 175 PSIG at 450F and the static head at the
bottom of the head is 5.3 psi.. The stress allowable on the head's material is 13,500 PSI. Does this meet
Code?
SOLUTION:
Givens:
t = .240"
D = 36.0" + [(.375-.240) x 2] = 36.0 + .270 + 36.270" adjusted for corrosion!
P = 175 PSI + 5.3 psi static head = 180.3 psi
S = 13,500
E = 1.0 from UW-12(d)
UG-32(d)
PD
t=
2SE - 0.2P
180.3 36.270
tR .242"
(2 13,500 1.0) (0.2 180.3)
.240" < .242"
Answer: NO
Problem #3
A seamless circular flat head is attached to a 36 inch I.D. shell similar to Figure UG-34(e). The shell's
required t is .375 inch. The shell's actual t is .500 inch. The flat head is .750 inch in thickness. The
vessel is to operate at 300 PSIG. The head's material has a stress allowance of 15,000 PSI. The fillet
welds are 0.7 ts. Is the head's thickness in compliance with the Code?
SOLUTION:
DRAWING:
Givens:
t = .750
tS = .500
tR = .375
P = 300
S = 15,000
D = 36.0"
E = 1.0 Because the flat head is seamless.
C = .33 x m = .33 x .375 = .33 x .750 = .247
.500
UG-34(c)(2)
t = d CP
SE
.247300
t 36.0
15,0001.0
74.1
t 36.0 X 2.53"
15,000
Answer: NO.
Problem #4
While pulling exchanger bundles, a contractor backed against a torispherical head on a vessel. As a result
of the bump, a circular flat spot is left on the formed head. This head is .375 inch thick and the flat spot is
6 inches in diameter. The vessel has a MAWP of 150 PSI and the head's material has an allowable stress
of 15,000 PSI. Does this head require repair?
Drawing:
Givens:
t = d CP
SE
(0.25)(150)
t 6.0 0.300"
(15,000)(1.0)
0.375" 0.300"
Answer: No repairs are required. The flat spot meets t required for an equivalent flat head. See UG-32
(o), found near the end of UG-32.
UG-84 WPS
Problem #1
Please evaluate the following Charpy Impact Test results for a SMAW procedure. The plate is SA-516
grade 70 normalized, 1 3/4" thick. The WPS is being qualified for a range from 3/16" to 8" in thickness.
The max weld pass t = 1/2". The plate's specified minimum yield normalized is 38 KSI. Do the test
results qualify this procedure for impact testing?
SOLUTION:
Step (1) Determine the minimum impact energy for the test coupon.
Per UG-84(h)(2)(c) the test specimens must meet or exceed the values for the thickness of the
range qualified in the welding procedure. Per QW-451.1 Section IX. This procedure will be qualified
from 3/16 inch to 8 inches.
Going to Table UG-84.1 and entering on the bottom line at any value greater than 3 inches, then
moving up to the 38 KSI curve, then across to the minimum impact values on the left, we find a
minimum impact value of 18 ft./lbs.
(a) Average impact value required per Figure UG-84.1 is 18 ft./ lbs.
(c) Note (b) of Figure UG-84.1 states that one specimen shall not be less than 2/3 the average
energy required for three specimens. Only one (1) specimen is allowed to fall below the min avg.
of three per
UG-84(c)(6).
Answer: All values meet minimums and the procedure's impact tests pass.
1). A cylindrical shell has been discovered to have uniform external corrosion. The shells original
thickness was 7/8 inch, it is presently .745 inch in thickness. The original O.D. of the shell was 30
inches. The vessel operates at 650 oF with a stress allowable on the material of 15,000 psi. All joints were
fully radiographed. All joints are type 1. What is the vessel's present MAWP?
2). A vessel is fabricated from SA-516 gr.70 plate material to operate at 600 oF with an allowable stress of
17,500 psi. The vessel has an inside diameter of 36 inches and operates at 375 psi . The type 2 long seam
has had full RT. The circumferential joints have met UW-12(d) and UW-11(a)(5)(b)requirements. What
is its required thickness?
3.) A shell course is being replaced with the new course being 60 inches in inside diameter and 7/8 inches
thick. The vessel course material is SA-515 gr 60 plate at a design temperature of 650 oF with an
allowable stress of 13,000 psi. The vessel joints are all type 2 and the vessel is stamped RT-3. What is the
MAWP of this shell course?
4.) What is the minimum required thickness of a vessel shell operating at 650 psi and 500 oF. The vessel
shell is fabricated of SA-516 gr 60 plate, allowable stress of 15,000 psi. The inside diameter of the vessel
shell is 50 inches. The vessel has received FULL RT on Category A joints. All of its category A joints are
type 1. The category B joints are type 2 and have met the requirements of UW-12(d) and UW-11(a)(5)(b).
5). A vessel shell is made from SA-515 - Grade 70. It has a design operating pressure of 200 psi at 750
oF, allowable stress is 14,800 psi. The inside diameter is 14 feet. All joint efficiencies are 1.0 The shell
has corroded down to 1.28 inches. Its original t was 1.375". May this vessel shell remain in service in
accordance with rules of Section VIII Division 1?
1.) A seamless torispherical head made of SA-515 gr. 70 material with an allowable stress of 14,800 at
750 oF is to operate at 250 psi. The knuckle radius is 6% of the outside diameter of the head skirt and the
inside crown radius is equal to the outside diameter of the skirt. The outside diameter of the skirt is 50
inches. The vessel it is attached to meets the requirements of UW-12(d) and UW-11(a)(5)(b). What is the
minimum required thickness of the head?
2.) A seamless ellipsoidial head with a 2 to 1 ratio of the major to the minor axis is to operate at 750 oF
with an internal pressure of 250 psi. The material has an allowable stress of 14,800 and the skirt has an
inside diameter of 50 inches. All category B butt welds do not meet UW-11(a)(5)(b). What is the
minimum required thickness for the head?
3.) A seamless hemispherical head is fabricated from a material with a calculated stress of 14,800 psi at
operating temperature. All category B butt joints in the vessel meet UW-11(a)(5)(b) and all category A
joints are type 1 and have had spot radiography. The vessel's design requires an maximum operating
pressure of 250 psi. The corroded thickness of this head is .295". It has a corroded I.D. of 72.230". May
this head continue in service ?
4.) During the inspection of a horizontal 36 inch ID vessel in gas service a seamless circular flat head
attached similar to Fig UG-34(e) was found to have corroded to a thickness of 1.948 inch minimum. The
shell's required thickness was calculated based on 100% joint efficiency and an allowable stress of 17,500
psi. The shell's actual thickness is .505 inch and the vessel operates at 250 psi. The flat head's allowable
stress is 15,500 psi. The fillet weld throat sizes are still in excess of .7 t s. May this flat head remain in
service?
SEt
1. From: Appendix 1-1 P
Ro 0.4t
Givens:
t original = .875 ”
t present = .745 ”
P=?
S = 15,000 psi
E = 1.0
30
Ro = 14.87 ” Ro = = 15-(.875-.745) = 15-0.13 = 14.87 “ this adjusts the o.d. wall loss
2
The trick here is knowing to adjust the outside radius for corrosion, remember it will decrease
when there is external corrosion. The opposite is true for internal corrosion.
PR
2. From: UG-27 ( c ) ( 1) t
SE 0.6 P
Givens:
t req. = ?
P = 375 psi
S = 17,500 psi
E = .90
36
R= = 18 “
2
375 x18
t .4347"
(17,500 x.90) (0.6 x375)
In order to take .90 for the E on the category A joint, it must have full RT and the circumferential joint
must meet the spot RT required by UW-12(a).
PR
4. From: UG-27 ( c ) ( 1) t
SE 0.6 P
t = ?
P = 650 psi
S = 15,000 psi
E = 1.0
50
R= = 25 “
2
650 x 25
t 1.112"
(15,000 x1.0) (0.6 x650)
Here you must remember that UW-12(a) will not allow the use of a joint E from column A unless the
requirements of UW-11 (a)(5) have been applied. If the spot RT had not been performed the E would be
taken from column B and have a value of .85.
Givens:
t = 1.28 “
P = 200 psi
S = 14,800 psi
E = 1.0
14'
R= = 7’ x 12 = 84” Inside radius corroded = 84+(1.375-1.28) = 84.095
2
0.885 PL
1. From: UG-32 (e) t (Torispherical Formula )
SE 0.1P
Givens:
t=?
P = 250 psi
S = 14,800 psi
E = 1.0
L = 50” crown radius
PD
2. From: UG-32 (d) t
2 SE 0.2 P
Givens:
t=?
P = 250 psi
S = 14,800 psi
E = .85
D = 50” inside diameter
250 x50
t .4978"
(2 x14,800 x.85) (0.2 x 250)
PL
3. From: UG-32 (f) t
2 SE 0.2 P
Givens:
t=?
P = 250 psi
S = 14,800 psi
E = .85
L = 36.115” inside spherical radius
250 x36.115
t .3595"
(2 x14,800 x.85) (0.2 x 250)
ANS: NO
From: UG 27 (c) (1) we use the t = formula to find that the shell’s required which is .259” remember to
use the shell’s material stress in this calculation.
Step 2. Using the actual thickness of shell and its calculated req. thickness find “m”
tr .259
From: The definitions of variables in and fig. UG-34 (e) m .51
ts .505
Since the minimum that C is allowed to be in this geometry is .20 use C = .20 to solve.
t 36
.20 x 250
15,500 x1.0
36 .0032258 = 36 x.0567961 2.044"
Answer No: 1.984” < 2.044”
UW-3
1. ans. D ( it depends on the location in the vessel )
2. ans. B ( it is a category C weld)
3.
1. Category A joints in nozzles and communicating chambers and category B joints in nozzles and
chambers which exceed either 10 “ NPS or 1-1/8 wall thickness.
2. The category A joint must be fully radiographed and the spot radiography of UW-11 (a)(5)(b) must be
applied per UW-12(a).
3. Full radiography for all butt joints, which exceed the specified thickness, excluding the category Bs
that do not exceed the 10” NPS or 1-1/8 inch thickness.
4. It may not be assumed that all joints have been radiographed. The thickness of some joints may not
exceed the limit for the material used. Remember it is the least nominal thickness at the welded joint
which determines the requirement.
5. Both joints must be radiographed by the requirement that all A AND D butt welds shall be shot.
UW-12 # 1 pg 91
UW-12 # 2 pg 92
1. E = 1.0 based on full RT of all category A and D joints and the spot RT applied to the category B joint
attaching the Ellipsoidal head (see UW-12(a) ).
2. E = .80 based on the joint E from column B of the welded joint used for the Ellipsoidal head
3. E = 1.0 Full RT on the category A joint in the hemispherical head.
4. E = 1.0 per UW-12 (d)
5. E = 1.0 per UW-12 (d)
6. E = 1.0 per UW-12 (d)
7. E = .80 based on the joint E from column B of the welded joint used for the head and spot RT.
PRo
1. From: Appendix 1-1 t
SE 0.4 P
Givens:
t =?
P = 500 psi
S = 15,000 psi
E = 1.0 per UW-12(d)
12.75
Ro = 6.375"
2
500 x6.375
t .2097"
(15,000 x1.0) (0.4 x500)
SEt
2. From: UG-27 ( c ) ( 1) P
R 0.6t
Givens:
t = .850 “
P= ?
S = 15,000 psi
E = 1.0
R = 52 “
15,000 x1.0 x.850
P 242.81 psi
52 (0.6 x.850)
PD
1. From: UG-32 (d) t
2 SE 0.2 P
Givens:
t=?
P = 350 psi
S = 15,000 psi
E = 1.0 full RT per UW-11 (a) (1) in butt joints in shells and heads
D = 48” inside diameter
350 x 48
t ..5613"
(2 x15,000 x1.0) (0.2 x350)
ANS: required t = .5613”
0.885 PL
2. From: UG-32 (e) t
SE 0.1P
Givens:
t = .353
P = 100 psi
S = 13,800 psi
E = 1.0
L = 56” crown radius
0.885 x100 x56
t .3593"
(13,800 x1.0) (0.1x100)
PL
3. From: UG-32 (f) t
2 SE 0.2 P
Givens:
t=?
P = 200 psi
S = 17,500 psi
E = .85 Spot RT per UW-12(d)
L = 32.0” inside spherical radius (D/2)
200 x32.0
t .2154"
(2 x17,500 x.85) (0.2 x 200)
PD
4. From: UG-32 (d) t
2 SE 0.2 P
Givens:
t=?
P = 200 psi
S = 17,500 psi
E = .85 No spot RT per UW-12(d)
D = 64.0”
200 x64
t .4308"
(2 x17,500 x.85) (0.2 x 200)
CP
1. 4. From: UG-34 ( c ) ( 2 ) td
SE
Givens:
t=?
t = .500” actual thickness of the shell
P= 75 psi
S = for head material 13,800 psi
S = for shell material 15,000 psi
d = for head 42”
D = for shell 42” inside
E = 1.0 for shell calculation (Shell E is always 1.0 for a flat head calculation)
E = 1.0 per UW 12 (d), this is a forged head but is treated like a formed head. Read the paragraph for the
Fig UG-34 (b-2)
C = 0.33 x m = ?
Step 1. Calculate the Shell’s required thickness
From: UG 27 (c) (1) we use the t = formula to find that the shell’s required which is .1053” remember to
use the shell’s material stress in this calculation.
Step 2. Using the actual thickness of shell and its calculated req. thickness find “m”
tr .1053
From: The definitions of variables and fig. UG-34 (e) in UG-34 m .2106
ts .500
Since the minimum that C is allowed to be in this geometry is .20 use C = .20 to solve.
t 42
.20 x 75
13,800 x1.0
42 .0010869 = 42 x.0329681 1.3846"
Ans: thickness required = 1.3846 ”
Do
(1) Cylinders having values 10
t
Testing to see if this paragraph applies:
Do 40
= = 32
t 1.25
Step 1. Our value of Do is 54 inches and L is 98 inches. We will use these to determine the ratio of:
L 70
= = 1.75
Do 40
Step 2. Enter the Factor A chart at the value of 1.8 determined above.
Step 3. Then move across horizontally to the curve Do/t = 48. Then down from this point to find the
value of Factor A which is approximately .0022 .
Step 4. Using our value of Factor A calculated in Step 3, enter the Factor B (CS-2) chart on the bottom.
Then vertically to the material temperature line given in the stated problem (in our case 300 oF).
Step 5. Then across to find the value of Factor B. We find that Factor B is approximately 15000. Note
due to the variance in the reading of the charts answers and values may vary , but should be within a 5 %
range of the solution.
Step. 6 Using this value of Factor B, calculate the value of the maximum allowable external pressure Pa
using the following formula:
4B
Pa =
3( Do )
t
4x13,000 52,000
Pa = = = 541.66 psi
3(32) 96
416.66 psi > 350 psi ANSWER: YES, your answer may be slightly different +or- 5% due to the
variation in reading the factor A and B charts. This is acceptable.
1. Hydrostatic Test
16,700
A. 1.3 x 225 x 332.295 psi
14,700
332.295
B. 255.61 psi
1.3
C. Minimum gage range 1.5 x 332.295 = 498.4 ( use 500 psi )
Of course the gage pressure at the 4X range would be rounded down to closest standard range!
2. Pneumatic Test
Step 1. Raise the pressure to ½ the test pressure, ½ x 310psi = 155 psi ,then raise in 1/10 steps to full test
pressure.
Last find the inspection pressure 310/1.1 = 281.8 psi and lower for visual inspection.
.600
2. Leg Size = .8486 therefore the next 1/16 would be a 7/8 inch leg.
.707
13/16<.8486<7/8 (14/16) or .8125<.8486<.875
UG-40/41/42/45
15,000
1. Ratio = 1.0135 therefore use 1.0 credit cannot be taken for the higher strength of the
14,800
pad’s material, only the reverse is true, that is you must reduce the area that the pad provides if it is of a
lower strength than the shell.
2. The centers can be no closer than the sum of their diameters and still be considered isolated openings,
in this case 6+4 =10 inches. The answer is: their centers can be no closer than 10 inches with out the
areas of reinforcement overlapping.
3. The area of reinforcement must that of a hole which would contain all of the nozzles with in it. It is
treated as if it were on large hole for reinforcement calculation.
UG-37 Reinforcement
1. Corrosion allowance must be deducted from all surfaces in contact with the corrosive substance.
3. Answer: 4 points for the reinforcement and 4 points for the hydrostatic calculations. Which one takes
the most study time? Which one of these are you most likely to do in actual practice? Which one of these
is the most likely to be on the exam?
UG-20/UCS66/68
SEt
1. From: Appendix 1-1 P
Ro 0.4t
Givens:
t original = .875 ”
t present = .745 ”
P=?
S = 15,000 psi
E = 1.0
30
Ro = 14.87 ” Ro = = 15-(.875-.745) = 15-0.13 = 14.87 “ this adjusts the o.d. wall loss
2
The trick here is knowing to adjust the outside radius for corrosion, remember it will decrease
when there is external corrosion. The opposite is true for internal corrosion.
PR
2. From: UG-27 ( c ) ( 1) t
SE 0.6 P
Givens:
t req. = ?
P = 375 psi
S = 17,500 psi
E = .90
36
R= = 18 “
2
375 x18
t .4347"
(17,500 x.90) (0.6 x375)
In order to take .90 for the E on the category A joint, it must have full RT and the circumferential joint
must meet the spot RT required by UW-12(a).
PR
4. From: UG-27 ( c ) ( 1) t
SE 0.6 P
t = ?
P = 650 psi
S = 15,000 psi
E = 1.0
50
R= = 25 “
2
650 x 25
t 1.112"
(15,000 x1.0) (0.6 x650)
Here you must remember that UW-12(a) will not allow the use of a joint E from column A unless the
requirements of UW-11 (a)(5) have been applied. If the spot RT had not been performed the E would be
taken from column B and have a value of .85.
PR SEt
5. From: UG-27 ( c ) ( 1) t or P
SE 0.6 P R 0.6t
Givens:
t = 1.28 “
P = 200 psi
S = 14,800 psi
E = 1.0
14'
R= = 7’ x 12 = 84” Inside radius corroded = 84+(1.375-1.28) = 84.095
2
Notice that since both pressure and thickness are known that either calculation can be made. It does not
matter which is used.
0.885 PL
1. From: UG-32 (e) t (Torispherical Formula )
SE 0.1P
Givens:
t=?
P = 250 psi
S = 14,800 psi
E = 1.0
L = 50” crown radius
From: UG 27 (c) (1) we use the t = formula to find that the shell’s required which is .259” remember to
use the shell’s material stress in this calculation.
Step 2. Using the actual thickness of shell and its calculated req. thickness find “m”
tr .259
From: The definitions of variables in and fig. UG-34 (e) m .51
ts .505
Since the minimum that C is allowed to be in this geometry is .20 use C = .20 to solve.
t 36
.20 x 250
15,500 x1.0
36 .0032258 = 36 x.0567961 2.044"
Answer No: 1.984” < 2.044”