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Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun in a sentence.
Example: She decided to go to a movie.
In the sentence above, she is the pronoun. Like nouns, pronouns may be used either as subjects or
as objects in a sentence.
Example: She planned to ask him for an interview.
In the example above, both she and him are pronouns; she is the subject of the sentence while him
is the object. Every subject pronoun has a corresponding object form, as shown in the table below.
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1
Copyright © 1995-2009 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published,
reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission.
Articles
Articles include a, an, and the. They precede a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence.
Example 1: They wanted a house with a big porch.
Example 2: He bought the blue sweater on sale.
In example 1, the article a precedes the noun house, and a also precedes the noun phrase big porch,
which consists of an adjective (big) and the noun it describes (porch). In example 2, the article the
precedes the noun phrase blue sweater, in which sweater is the noun and blue the adjective.
Adjectives
An adjective is a word that modifies, or describes, a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may precede
nouns, or they may appear after a form of the reflexive verb to be (am, are, is, was, etc.).
Example 1: We live in the red brick house.
Example 2: She is tall for her age.
In example 1, two consecutive adjectives, red and brick, both describe the noun house. In example
2, the adjective tall appears after the reflexive verb is and describes the subject, she.
Verbs
A verb is a word that denotes action, or a state of being, in a sentence.
Example 1: Beth rides the bus every day.
Example 2: Paul was an avid reader.
In example 1, rides is the verb; it describes what the subject, Beth, does. In example 2, was
describes Paul’s state of being and is therefore the verb.
There may be multiple verbs in a sentence, or there may be a verb phrase consisting of a verb plus a
helping verb.
Example 1: She turned the key and opened the door.
Example 2: Jackson was studying when I saw him last.
In example 1, the subject she performs two actions in the sentence, turned and opened. In example
2, the verb phrase is was studying.
Some words in a sentence may look like verbs but act as something else, like a noun; these are
Adverbs
Just as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify, or further describe, verbs. Adverbs may also
modify adjectives. (Many, though not all, adverbs end in -ly.)
Example 1: He waved wildly to get her attention.
Example 2: The shirt he wore to the party was extremely bright.
In the first example, the adverb wildly modifies the verb waved. In the second example, the adverb
extremely modifies the adjective bright, which describes the noun shirt. While nouns answer the
questions who and what, adverbs answer the questions how, when, why, and where.
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that joins two independent clauses, or sentences, together.
Example 1: Ellen wanted to take drive into the city, but the cost of gasoline was too high.
Example 2: Richard planned to study abroad in Japan, so he decided to learn the language.
In the examples above, both but and so are conjunctions. They join two complete sentences with
the help of a comma. And, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet can all act as conjunctions.
Prepositions
Prepositions work in combination with a noun or pronoun to create phrases that modify verbs,
nouns/pronouns, or adjectives. Prepositional phrases convey a spatial, temporal, or directional
meaning.
Example 1: Ivy climbed up the brick wall of the house.
There are two prepositional phrases in the example above: up the brick wall and of the house. The
first prepositional phrase is an adverbial phrase, since it modifies the verb by describing where the
ivy climbed. The second phrase further modifies the noun wall (the object of the first prepositional
phrase) and describes which wall the ivy climbs.
Below is a list of prepositions in the English language:
Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, among, around, at, before, behind, below,
beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, into, like, near, of, off,
on, onto, out, over, past, since, through, throughout, to, toward, under, underneath, until, unto, up,
upon, with, within, without.
Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns refer to things that we cannot count. Such nouns take only singular form.
Abstract nouns are uncountable.
The price of freedom is constant vigilance.
Her writing shows maturity and intelligence.
Some concrete nouns are uncountable (when understood in their undivided sense).
The price of oil has stabilized recently.
May I borrow some rice?
1. Agree in number
If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun.
If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a parking sticker.
(NOT: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking sticker.)
Remember: the words everybody, anybody, anyone, each, neither, nobody, someone, a person, etc.
are singular and take singular pronouns.
Everybody ought to do his or her best. (NOT: their best)
Neither of the girls brought her umbrella. (NOT: their umbrellas)
2. Agree in person
If you are writing in the “first person” ( I), don’t confuse your reader by switching to the “second
person” ( you) or “third person” (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the “second
person,” don’t switch to “first” or “third.”
When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her homework ready.
(NOT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.)
Pronoun Case
Pronoun case is really a very simple matter. There are three cases.
• Subjective case: pronouns used as subject.
• Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions.
• Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership.
The pronouns this, that, these, those, and which do not change form.
1. In compound structures, where there are two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, drop the
other noun for a moment. Then you can see which case you want.
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Part 4: Appositives
An appositive is a noun or pronoun — often with modifiers — set beside another noun or pronoun to
explain or identify it. Here are some examples of appositives (the noun or pronoun will be in blue,
the appositive will be in boldface).
Your friend Bill is in trouble.
My brother’s car, a sporty red convertible with bucket seats, is the envy of my friends.
The chief surgeon, an expert in organ-transplant procedures, took her nephew on a hospital tour.
An appositive phrase usually follows the word it explains or identifies, but it may also precede it.
A bold innovator, Wassily Kadinsky is known for his colorful abstract paintings.
The first state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, Delaware is rich in history.
A beautiful collie, Skip was my favorite dog.
Punctuation of Appositives
In some cases, the noun being explained is too general without the appositive; the information is
essential to the meaning of the sentence. When this is the case, do not place commas around the
appositive; just leave it alone. If the sentence would be clear and complete without the appositive,
then commas are necessary; place one before and one after the appositive. Here are some
examples.
The popular US president John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.
Here we do not put commas around the appositive, because it is essential information. Without
Adjectives usually answer one of a few different questions: “What kind?” or “Which?” or “How
many?” For example:
• "The tall girl is riding a new bike.” Tall tells us which girl we’re talking about. New tells us what
kind of bike we’re talking about.
• "The tough professor gave us the final exam.” Tough tells us what kind of professor we’re talking
about. Final tells us which exam we’re talking about.
• "Fifteen students passed the midterm exam; twelve students passed the final exam.” Fifteen and
twelve both tell us how many students; midterm and final both tell us which exam.
So, generally speaking, adjectives answer the following questions: Which? What kind of? How
many?
• "That woman is extremely nice.” Nice is an adjective that modifies the noun woman. Extremely is an
adverb that modifies nice; it tells us how nice she is. How nice is she? She’s extremely nice.
• "It was a terribly hot afternoon.” Hot is an adjective that modifies the noun afternoon. Terribly is an
adverb that modifies the adjective hot. How hot is it? Terribly hot.
So, generally speaking, adverbs answer the question how. (They can also answer the questions
when, where, and why.)
Part 6: Participles
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A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. The term
verbal indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and
therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since they function as adjectives,
participles modify nouns or pronouns. There are two types of participles: present participles and
past participles. Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the
words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen.
• The crying baby had a wet diaper.
• Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car.
• The burning log fell off the fire.
• Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.
A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s) and/or
(pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or
complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the participle, such as:
Example: Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river.
Points to remember
1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n (past) that functions as
an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun.
2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).
3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns they
modify as possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be clearly stated.
4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it:
(a) comes at the beginning of a sentence
(b) interrupts a sentence as a nonessential element
(c) comes at the end of a sentence and is separated from the word it modifies.
Extended time
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To express extended time, English uses the following prepositions: since, for, by, from–to,
from–until, during, (with)in
• She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has not returned.)
• I'm going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)
• The movie showed from August to October. (Beginning in August and ending in October.)
• The decorations were up from spring until fall. (Beginning in spring and ending in fall.)
• I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of time in the evening.)
• We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)
Place
To express notions of place, English uses the following prepositions: to talk about the point itself:
in, to express something contained: inside, to talk about the surface: on, to talk about a general
vicinity, at.
• There is a wasp in the room.
• Put the present inside the box.
• I left your keys on the table.
• She was waiting at the corner.
Close to a point
To express notions of an object being close to a point, English uses the following prepositions: near,
by, next to, between, among, opposite.
• She lives near the school.
• There is an ice cream shop by the store.
• An oak tree grows next to my house
• The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street.
• I found my pen lying among the books.
• The bathroom is opposite that room.
• You go buy the tickets and I'll watch for the train.
• If you wish for an “A” in this class, you must work hard.
Independent Clause
An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a
complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence.
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz.
Dependent Clause
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a
complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked
by a dependent marker word.
When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (What happened when he studied?
The thought is incomplete.)
1. Coordinating Conjunction
The seven coordinating conjunctions used as connecting words at the beginning of an independent
clause are and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet. When the second independent clause in a sentence
begins with a coordinating conjunction, a comma is needed before the coordinating conjunction:
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, but it was hard to concentrate because of the
noise.
Fused Sentences
Fused sentences happen when there are two independent clauses not separated by any form of
punctuation. This error is also known as a run-on sentence. The error can sometimes be corrected
by adding a period, semicolon, or colon to separate the two sentences.
Incorrect: My professor is intelligent I’ve learned a lot from her.
Correct: My professor is intelligent. I’ve learned a lot from her.
• (or) My professor is intelligent; I've learned a lot from her.
• (or) My professor is intelligent, and I've learned a lot from her.
• (or) My professor is intelligent; moreover, I've learned a lot from her.
Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments happen by treating a dependent clause or other incomplete thought as a
complete sentence. You can usually fix this error by combining it with another sentence to make a
complete thought or by removing the dependent marker.
Incorrect: Because I forgot the exam was today.
Correct: Because I forgot the exam was today, I didn’t study.
• (or) I forgot the exam was today.
Example 2
Not Parallel:
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurate ly, and in a detailed
manner.
Parallel:
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly.
Example 3
Not Parallel:
The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the
exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low.
Parallel:
The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the
exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked motivation.
Clauses
A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another
pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the
parallelism.
Example 1
Not Parallel:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and
to do some warm-up exercises before the game.
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Parallel:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and
that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.
OR
Parallel:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-
up exercises before the game.
Example 2
Not Parallel:
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time
for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers.
(passive)
Parallel:
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time
for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions.
Example 1
Not Parallel:
The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct
spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.
Parallel:
The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct
spellings, and irregular verbs.
Function in Reference to
the sentence People Things/concepts Place Time Reason
Subject who, that which, that
Object (that, who, whom) (which, that) where when why
Possessive whose whose, of which
Examples
Relative pronoun used as a subject:
This is the house that had a great Christmas decoration.
It took me a while to get used to people who eat popcorn during the movie.
2. In American English, whom is not used very often. Whom is more formal than who and is very
often omitted in speech:
Grammatically Correct: The woman to whom you have just spoken is my teacher.
Common in Speech: The woman (who) you have just spoken to is my teacher.
However, whom may not be omitted if preceded by a preposition:
I have found you the tutor for whom you were looking.
that / which
There are several cases when that is more appropriate and is preferred to which.
After the pronouns all, any(thing), every(thing), few, little, many, much, no(thing), none,
some(thing):
The police usually ask for every detail that helps identify the missing person. - that used as the subject
Marrying a congressman is all (that) she wants. - that used as the object
After verbs that answer the question WHAT? For example, say, suggest, state, declare, hope, think,
write, etc. In this case, the whole relative clause functions as the object of the main clause:
Some people say (that) success is one percent of talent and ninety-nine percent of hard work.
The chairman stated at the meeting (that) his company is part of a big-time entertainment industry.
After the noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree:
This is the funniest story (that) I have ever read! - that used as the object
After ordinal numbers, e.g., first, second, etc.:
The first draft (that) we submitted was really horrible. - that used as the object
If the verb in the main clause is a form of BE:
This is a claim that has absolutely no reason in it. - that used as the subject
Function in Reference to
the sentence People Things/concepts Place Time Reason
Subject who which
Object who, whom which where when why
Possessive whose whose, of which
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, but they don’t know
the reasons for it.
Examples of independent markers are the following: therefore, moreover, thus, consequently,
however, also.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; therefore, they have
called for more research into its causes.
Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until,
when, after, as, as if.
Example: Because doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, they have
called for more research into its causes.
Pattern Seven
This pattern includes an independent clause with an embedded non-essential clause or phrase. A
non-essential clause or phrase is one that can be removed without changing the meaning of the
sentence or making it ungrammatical. In other words, the non-essential clause or phrase gives
additional information, but the sentence can stand alone without it.
Pattern Eight
This pattern includes an independent clause with an embedded essential clause or phrase. An
essential clause or phrase is one that cannot be removed without changing the overall meaning of
the sentence.
First part of an independent clause essential clause or phrase rest of the independent clause [ . ]
Example: Many doctors who are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma have called
for more research into its causes.
2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.
The book or the pen is in the drawer.
3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or
nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.
The boy or his friends run every day.
His friends or the boy runs every day.
4. Doesn’t is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject. Don’t
is a contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. The exception to this
rule appears in the case of the first person and second person pronouns I and you. With these
pronouns, the contraction don’t should be used. [Note that formal writing generally avoids the
use of contractions.]
He doesn’t like it.
They don’t like it.
5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees
with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.
One of the boxes is open
The people who listen to that music are few.
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.
6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody,
somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.
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7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.
The news is on at six.
Note: The word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a
singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.
Five dollars is a lot of money.
Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.
8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two
parts to these things.)
These scissors are dull.
Those trousers are made of wool.
9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is not
the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.
10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular
and take a singular verb, such as: group, team, committee, class, and family.
The team runs during practice.
The committee decides how to proceed.
The family has a long history.
My family has never been able to agree.
In some cases, a sentence may call for the use of a plural verb when using a collective noun.
The crew are preparing to dock the ship.
11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well
do not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.
The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to India.
All of the books, including yours, are in that box.
Sequence of Tenses
Simple Present: They walk.
Present Perfect: They have walked.
Simple Past: They walked.
Past Perfect: They had walked.
Future: They will walk.
Future Perfect: They will have walked.
Problems in sequencing tenses usually occur with the perfect tenses, all of which are formed by
adding an auxiliary or auxiliaries to the past participle, the third principal part.
ring, rang, rung
Present Perfect
The present perfect consists of a past participle (the third principal part) with “has” or “have.” It
designates action which began in the past but which continues into the present or the effect of
which still continues.
1. Betty taught for ten years. (simple past)
2. Betty has taught for ten years. (present perfect)
The implication in (1) is that Betty has retired; in (2), that she is still teaching.
1. John did his homework. He can go to the movies.
2. If John has done his homework, he can go to the movies.
Infinitives, too, have perfect tense forms when combined with “have,” and sometimes problems
arise when infinitives are used with verbs such as “hope,” “plan,” “expect,” and “intend,” all of
which usually point to the future (I wanted to go to the movie. Janet meant to see the doctor.) The
perfect tense sets up a sequence by marking the action which began and usually was completed
Examples:
Active Passive
Simple Present • T he company ships the computers • Computers are shipped to many
to many foreign countries. foreign countries
Present • The chef is preparing the food. • The food is being prepared.
Progressive
Simple Past • T he delivery man delivered the • The package was delivered
package yesterday. yesterday.
Past Progressive • T he producer was making an • An announcement was being made.
announcement.
Future •O
ur representative will pick up the • The computer will be picked up.
computer.
Present Perfect •S
omeone has made the • The arrangements have been made
arrangements for us. for us.
Past Perfect • T hey had given us visas for three • They had been given visas for three
months. months.
Future Perfect •B
y next month we will have finished • By next month this job will have
this job. been finished.
Example sentences:
After laying down his weapon, the soldier lay down to sleep.
Will you lay out my clothes while I lie down to rest?
Example sentence:
Let’s set the table before we sit down to rest.
Example sentence:
The boy raised the flag just before the sun rose.
Proper nouns (the names of specific people, places, organizations, and sometimes things)
Worrill Fabrication Company
Golden Gate Bridge
Supreme Court
Livingston, Missouri
Atlantic Ocean
Mothers Against Drunk Driving
The names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books
God the Father
the Virgin Mary
the Bible
the Greek gods
Moses
Shiva
Buddha
Zeus
Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but
not as compass directions)
The Patels have moved to the Southwest.
Jim’s house is two miles north of Otterbein.
The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally)
Halloween
October
Friday
winter
spring
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fall
The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the
articles “the,” “a,” or “an,” if they are not the first word of the title)
One of Jerry’s favorite books is The Catcher in the Rye.
Trademarks
Pepsi
Honda
IBM
Microsoft Word
Words and abbreviations of specific names (but not names of things that came from specific things
but are now general types)
Freudian UN
NBC french fries
pasteurize italics
Comma
Use a comma to join two independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but,
or, for, nor, so).
Road construction can be inconvenient, but it is necessary.
The new house has a large fenced backyard, so I am sure our dog will enjoy it.
Use a comma to separate elements in a series. Although there is no set rule that requires a comma
before the last item in a series, it seems to be a general academic convention to include it. The
examples below demonstrate this trend.
On her vacation, Lisa visited Greece, Spain, and Italy.
In their speeches, many of the candidates promised to help protect the environment, bring about
world peace, and end world hunger.
Use a comma to separate nonessential elements from a sentence. More specifically, when a
sentence includes information that is not crucial to the message or intent of the sentence, enclose it
in or separate it by commas.
John’s truck, a red Chevrolet, needs new tires.
When he realized he had overslept, Matt rushed to his car and hurried to work.
Use a comma between coordinate adjectives (adjectives that are equal and reversible).
The irritable, fidgety crowd waited impatiently for the rally speeches to begin.
The sturdy, compact suitcase made a perfect gift.
Use a comma after a transitional element (however, therefore, nonetheless, also, otherwise, finally,
instead, thus, of course, above all, for example, in other words, as a result, on the other hand, in
conclusion, in addition).
For example, the Red Sox, Yankees, and Indians are popular baseball teams.
If you really want to get a good grade this semester, however, you must complete all assignments,
attend class, and study your notes.
Avoid comma splices (two independent clauses joined only by a comma). Instead, separate the
clauses with a period, with a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction, or with a semicolon.
Semicolon
Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses when the second clause restates the first or when
the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become covered with
bulldozers, trucks, and cones.
Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunctive
adverb (however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile, nonetheless, otherwise) or a
transition (in fact, for example, that is, for instance, in addition, in other words, on the other hand,
even so).
Terrorism in the United States has become a recent concern; in fact, the concern for America’s safety
has led to an awareness of global terrorism.
Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already include
commas.
Recent sites of the Olympic Games include Athens, Greece; Salt Lake City, Utah; Sydney, Australia;
Nagano, Japan.
Grammar Handbook 395
Grammar Handbook continued
Colon
Use a colon to join two independent clauses when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town: parts of Main, Fifth, and West Street
are closed during the construction.
Use a colon after an independent clause when it is followed by a list, a quotation, an appositive, or
other idea directly related to the independent clause.
Julie went to the store for some groceries: milk, bread, coffee, and cheese.
In his Gettysburg Address, Abraham Lincoln urges Americans to rededicate themselves to the
unfinished work of the deceased soldiers: “It is for us the living rather to be dedicated here to the
unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to
be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take
increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion — that we here
highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation under God shall have a new
birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish
from the earth.”
I know the perfect job for her: a politician.
Use a colon at the end of a business letter greeting.
To Whom It May Concern:
Use a colon to separate the hour and minute(s) in a time notation.
12:00 p.m.
Use a colon to separate the chapter and verse in a Biblical reference.
Matthew 1:6
Parentheses
Parentheses are used to emphasize content. They place more emphasis on the enclosed content
than commas. Use parentheses to set off nonessential material, such as dates, clarifying
information, or sources, from a sentence.
Muhammed Ali (1942-present), arguably the greatest athlete of all time, claimed he would “float like
a butterfly, sting like a bee.”
Dash
Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that
follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses.
Perhaps one reason why the term has been so problematic—so resistant to definition, and yet so
transitory in those definitions—is because of its multitude of applications.
In terms of public legitimacy—that is, in terms of garnering support from state legislators, parents,
donors, and university administrators—English departments are primarily places where advanced
literacy is taught.
The U.S.S. Constitution became known as “Old Ironsides” during the War of 1812—during which the
cannonballs fired from the British H.M.S. Guerriere merely bounced off the sides of the Constitution.
To some of you, my proposals may seem radical—even revolutionary.
Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word
that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it.
The cousins—Tina, Todd, and Sam—arrived at the party together.
Quotation Marks
Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods are placed inside
the closing quotation mark, and colons and semicolons are placed outside. The placement of
question and exclamation marks depends on the situation.
He asked, “When will you be arriving?” I answered, “Sometime after 6:30.”
Use quotation marks to indicate the novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word.
History is stained with blood spilled in the name of “justice.”
Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or
newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or radio
shows.
“Self-Reliance,” by Ralph Waldo Emerson
“Just Like a Woman,” by Bob Dylan
“The Smelly Car,” an episode of Seinfeld
Do not use quotation marks in indirect or block quotations. Indirect quotations are not exact
wordings but rather rephrasings or summaries of another person’s words. In this case, it is not
necessary to use quotation marks. However, indirect quotations still require proper citations, and
you will be committing plagiarism if you fail to do so.
Mr. Johnson, a local farmer, reported last night that he saw an alien spaceship on his own property.
Italics
Underlining and Italics are often used interchangeably. Before word-processing programs were
widely available, writers would underline certain words to indicate to publishers to italicize
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whatever was underlined. Although the general trend has been moving toward italicizing instead
of underlining, you should remain consistent with your choice throughout your paper. To be safe,
you could check with your teacher to find out which he/she prefers. Italicize the titles of magazines,
books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays of three or more
acts, operas, musical albums, works of art, websites, and individual trains, planes, or ships.
Time
Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
The Metamorphosis of Narcissus by Salvador Dali
Amazon.com
Titanic
Italicize foreign words.
Semper fi, the motto of the U.S. Marine Corps, means “always faithful.”
Italicize a word or phrase to add emphasis.
The truth is of utmost concern!
Italicize a word when referring to that word.
The word justice is often misunderstood and therefore misused.
Hyphen
Two words brought together as a compound may be written separately, written as one word, or
connected by hyphens. For example, three modern dictionaries all have the same listings for the
following compounds:
hair stylist
hairsplitter
hair-raiser
Another modern dictionary, however, lists hairstylist, not hair stylist. Compounding is obviously in
a state of flux, and authorities do not always agree in all cases, but the uses of the hyphen offered
here are generally agreed upon.
1. Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:
a one-way street
chocolate-covered peanuts
well-known author
However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:
The peanuts were chocolate covered.
The author was well known.
4. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect; between a
prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters:
5. Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary, and make the break only between
syllables:
pref-er-ence
sell-ing
in-di-vid-u-al-ist
6. For line breaks, divide already hyphenated words only at the hyphen:
mass-
produced
Apostrophe
The apostrophe has three uses:
• to form possessives of nouns
• to show the omission of letters
• to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters
my brother-in-law’s money
• add ’s to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:
Todd and Anne’s apartment
show possession — they don’t need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are all possessive
pronouns. Here are some examples:
wrong: his’ book
correct: his book
wrong: The group made it’s decision.
correct: The group made its decision.
(Note: Its and it’s are not the same thing. It’s is a contraction for “it is” and its is a possessive
pronoun meaning “belonging to it.” It’s raining out= it is raining out. A simple way to remember this
rule is the fact that you don’t use an apostrophe for the possessive his or hers, so don’t do it with
its!)
wrong: a friend of yours’
correct: a friend of yours
Ellipsis
An ellipsis (a row of three dots: ...) must be used whenever anything is omitted from within a quoted
passage—word, phrase, line, or paragraph-- regardless of its source or use. It would, therefore,
apply to all usage, including technical, non-technical, medical, journalistic, fiction, etc. The usual
form is a “bare” ellipsis (just the three dots, preceded and followed by a space), although the MLA
Handbook for Writers of Research Papers recommends that the writer enclose an ellipsis in brackets
[...] when omitting part of an original quotation, to differentiate instances of deleted text from
ellipses included in the original text. In all cases, the entire quoted passage, including ellipses, is
preceded and followed by quotation marks and the source properly cited.
Two things to consider: 1) using ellipses is a form of “editing” the source material, so be certain
Brackets
Brackets are most often used to clarify the meaning of quoted material. If the context of your
quote might be unclear, you may add a few words to provide clarity. Enclose the added material in
brackets.
Added Material: The quarterback told the reporter, “It’s quite simple. They [the other team] played a
better game, scored more points, and that’s why we lost.”