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Geological Society, London, Special Publications

The Cenomanian-Turonian Oceanic Anoxic Event, II.


Palaeoceanographic controls on organic-matter production and
preservation
M. A. Arthur, S. O. Schlanger and H. C. Jenkyns

Geological Society, London, Special Publications 1987; v. 26; p. 401-420


doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1987.026.01.25

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© 1987 Geological Society of


London
The Cenomanian-Turonian Oceanic Anoxic Event, II.
Palaeoceanographic controls on organic-matter production
and preservation

M. A. Arthur, S. O. Schlanger & H. C. Jenkyns

S U M M A R Y: Correlation of the 613C spike with the well dated occurrences of strata rich
in organic carbon detailed in Schlanger et al. (this volume), indicates that a global episode of
intense organic carbon (orgC) burial took place during the latest Cenomanian-earliest
Turonian 'Oceanic Anoxic Event' (OAE) (A. plenus through 1. labiatus macrofossil zones and
upper R. cushmani TRZ through W. archecretacea PRZ foraminiferal zones) over a period of
no more than 1 million years (m.y.). The shape of the 0' 3C curve indicates that rates oforgC
burial gradually increased in the early part of the late Cenomanian, increased more rapidly
in the later Cenomanian, and levelled off at peak values in latest Cenomanian-early Turonian
time during the maximum rate of orgC burial. The 013C values decreased nearly to pre-late
Cenomanian levels in the early to middle Turonian. The decrease in 0' 3C reflects decreasing
rates of orgC burial following the Cenomanian Turonian 'oceanic anoxic event' as well as
the probable oxidation and return of significant amounts of orgC to the oceans following
regression and re-oxygenation of much of the deeper water masses in contact with the
seafloor.
The Cenomanian-Turonian OAE coincided with a maximum sea level highstand. We
suggest that sea level, which may be responding to some volcano-tectonic event, is the
common link and ultimately the driving force for orgC deposition in globally distributed
basins under different climatic and ocean circulation regimes. The rate of production of
warm, saline deep water may have been proportional to the area of shelf flooding such that
the maximum occurred near the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary. As rates of deep-water
formation increased, rates of upwelling of deeper oceanic water masses must also have
increased thereby increasing sea-surface fertility and productivity. In somewhat restricted
higher latitude basins, such as the Cretaceous Interior Seaway of North America, periodic
high rates of freshwater runoff coupled with deepening seas during the transgression created
periodic salinity stratification, oxygen depletion in bottom waters, and resultant enhanced
orgC preservation.
The disappearance of some types of keeled planktonic foraminifers and ammonites at the
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary is probably due to the rather sudden but short-term
disappearance of suitable shallow midwater habitats because of widespread severe oxygen
depletion in these levels. This interpretation is strengthened by the occurrence of benthic-
free zones or depauperate benthic faunas near the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary in many
localities.

Introduction c a r b o n a c e o u s strata was t e r m e d the C e n o m a n -


i a n - T u r o n i a n ' O c e a n i c Anoxic E v e n t ' (OAE) by
In a c o m p a n i o n p a p e r in this volume (Schlanger Schlanger and J e n k y n s (1976).
et al., 1987), we have presented lithological, T h e term ' O A E ' , w h i c h has now b e c o m e
biostratigr/tphical, and g e o c h e m i c a l data from ensconced in the literature, was not m e a n t to
five continents and several m a j o r o c e a n basins imply that anoxic conditions existed t h r o u g h o u t
w h i c h d e m o n s t r a t e that a significant short-term, the global oceanic w a t e r column or even that
global, m a r i n e organic c a r b o n (orgC) burial event organic carbon burial took place in every m a r i n e
occurred during the Middle Cretaceous (Fig. 1). section during the event. We consider the term
This episode of e n h a n c e d orgC burial took place O A E as a useful way of referring to t i m e - b o u n d e d
in conjunction with a m a j o r but relatively brief envelopes of particularly, perhaps more globally,
global sea level rise during late C e n o m a n i a n - w i d e s p r e a d deposition o f orgC-rich s e d i m e n t
e a r l y T u r o n i a n time, but the m a i n interval of (black shale) in m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s .
increased orgC burial rates on continental mar- Our aim in this p a p e r is to present a m o d e l for
gins and in epicontinental seas probably occurred the origin of the C e n o m a n i a n - T u r o n i a n ' O A E '
over a period of less than 1 m.y. during m a x i m u m w h i c h integrates regional and p a l a e o d e p t h vari-
transgression in latest C e n o m a n i a n - e a r l i e s t Tu- ations in the a m o u n t s and types oforgC preserved
ronian time. This episode of deposition of in C e n o m a n i a n - T u r o n i a n m a r i n e strata with

From: BROOKS,J. & FLEET,A. J. (eds) 1987, Marine Petroleum Source Rocks 4oi
Geological Society Special Publication No. 26 pp. 401-420.
402 M. A. Arthur, S. O. Schlanger & H. C. Jenkyns

'::"'Ji..- 4":
..
.... : :
o.,
..-,

..... 9 ,,,-~ ::::..


. . . . .

.:,:.:.:-i.:.i.:.:.:.:':'i':':'i':'.'. ,
.... .:.:.:,:.:.:.:,:.:.:.:.:,:.:.:.:.:.:..:.:.. , ,..:.
9 ~ -. - -,-, ,,.,,,,,,.,,-,. ~ :. : j

. ......:.:.:.:.:..... ..:.::iil
9 C A R B O N - R I C H BEDS
O B E N T H I C - F R E E BEDS '~
CENOMANIAN/TURONIAN

C O A S T A L UP WEL LI N G'!I::.:::::.:.

i::-.
....

~!!iii!i:.
. ,... ,.

.~.::"'"'" . . ...

FIG. 1. Predicted areas of upwelling for the mid-Cretaceous (from E. J. Barron, pets. comm. ; based on results of
modelling using the NCAR Community Climate Model) plotted on a Cenomanian-Turonian palaeocontinental
reconstruction (see Schlanger et al., ! 987). Different shadings represent types or intensity of upwelling. Black
dots are known organic carbon-rich Cenomanian-Turonian localities (from Schlanger et al., 1987) with the
inclusion of additional North Atlantic Deep Sea Drilling Project Sites (see Fig. 2).

related changes in sea level, climate and palae- hydrocarbon exploration. Prediction of the stra-
oceanography. The model involves feedback tigraphic distribution and organic richness of
between volcano-tectonic events, sea level, cli- hydrocarbon source beds in sedimentary basins
mate, and consequent changes in the develop- is a fundamental goal of such modelling. Ob-
ment of oceanic surface- and deep-water masses. viously, Cretaceous sequences are a major poten-
The changing density stratification and rates of tial and actual hydrocarbon source-bed interval
deep-water production are probably responsible (Irving et al. 1974; Moody 1975; Arthur &
for an increase in the nutrient supply and Schlanger 1979; Tissot 1979; North 1979; Bois et
concommitant surface biological productivity in al. 1980) and are therefore of prime interest to
some regions while promoting intensification of explorationists and researchers alike.
the midwater oxygen-minimum zone and en-
hanced preservation of orgC as well. In some
regions, characterized by humid climates and
high rates of fresh-water runoff, rising sea level Timing of Cenomanian-Turonian
apparently led to the episodic development of events and the duration of the
salinity-stratified water masses with consequent
oxygen-depletion in the lower part of the water primary organic-carbon burial
column. OrgC preservation could thus be en- episode
hanced with or without increases in surface
productivity in such circumstances. Schlanger et al. (198.7) presented evidence for the
The recognition, understanding, and modelling biostratigraphic correlation of 'black shale' beds
of OAEs is important both for the understanding or orgC-rich strata and additional evidence for
of the relationship between tectonic events, sea the important carbon isotope excursion (Scholle
level, ocean circulation and chemistry, and for & Arthur 1980) in marine sediments of Cenoman-
The Cenomanian-Turonian OAE, H 403
ian-Turonian age in a large part of the world. It patterns, therefore occurred in less than 1 m.y.
appears that the important orgC burial event and However, there may be some age pattern to the
the maximum of the correlative positive & 1 3 C partitioning of orgC preservation in deep vs.
'spike' occurred in most intermediate and shallow shallow water sites (Fig. 2) which suggests a
water depositional sites within the Whiteinella slightly longer-term overall OAE, provides con-
archeocretacea P R Z at the Cenomanian-Turon- straints on models for the origin of the OAE, and
ian boundary transition, although the trend may help to explain the pattern of global &13C
towards more positive 51ac values probably variations during the mid-Cretaceous.
began some time in the late Cenomanian. Nearly Because the lithology of the C e n o m a n i a n -
all orgC-rich beds in N W Europe are confined to Turonian organic-carbon rich strata commonly
the interval Actinocamax plenus through Inocera- differs from enclosing sedimentary rocks, it is
mus labiatus (latest Cenomanian through earliest important to gauge the relative rates of accumu-
Turonian) and mainly within the W. archeocre- lation of the orgC-rich interval, particularly
tacea P R Z on a global basis. because orgC preservation may be, in part, a
The planktonic foraminiferal Whiteinella ar- function of sedimentation rate (e.g. Mfiller &
cheocretacea P R Z probably represents less than 1 Suess 1979). Some independent estimates of the
m.y. in absolute time (see Fig. 3, Schlanger et al. duration of the orgC-rich episode are available
1986); most of the orgC-rich layers, which are from a few sequences. In the Umbrian Apen-
generally calcareous shales or marlstones and nines, central Italy, the so-called Bonarelli hori-
commonly, but not always, contain significant zon is a particularly orgC- and radiolarian-rich
amounts of radiolarian tests, occupy less than black shale bed (up to 23% orgC) with a maximum
half of that interval. The peak 9organic-carbon thickness of 1 metre. Arthur (1979a) and Arthur
burial event, as indicated by orgC and 613C and Premoli Silva (1982) estimated a possible

W. N. A T L A N T I C E. N. A T L A N T I C

I SITE 105 SITE 387 I I SITE 551 SITE 367 PELAGIC SHALLOW
SITE 386 SITE 398 SITE 138
MARINE SEQUENCES
h= =n|===nj |lll|Illlll lmlulum I 11 i lal ~ |i ILLJ

89,
U

90. M ~ [ < 1 M/MY] [<1-4 M/MY]


m I- [2 M/MY] [--1 M / M Y ?]

L i [ ? I OrgC
........ [<1~ Enrichment
9 i
91. ......_~...-.,,.!!~;~2~.t"~. .,_ and
.... ~ r~ ~ ~, ~ 0 ; ~ , _ .~
613 C
t"-
I
l ~~ _ ~ ~, _ o Event

92, U --~ [< 1 M/MY]


,,r
g

94 lU'I'UUml
0 5 913

PERCENT ORGANIC CARBON ~

9 NOTE: scale change above 5%


[< 1 M/MY) average sedimentation rates
9-" OrgC > 15%

FIG. 2. North Atlantic DSDP Sites which recovered known Cenomanian-Turonian age sediments. Stratigraphy
revised by de Graciansky et al. (1982). Organic carbon data from relevant DSDP Initial Reports and other
sources; note scale change above 5% orgC. Sample locations approximate in time framework on basis of
interpolation of average sedimentation rates (shown in brackets). Turonian data are usually lacking because
sediments are slowly deposited red clays. Note age comparison with black, orgC-rich beds in pelagic shallow-
marine sequences.
4O4 M . A. Arthur, S. O. Schlanger & H. C. Jenkyns

duration of 200,000 y to 600,000 y for the deposi- sequence (C. Wood, pers. comm.) multiple orgC
tion of the Bonarelli bed, using the van Hinte preservation events may be condensed into one
(1976) timescale, on the basis of varve thickness horizon (see discussion in Schlanger et al. 1987).
and on the assumption that A1 and Ti accumula- Some of the implications of this periodic devel-
tion rates did not change from those in adjacent opment of orgC-rich layers in many sequences
pelagic limestones stratigraphically above and near the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary are
below. Sliter and Premoli Silva (pers. comm.), discussed below.
have reinvestigated the planktonic foraminiferal We conclude from the above arguments that
biostratigraphy of the Gubbio sequence near the the maximum development o f the OAE took
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary and suggest place during an interval of about 500,000 y in
that the W. archeocretacea PRZ (perhaps 1 m.y. shallow epicontinental seas and along somewhat
duration) is about 8 m thick there; the Bonarelli deeper continental slopes and margins (i.e.,
horizon falls in the middle of that interval. On Gubbio estimated palaeodepth is 1-2 km; Arthur
the basis of that conclusion, a duration of & Premoli Silva 1982). However, in coastal
enhanced orgC preservation from 150-500 thou- upwelling zones, such a development might
sand years is possible. appear more prolonged because of relatively
Relatively high orgC contents also occur within higher pre-existing productivity and probably
the Cenomanian-Turonian Bridge Creek Lime- well developed midwater oxygen-minimum zones
stone member of the Greenhorn Formation in in those areas. Some predicted areas of wind-
the Western Interior of the U.S. (see Pratt, 1984; driven upwelling for the mid-Cretaceous are
Schlangeretal. 1987, Fig. 16). The highest values, shown in Figure 1 (from information supplied by
up t o 7 ~ orgC, occur in somewhat bioturbated to E. J. Barron, pers. comm., using the Community
laminated dark marlstone intervals (tens of cm Climate Model at N C A R as described in Barron
thick) which are interbedded with highly biotur- & Washington 1983). A substantial number of
bated, light-coloured pelagic limestone beds the known orgC-rich beds do occur in areas of
having orgC contents of generally less than predicted upwelling as suggested by Parrish and
0.5 wt. ~. Fischer (1980) has argued on the basis Curtis (1982). In the shallowest palaeoenviron-
of a variety of evidence that individual marlstone- ments, the maximum development of the OAE
limestone couplets represent about 40,000 y (us- was synchronous with the apparent maximum of
ing an adaptation of the Obradovich and Cobban the Cenomanian-Turonian transgression (Figs.
(1975) timescale for the Western Interior U.S. 3 and 4). However, in the deep North Atlantic,
modified by Kauffman, 1977; see also Barron et the OAE appears to have begun somewhat earlier
al. 1985). There are about 16 such couplets within (Fig. 2), perhaps beginning in early Late Ceno-
the orgC maximum of the Bridge Creek Lime- manian time (data of de Graciansky et al. 1982).
stone; therefore, it appears that the duration of The precise dating of the Mid-Cretaceous
the Cenomanian-Turonian OAE in the Western portion of many of the deeper North Atlantic
Interior U.S. was on the order of 600,000- DSDP sites is difficult because of a shallow
700,000 y. Similar conclusions can be made for carbonate compensation depth (CCD) (e.g.
the Danish North Sea section where about 16 Thierstein, 1979; Tucholke and Vogt, 1979);
thin black shale horizons occur over 4 m of calcareous faunal and floral elements which
section, at the Wfinstorf (Germany) locality provide the best stratigraphic resolution are
where as many as 23 black, relatively orgC-rich generally absent. In a synthesis of DSDP North
beds occur in a 20 m section, and at the Oued Atlantic Cretaceous litho- and biostratigraphy,
Bahloul section in Tunisia which has a similar de Graciansky et al. (1982) have shown that by
number of laminated, orgC-rich intervals within middle Cenomanian time, sedimentation rates
a 20 m interval at the Cenomanian-Turonian were reduced at most sites to less than 1 m/m.y.
boundary (see sections in Schlanger et al., 1987). At many DSDP sites, the upper Cenomanian and
In each case, the number of layers and duration later section is either missing in a major hiatus
of the deposition inferred from average sedimen- (due to nondeposition or to later erosion) or
tation rates are nearly the same. De Boer (1982) extremely condensed (see also Hart 1980). A few
has even suggested that as many as 28 depositional of the deeper DSDP sites (105, 138,367, 386, 387,
cycles (black shale-radiolarite couplets represent- 398) recovered red and green clays of middle and
ing 20,000 y cycles) may be distinguished within late Cenomanian-possibly early Turonian age.
the Bonarelli horizon at Moria, Italy, although Enrichment in orgC occurs in these sites near the
the origin of these cycles is not clear. The 'Black base of this unit, probably in the mid- to late
Band' of Yorkshire is very thin and exhibits no Cenomanian. The organic carbon occurs in thin
obvious cyclic development, but because it occurs ( < 10 cm) beds (of which there may be from one
in a generally condensed interval in the chalk to several) in these sites, with orgC values of up
The C e n o m a n i a n - T u r o n i a n O A E , H 405
| | 9 @ |
DISSOLVED
AGE/STAGE RELATIVE 613C MARINE MODELLED ORG C CARBON
SEA LEVEL CaC03 I BURIAL RATE FLUX TO OCEAN
88~ . . ~ ~
CONIACIAN

89-- T i r..
U L
R ~ I ".
POSSIBLE I "',
0 ~:i:.:::':~-.~, FLUX CHANGES" "
90-- N
I
M
\ I-
9 A
N E
": ORG C ::::. ,
91
~:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.-
C ~r ~.... . I
9 E ~ Z "" I ' P - - ESTIMATED
N ~s "" I MODERNFLUX
92-- 0 L -,
M
9 A
N
93-- I 1
/i CENOMANIAN I~
A I! BASELINE r.
9 N M i I:
94~ * * L _ L ~ ~ J ~ _ J i | i I I~a I j
T 3 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 4 5 6

0/0o PDB x 1013 x 1013


moles orgC/y moles o r g C / y

FIG. 3. Comparison of relative ages of !: .J Cenomanian-Turonian transgression (B), 613C of pelagic marine
carbonates (C) (see Scholle & Arthur 1980; Schlanger et al. 1987), and (D) a model for orgC depositional rate
based on (C) and the methods outlined in text; (E) is a speculative curve illustrating possible variations in
dissolved carbon input to the oceans as the result of changes in shelf area. Absolute values are for reference; only
extent of relative changes are implied.

to 14~ in the Western Atlantic basin, 2 2 ~ in the The carbon-isotope record and
Eastern basin and 8}/o at Site 398 in the northern
North Atlantic (see Fig. 1 for locations). We
patterns of marine organic-carbon
suggest that all of the supposed mid-to-late burial
Cenomanian orgC enrichments at North Atlantic
D S D P Sites shown in Figure 2 may be coeval and A positive excursion in 613C of pelagic carbonates
are possibly of latest Cenomanian age. Accumu- and calcareous fossils across the C e n o m a n i a n -
lation rates and values of orgC in W. North Turonian boundary was first reported by Scholle
Atlantic D S D P sites are higher over a brief and Arthur (1980). The increase in 613C was
interval of the late Cenomanian than those for proposed to reflect directly changes in the 613C
some 5-10 m.y. before and for 30-40 m.y. after of oceanic total dissolved carbon (TDC) because
this period (e.g. Summerhayes & Masran 1983; of an increase in the burial ratio oforgC to CaCO3
Arthur & Dean 1986). D S D P Site 530 in the in marine sequences during the C e n o m a n i a n -
South Atlantic (Angola Basin) also exhibits a Turonian OAE. Our subsequent studies have
pattern of orgC enrichment which suggests a documented both the global nature of the Ceno-
maximum near the Cenomanian-Turonian manian-Turonian 613C excursion and the occur-
boundary within a predominantly red clay section rence of org-rich horizons in many pelagic chalk
(Dean et al. 1984). Schlanger et al. (1986) have and limestone sequences (Schlanger et al. 1987).
already discussed the timing of orgC-rich layers Because of the difficulty in calculating global
in three mid-Pacific D S D P sites (late Cenoman- orgC burial rates using actual orgC concentrations
ian-earliest Turonian). The possible slightly from the studied sequences, we will here use the
greater age of orgC-rich layers in deeper N. 613C record as a proxy indicator of changes in
Atlantic sites, as opposed to a probable early rates of orgC burial and input of carbon to the
Turonian age at shallower sites, is, however, not oceans in conjunction with observations of
contradictory to our suggested model, as w e patterns in orgC contents of selected marine
discuss later. sequences.
406 M. A. Arthur, S. O. Schlanger & H. C. Jenkyns
The basic elements of modelling variations in 0~= 23~ is the mean difference in 613C between
613C as changes in rates oforgC burial in marine marine orgC and CaCO 3,
sequences and the assumptions therein have been and C13 and 63 are the flux rate and 613C of
outlined by a number of workers, including carbon leaving the ocean reservoir per unit time.
Schidlowski et al. (1977), Garrels & Lerman Estimates for the relevant masses and isotopic
(1981), and Berner & Raiswell (1983). In most compositions of carbon in various reservoirs and
simple models, it is assumed that the mass and fluxes for the present-day carbon cycle used in
isotopic composition of the flux of dissolved our modelling (compiled from many sources as
carbon to the oceans from rivers is constant shown) are given in Table 1. The idealized 613C
through time and that the fluctuations in 613C of curve, compiled from available data given in
oceanic T D C inferred from the 6~3C CaCO3 Schlanger et al. (1987) is shown in Figure 3.
record are due entirely to changes in the propor- Estimates of the present orgC burial rate in
tion of carbon buried as orgC and as CaCO3 marine strata are quite variable. For the purposes
(transfer of carbon from CaCO3 to orgC reser- of our calculations we have adopted the approxi-
voir). In such models, the total amount of carbon mate value of Berner (1982) which is about a
extracted from the oceanic reservoir and buried factor of 3 larger than that adopted by Garrels
cannot exceed the input from external sources and Lerman (1981) and that accepted by Berner
such that the mass of oceanic T D C does not vary. et al. (1983).
In our modelling, we maintain constancy of the The 613C c~co~ values initially appear to rise
mass of oceanic TDC, although this may be a slowly in the late Cenomanian from a base level
somewhat unrealistic assumption. We also as- of about +2.~ within the early-to middle-late
sume constant mass and carbon-isotopic compo- Cenomanian (ca. 92.5 m.y.B.P, according to the
sition of the riverine (and atmospheric exchange) timescale adopted in Schlanger et al. 1986). The
flux of dissolved carbon to the oceans during the average rate of rise during that time is about 1%0/
Cenomanian-Turonian as a further constraint on m.y. The 6~3C rise probably represents an
the model. As we suggest later, however, the increase in the rate of burial of orgC of about
latter assumption is probably not valid because 0.25 x l013 moles oforgC/y or an estimated 20%
variations in the dissolved carbon flux to the increase over today's steady-state orgC burial rate
oceans occur as the result of changes in climate, (Table 1). The peak rate of 613C rise during latest
sea level, and continental area (e.g. Berner et al., Cenomanian-early Turonian time was at least
1983). Nonetheless, the modelling provides some 2~ (increasing over 1%o from 91.5-91 m.y.
insights into changing rates of total orgC burial BI'). The peak 6~3C value represents an orgC
across the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary. burial rate of about 1.93 x 1014 moles orgC/y or
The equations used are of the form: about 40% higher than today's rate. The (~13C rise
d61 apparently levels off between 91 and 90.5 m.y.
C1 ~ = 64C41 - ((~3 - 00C 12 -- 63C13 during earliest Turonian time. This suggests that
orgC burial rates remained nearly constant at
and C41 = C12 -It-C13 peak rates during the peak of the 'anoxic event'.
Where: Integrating the estimated excess orgC deposited
C1 and 61 are the mass and •13C of the oceanic over the approximately 2 m.y. period gives us a
T D C reservoir, total of 9 x 10 TM moles of excess orgC (over the
C41 and 64 are the mass and 613C of the Cretaceous average or late Cenomanian 'back-
riverine T D C flux to the oceans per unit time, ground') buried as the result of the C e n o m a n i a n -
C12 is the flux oforgC from the ocean reservoir Turonian OAE.
per unit time,

TABLE 1. Masses andfluxes of carbon in the modern marine system*

Flux or reservoir Mass or rate Average 613C %o

Ocean total dissolved carbon 350 • 10I~ g 0


Organic carbon burial 1.57• 101~g/y -21
(corrected for diagenetic loss) 1.26 x 10TM g/y
Marine carbonate burial 5.04 x 10TM g/y +0.5
(estimated ca. 4 x orgC burial)
Dissolved carbon flux to oceans 6.30• 101~ g/y -3.7
* Data sources in text.
The Cenomanian-Turonian OAE, H 407
The record oforgC burial, inferred from secular 35
changes in carbonate 613C, agrees well with the
stratigraphic distribution of orgC in marine
sequences. The majority of shallow shelf sea e~E
30-
sections studies have orgC contents less than 0.5~ %
during most of the Cenomanian. Higher orgC v--

contents in shelf 'black shale' facies occur in the o~


uppermost Cenomanian-lower Turonian (see ,,<, 25.
30 - 9 0 ~
Schlanger et al. 1987, for details) at the time of cO
LATITUDE
peak 613C values. The relatively slow late
I-
Cenomanian 613C increase may have been caused z

by increased rates oforgC accumulation in deeper 20.

water environments, as seen, for example, in


many North Atlantic DSDP sites. At the peak of 8
the orgC burial event, rates oforgC accumulation
(see Table 2) are estimated to have been 0.53 •
~ ' ,,^ \ \.\

10- 5 moles orgC/cm2/y at Gubbio in the Bonarelli


horizon, 0.30• 10 -5 moles orgC/cm2/y in the
Western Interior Seaway of North America, 10-
tO
3.3• 10 -5 moles orgC/cm2/y in the Bahloul 0 - 30 ~
LATITUDE
Formation of Tunisia, and 0.52• 10 -5 moles
orgC/cm2/y in the black shale facies of Northern
Germany. Adopting a value of 1.0 x 10 -5 moles
orgC/cm2/y for the mean orgC accumulation rate
in Cenomanian-Turonian pelagic shelf se-
quences and extrapolating over about 50% of the i lU " 9 . . . . 9 " i i i I
approximate area of shelf seas for the early 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Turonian (Fig. 4), the calculated orgC burial rate
is 0.14 x 1013 moles/y. Available data from many AGE MYBP

sequences also suggest that the majority of the


orgC preserved in pelagic sequences during the FIG. 4. Changes in shelf and epicontinental sea area
for low latitude (0-40': N and S) and high latitude (40-
Cenomanian-Turonian OAE consisted of amor- 90: N and S) regions during the Cretaceous and
phous marine organic matter (e.g. Summerhayes Cenozoic. The basis for this figure is the planimetered
1981; de Graciansky et al. 1982; Arthur & areas of flooding (Brass et al., 1982; dots) from the
Premoli Silva 1982; Van Graas et al. 1983; palaeoreconstructions of Barron et al. (1981) with
Moberly, Schlanger et al. 1983; Schlanger et al. added interpolation from relative sea level changes.
1987). The estimate of the increase in orgC burial
rate at the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary in
pelagic shelf sequences from analysis of selected and deep-sea environments (e.g. Arthur 1982;
sequences discussed above is greater than 25% of Arthur & Dean 1986; see Table 2). The calculated
the total increase in the orgC burial rate estimated pelagic-carbonate shelf orgC burial rate at the
from modelling of the 613C excursion. This result Cenomanian-Turonian boundary is nearly equiv-
is of interest because the remainder of the orgC alent to the estimated total orgC burial rate for
burial rate increase can easily be accounted for today's deep-sea and shelf areas (not influenced
by increases in the rate of orgC burial in slope by rivers) combined, which together encompass

TABLE 2. Calculated orgC accumulation rates at the Cenomanian-Turonian


boundary*
Locality AverageorgC Density Thickness Duration orgC Accum.
rate

% g/cc cm ky moles/cm-'/y
Gubbio, Italy 12 2.1 100 400 5.3 x 10 -6
Bahloul, Tunisia 4 2.3 2600 600 33.0 x 10 -6
Wfinstorf, Germany 1 2.1 1800 600 5.2 x l0 -6
Pueblo, Colorado 1 2.1 1000 600 3.0 • 10 -6

* Data from Schlanger et al. (1987) and unpublished data.


408 M. A. Arthur, S. O. Schlanger & H. C. Jenkyns
an area at least 15 times as large (cf. Berner 1982) oxidation and erosion of orgC and associated
than that used in the calculation of Cretaceous nutrient elements during the subsequent lowstand
rates. We assume for the purposes of this paper of sea level may have allowed a reasonably rapid
that the rate of orgC burial in deltaic-shelf return of nutrients to the sea.
environments at the Cenomanian-Turonian In this section, we have considered only a more
boundary was equivalent to that estimated for or less direct interpretation of the orgC burial
these regions today, although it is possible that record associated with the Cenomanian-Turon-
rates were even higher. ian OAE. A model which attempts to explain the
As described above, the maximum rate oforgC global nature of the event is presented below.
burial and the peak of 6~3C values apparently
coincide with maxima in sea level and shelf-sea
area in the early Turonian. By the late Turonian,
the area of shelf seas had declined to a minimum Sea level, climate and
(Fig. 4) as the result of an apparent rapid palaeocirculation
regression which began in the late-early Turon-
Jan. Evidence from most pelagic sequences in all
An open ocean model
major ocean basins suggests that enhanced orgC
deposition ceased in the early Turonian. Red clay Brass et al. (1982) have suggested that during
deposition or hiatuses in the post-late Cenoman- globally warm, equable climatic episodes, such
Jan interval occur in the deepest North and South as existed during much of Mesozoic-early Paleo-
Atlantic sequences penetrated in DSDP sites gene time, the mode of oceanic bottom water
(e.g. Arthur 1979b; Arthur & Natland 1979; de formation may have been quite different from
Graciansky et al. 1982) and oxidized bioturbated that of today. They propose that in the absence
chalk or marl sequences are typical of post- of formation of cold polar deep-water masses,
earliest Turonian shallow to intermediate depth warm saline water may have become the major
pelagic environments (e.g. Hancock 1975). The bottom water source. Such warm, saline bottom
6~3C curve shows a rapid return to 613C values water (WSBW) is suggested to have formed on
of about + 2 parts per thousand within about 0.5- low-latitude shelves or in more isolated Mediter-
1.5 m.y. following the maximum in the early ranean seas characterized by a negative water
Turonian. The rapid rate of 6~aC decrease (1 to balance (evaporation > precipitation+inflow).
2% per m.y.) could have resulted from two A variation of this idea was originally proposed
possible effects: by Chamberlain (1906) and later discussed by
(1) a pronounced decrease in the rate of orgC Roth (1978), Thierstein & Berger (1978), and
burial; and Arthur & Natland (1979).
(2) an increase in the rate of supply ofisotopically The important constraint provided by the
light carbon to the ocean. WSBW model proposed by Brass et al. (1982) is
Mechanism (1) above is plausible, but the rate of that although very dense water may be produced
decline of 613C is very rapid and requires a nearly locally, the 'buoyancy flux" (the volume produced
30% reduction in the orgC burial rate. A more times the density difference between the sinking
plausible explanation of the very fast 61~C plume and ambient interior water masses) deter-
decrease is that the orgC burial rate decreased mines what will actually become the major deep-
while an increase in the flux of isotopically light water mass in the oceans. The model incorporates
carbon to the oceans occurred. A drop in sea a plume of sinking water which is allowed to mix
level, re-exposure of shallow water depositional at turbulent boundaries with ambient water
sites, and better oxygenation of former poorly masses, thereby modifying original characteris-
oxygenated depositional environments would tics of the plume. Therefore, only larger volume
have led to erosion and/or oxidation and a return plumes of greater density contrast will maintain
to the ocean reservoir of some orgC initially their integrity and sink to become a distinct
preserved during the Cenomanian-Turonian bottom water mass. Brass et al. (1982) suggest
OAE. This sequence of events is shown schemat- that rates of bottom water production may be
ically in Figure 5. modulated by a low-latitude shelf area which is
Therefore, there is a form of feedback mecha- determined by sea level and continental hypso-
nism which allows fairly rapid recycling of some metry. The buoyancy flux of warm, saline low-
proportion of nutrients and carbon sequestered latitude surface waters sinking to become deep-
during a short-term OAE. Overall oceanic fertility water masses would effectively increase during
must have declined following the rapid orgC transgressions. In essence, the rates of bottom
burial event because of the concomitant extrac- water production and overturn of deep-water
tion of nutrients. However, increased rates of masses during such periods of high sea level could
The Cenomanian-Turonian OAE, H 4o9

(~MID CENOMANIAN 1 6 1 3 C C A C 0 3 == +2 o / o o )

DISSOLVED 02
low surface productivity j
0
[~'~moderate
1- ~ nutrient
\ content, . . . . . .. -. . .. " " :~/ sediment

2-
3-
iovertur
n
| low rate of

.: ", : , . ' . ' . ' >CcD"I : " ~ : ~ ' m ' " nanno ooze
4-
9' " ~ brown clay
5 [ 1 i i i
0 2 4 6
mill

(~CENOMANIAN/TURONIAN (613CcacO 3== +4 o / o o )

high surface productivity


0

1- content ,ositlon of

2-
.............
3-
..P- ~- .+- ?--~--
~
-.+-6 c 6-4-r ~ e-~-
- ~ ..............
--~ -4- .1- - - 77

:ontent, ~ I .~rincreased rates of prO~duction of"


4- =igh rate of~ I ~ warm, saline bottom-water

5 r brown clay with local orgC-rich layers


2 4 6 (possibly redeposited)

(~) MID TURONIAN (~13CCaC03 = +2 o / o o )


shelf erosion/oxidation
low surface productivity J..~7-/-/'~.of earlier deposited
o ~ o r g C
}~!~i~~i~i~i:~:i~i~i~i~i~;~~i~i~i~i~ii~i ~'~~'~ ~' i~i~m'u~ ~i ;~ e~ i~i!i~~ ~ ~~ ~:~:~~:~ ~~~ " ~....
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: OCal depositlon
.......... ~"""'~i .............................. ""~ ....................~ " ~ " ~ " ~ ~ ......... ~ / l J ~ ' ~ f orgC-rich
." ,",'" "" .'", ":'.
9 ~ i__ -"'-.'. i /,/'/: sediment
2-

3-

4
overturn I " " ' ~ brown clay

0 2 4

FIG. 5. Diagrammatic history of deep-water circulation and productivity for (A) the mid Cenomanian; (B) the
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary; and (C) the mid Turonian. See text for details.

be equivalent to or more rapid than those of today (1982), among many others (e.g. Fischer & Arthur
according to Brass e t al. (1982) and Southam e t 1977; Berger 1979; Arthur e t al. 1984a),
el. (1982). Wilde and Berry (1982) have also have argued that because the solubility of oxygen
proposed a model o f warm, saline deep-water (and other gases) decreases with increasing
mass formation to account for apparent intensi- temperature and salinity, warm, saline water
fication of midwater oxygen-minimum zones at masses, even if sinking at rates equivalent to
times during the Mesozoic, but their model differs deep-water formation today, would advect less
in some details from that of Brass e t el. (1982) in dissolved oxygen to oceanic deep-water masses.
that it incorporates sinking of intermediate to Southern e t el. (1982; 1984) have shown in a
deep-water masses from net evaporation, low- simple one-dimensional model that if WSBW
latitude, open-ocean environments (as suggested was formed, oceanic deep-water oxygen deficits
by Chamberlain, 1906). Brass e t al. (1982), would intensify first at intermediate depths to
Southam e t al. (1982), and Wilde and Berry form a distinct oxygen-minimum zone. The
410 M. A. Arthur, S. O. Schlanger & H. C. Jenkyns

thickness and intensity of oxygen deficits in the sharp Cenomanian-Turonian transgressive epi-
oxygen-minimum zone would depend on the sode, regardless of its origin, and the widespread
average nutrient content of upwelling deep-water orgC burial event (OAE) documented here is not
masses (and surface production of orgC) which fortuitous. We postulate that oceanic deep-water
are displaced surfaceward by sinking deep-water circulation and surface water biological produc-
masses, on the initial dissolved-oxygen content tivity responded to the rapid and pronounced sea
of WSBW and on the rate of WSBW formation. level/shelf area change. The basic elements of
One could even envisage a multilayer deep- our model are shown in Figure 5:
water mass system (e.g. Berger 1979; Wilde &
Berry 1982) for the Cretaceous oceans with (A ) Early to mid-Cenomanian
multiple sources and source strengths. Short- or
longer-term temporal variations in shelf area and During this period low-latitude shelf sea area was
rates of evaporation, connection of open-ocean relatively small (Fig. 4) and the salinity-buoyancy
basins with isolated but potentially large sources flux drive for oceanic deep-water circulation
of saline water such as evaporite basins (e.g. sluggish. Oceanic surface water productivity was
Thierstein & Berger 1978; Arthur & Natland also low, except 9 in regions of wind-driven
1979), or competition for exportation of deep upwelling, because net rates of oceanic overturn
water between potential high- or low-latitude (or were low as the result of the relatively slow rates
even different low-latitude evaporative shelves) of deep-water circulation. Certain shelf areas or
sources could all complicate the more straightfor- the relatively isolated northern South Atlantic
ward models of WSBW discussed above. We basin may have exported WSBW, but we suggest
suggest that such complications did exist and that the buoyancy fluxes were sufficiently small
have incorporated them in our model for the that individual sources were in competition and
origin of the global Cenomanian-Turonian OAE that the rates of WSBW formation were insuffi-
below. cient to oxygenate effectively many semi-re-
Many workers have pointed to an apparent stricted ocean basins. Intermediate water mass
correlation between OAEs and sea level high- formation could, however, have been quite rapid
stands (Schlanger & Jenkyns 1976; Fischer & due to mixing of water masses with sufficient
Arthur 1977; Jenkyns 1980). Figure 4 illustrates density and buoyancy flux to occupy deep but not
approximate changes in the area of shelf and the deepest levels in the ocean. Therefore, bottom-
epicontinental seas from about Aptian through water and intermediate-water circulation could
the Holocene summarized for two latitudinal even have been decoupled. This would have
bands, 0-40 ~ and 40-90 ~ North and South. The allowed sufficient turnover to stimulate surface
dots superimposed on the curves are data from water productivity while allowing bottom waters
time slice palaeogeographic maps (Barron et al. a longer residence time to develop anoxia or low-
1981) which were planimetered and presented by oxygen conditions. Nutrients were allowed to
Brass et al. (1982). The curves represent interpo- build-up in deeper water masses, particularly in
lated areas of shelf and epicontinental seas from somewhat isolated basins, such as the North
analysis of relative sea level curves (e.g. Hancock Atlantic which may also have had a partly
t975; Vail et al. 1977; Hart & Bailey 1979; estuarine-like circulation (e.g. Berger, 1979) with
Hancock & Kauffman 1980). Increased area of nutrients supplied in deep-water inflow from
low-latitude shallow seas is apparent during much other basins. At the same time oxygen deficits
of the mid-Cretaceous in comparison with the developed or persisted (from Aptian-Albian
Cenozoic. In particular, we note a brief transgres- time) in the bottom-water column allowing
sive episode in the late Cenomanian-early Turo- enhanced preservation of orgC in some deep-
nian which substantially increased the area of water environments within laminated clays or
shallow seas relative to the preceding late Albian nannofossil marls (Fig. 2). However, the OrgC
to middle Cenomanian and succeeding mid- contents and accumulation rates (e.g. Arthur &
Turonian-early Coniacian intervals. This exten- Dean 1986) were not exceptionallyhigh, probably
sive late Cenomanian-early Turonian transgres- because of low surface water productivity. Only
sion has been well documented in the Western local upwelling regions along shelf edges or over
Interior Seaway of North America (e.g. Kauff- slopes (i.e. NW Africa; Einsele & Wiedmann,
man 1977), Northwest Europe (Hancock 1975; 1982) were characterized by orgC-rich strata. The
Cooper 1977), and Africa (Van Houten 1980; midwater oxygen-minimum zone was probably
Reyment & M6rner 1977; Matsumoto 1977; best developed in such regions. The carbon-
Einsele & Wiedmann 1982; Petters & Ekweozor isotope curve indicates that orgC burial rates
1982) for example. were low relative to the succeeding Cenomanian-
We believe that the correlation between the Turonian OAE.
The C e n o m a n i a n - T u r o n i a n O A E , H 4 xI

( B) Late Cenomanian-early Turonian water. Both sites are adjacent to predicted areas
of upwelling and high productivity (Fig. 1), but
With the transgression of this period rates of there is insufficient evidence to argue that the
WSBW formation may have increased drasti- deep-water masses were anoxic. Dean et al. (1984)
cally, leading to more rapid overturn of nutrient- and Arthur et al. (1984b) have suggested that
enriched deep waters and stimulating surface much of the organic matter at those sites may
productivity. With the initial burst in production have been redeposited from shallower-water
of orgC, perhaps in a situation where rates of regions of enhanced preservation.
intermediate water-mass formation were initially During the Cenomanian-Turonian transgres-
higher than bottom-water circulation rates, pres- sion the high productivity regions and the top of
ervation of orgC may have been enhanced in the oxygen-minimum zone were carried into shelf
initially deoxygenated deep-water environments. and epicontinental seas in continental interiors;
Such an explanation would account for the this led to periodic development of orgC-rich
somewhat earlier timing of the orgC spike in beds in pelagic-hemipelagic environments in
deep North Atlantic DSDP sites (Fig. 2) than in these shallow seas (see Fig. 1 and Schlanger et al.
slope or shelf settings. At maximum transgres- 1987).
sion, rates of WSBW formation were highest as a
function of the great expense of shallow seas in
highly evaporative settings, surface water pro-
ductivity was high in many regions, and the ( C) Mid- Turonian regression
midwater oxygen-minimum zone was expanded
and intensified. Deep-water environments may During this rapid regression the rates of deep-
have been fully oxygenated in most ocean basins, water formation declined as shelf area decreased.
with the exception of areas under regions of Surface water biological productivity was rela-
highest primary productivity where the oxygen- tively low in most areas because of increased
minimum zone was most intense and impinged deep-water residence time and overall low
on a greater area of the seafloor (e.g. high rates of oceanic fertility as the result of extraction and
nutrient supply along oceanic divergences or burial of nutrients with orgC during the preceding
coastal upwelling zones). Figure 1 shows pre- OAE. Therefore, rates of marine orgC burial (and
dicted upwelling regions for the mid-Cretaceous. r decreased rapidly in the mid- to late
Note that many of the orgC-rich. Cenomanian- Turonian. Erosion and oxidation of previously
Turonian beds occur within predicted areas of deposited marine strata during the Turonian
upwelling; however, most of the same areas that regression may have allowed gradual return of
were marine before and after the Cenomanian- nutrients and dissolved carbon to the oceans.
Turonian transgression were not characterized
by significant orgC-rich intervals other than
during the OAE. Slow accumulation of red clays
occurred at many of the deepest sites in the ocean
(see de Graciansky et al. 1982; Arthur et al. 1984b Restricted basins with positive water balance
for summary) under an elevated carbonate com-
pensation depth (CCD) (e.g. Thierstein 1979) At first glance, it seems difficult to envisage why
during the late Cenomanian-early Turonian. The certain 'black shale' horizons have global distri-
shallow CCD may have been a response to higher bution, particularly because of the widely varying
rates of accumulation of pelagic chalks over a palaeoclimatic-palaeoceanographic settings. As
greater expanse of shelf seas during the overall we have already argued, the major rapid
transgressive episode (e.g. Berger & Winterer transgression at the Cenomanian-Turonian
1974). boundary seems to be the common link between
Several DSDP sites drilled on old crust, and the occurrences oforgC-rich intervals in different
presumably very deep-water sites during the mid- basins. It is unlikely, however, that the postulated
Cretaceous, recovered exceptionally orgC-rich link between low-latitude shelf area, production
intervals at the Cenomanian-Turonian bound- of saline deep water, and sea surface fertility and
ary. Sites 367 in the Eastern North Atlantic and the widespread intensification of midwater oxy-
530 in the Cape Basin (Figs 1 and 2) are good gen deficits can explain the better preservation of
examples. OrgC-rich beds, characterized by marine autochthonous organic matter in shallow
marine amorphous organic matter, occur at the epicontinental seas of all midcontinent regions at
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary in both sites relatively high palaeolatitudes, such as the Cre-
(de Graciansky et al. 1982; Dean et al. 1984 for taceous Western Interior Seaway of North Amer-
details) and were deposited in at least 4 km of ica.
412 M . A . A r t h u r , S. O. S c h l a n g e r & H. C. J e n k y n s

The stratigraphy of the Cretaceous Western lower salinity lid would have formed and the
Interior Seaway of the U.S. has been summarized bottom-water mass would have been isolated
in Kauffman (1977). The Bridge Creek Limestone from gaseous exchange with the atmosphere.
member of the Greenhorn Formation comprises Oxygen could therefore have been gradually
strata deposited at maximum transgression near drawn down during oxidation of orgC falling
the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary. These de- from surface waters, and given a long enough
posits are markedly cyclic (Fischer 1980; Arthur residence time, the bottom waters may have
et al. 1984a; Pratt 1984; Barron et al. 1985) become dysaerobic or anoxic. The gradual elimi-
consisting of alternations of dark, relatively orgC- nation of a burrowing bottom fauna would
rich laminated to burrowed marlstones and light- decrease the rate of consumption of orgC and
coloured, highly bioturbated pelagic limestones. allow for a lower residence time of orgC at the
Organic carbon and carbon isotope data for the sediment/water interface. Low surface-water pro-
Bridge Creek Limestone unit are given in ductivity requires longer isolation of the bottom
Schlanger et al. (1986). The orgC values within water before oxygen is depleted, depending on
the laminated to partly laminated marlstone beds initial 02 concentrations and thickness of the
reach a maximum in the lower Turonian, but the water column. At present, there is no way to
cyclic nature of the lithology and orgC contents ascertain whether productivity changes accom-
suggests periodic changes in environmental con- panied the palaeoenvironmental changes, but
ditions. Such cycles are not seen in immediately outflow of fresh water from fluvial sources may
underlying or overlying strata. Mineralogical, have been accompanied by increased nutrient
oxygen isotope and other geochemical data levels. The marlstone-limestone cycles have an
reported elsewhere (Arthur et al. 1984a; Barron estimated periodicity of 20-40,000y (Fischer
et al. 1985) suggest that major salinity changes in 1980) which would have allowed sufficient time
surface waters played a role in development of (half a cycle) in which to have developed anoxia.
oxygen-deficient bottom-waters and enhanced It is likely that the cyclic stratification represents
organic matter preservation during deposition of periodic alternation of humid and arid climate
the Bridge Creek Limestone. episodes, perhaps driven by insolation changes
The basic model is one of periodic stable water and accompanying orbital variations (Milankov-
mass stratification in a relatively shallow sea with itch-like cycles; e.g. Fischer 1980; Arthur et al.
or without major changes in surface-water pro- 1984a; Barron et al. 1985). The flooding and
ductivity. The relatively high latitude and some- deepening of the seaway during the Cenomanian-
what restricted long, broad seaway probably Turonian transgression may have had the com-
received large amounts of fresh water runoff, bined effect of intensifying rainfall in the region
particularly from uplands to the west (Kauffman (e.g. Barron & Washington 1982a) and allowing
1977). Numerical climatic models of Barron and stable density stratification to occur. In addition,
Washington (1982a, b) and the qualitative models the transgression may also have raised the upper
of Parrish et al. (1982) suggest the possibility of part of a midwater oxygen-minimum zone onto
localized high rainfall along part of the Western the shelf as proposed by Schlanger and Jenkyns
Interior Seaway. In fact, enhanced rates of (1976) and Fischer and Arthur (1977), thereby
evaporation at low latitudes and latent heat aiding in the development of more widespread
transport with water vapour to higher latitudes oxygen-deficiency in the basin.
may have been one way to maintain the warm, The model proposed here to explain the
equable climate of the Cretaceous. High runoff occurrence of multiple laminated 'black shale'
provides the potential for salinity stratification, layers in a basin having a positive water balance
but in seas less shallow than 200 m, low salinity (e.g. Grasshoff 1975) is a refinement of a similar
surface layers may be short lived because of model for Cretaceous black shale deposition
effective wind and wave mixing. Estimates for discussed by Ryan and Cita (1977) by analogy to
the depth of most of the seaway vary, but much explanations for the origin of Pleistocene sapro-
evidence suggests a maximum of 600 m (Kauff- pels in the Mediterranean elaborated upon by
man 1977). However, much of the seaway may Rossignol-Strick et al. (1982) among others.
have been as shallow as 100 m during sea-level Petters and Ekweozor (1982) also have suggested
lowstands. We suggest that the Cenomanian- that development of brackish surface water lids
Turonian transgression increased the possibility aided in creating anoxic conditions and enhanced
of establishing longer-term salinity stratification preservation oforgC in the mid-Cretaceous Benue
because greater water depths (e.g. >200 m) Trough of west Africa.
would allow a multiple layer density stratification. Again, we emphasize that major positive
Such a scheme is illustrated in Figure 6. eustatic sea level changes were probably the
During times of higher freshwater runoff, a driving force for and common link in the origin
The Cenomanian-Turonian OAE, H 413
MAXIMUM TRANSGRESSION
S GREENHORN SEA N
TEXAS W E S T E R N I N T E R I O R U.S. CANADA

TF HYPOTHETICAL
SALINE 1 -- - - -- = ~ _ - - ~ _ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ,I[.-
02 ISOPLETHS
/
.-- ~ / . - - %-
/
~:;:;;~2~::~X~;~lit~i::~
0.2/~i:!::.:.:,....C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . @i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i

"'-, / "~_ ',,_ L~~~:~$~::~:~:~:~::.:;:~:!~:~:~:!:~:!:!:!:~:!:~:!:~::~:~:!:;:~:~:~:~:~:~:~::i;i~i:~!:::~


/'/"///~," / " ," .". . . . / / ' "...' /' "' / . . . ' / ' / / ' / / / / / E

D I R E C T I O N OF A D V E C T I O N (increasing b o t t o m - w a t e r age)

FIG. 6(A). Model for a mid-to-high latitude epicontinental sea during the Cenomanian-Turonian transgression.
High rainfall and runoff led periodically to subsaline surface water masses in the somewhat restricted seaway.
Bottom-waters in the basin are tropical-saline surface waters with low initial dissolved oxygen. O2 isopleths are
schematic (see text for details).

0 2 mill SALINITY 0/00


SEA
I I I 1 I I I I I , A SURFACE
A
o 1 2 3 4 51 20 25 30 35
O9
er
iii LOW DIVERSITY OPPORT~,INISTS
100 .,, - HUMID
LU
9S:.:.~....--~... . . . . . . . . . . PYCNO.CL.IN.E. . . . . . . ..........T:~..9~'~::- PORTION
v ~:~I:~:.x~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:::~:::~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~x~:~:~:.:.:~:~x~x~:~:::~:~:~x~:
'1- .....i........:........:.....w.........w.....w.w.......,w.w.w.,........
. . . . 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 . / . . . . . 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
OF
I-
9:.:.:
: + I :.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
+ : + : + : + , :KE L E D, F' O
. .R
. .A M S
9 9 ' . .E
...X
. . C L U D. E
. . . .D .::::::::::::::::::::: MILANKOVlTCH
13. . E
.:+l+:+:+:.:.:.x.:.:.:.:.:,:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
... :+:+x.:r
:-:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.I.:.:
LU 2 0 0
r',l ::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: B Y L O W 0 2 :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: CYCLE
~.~.:.:.:.~.:.~.~.:.~.~.~.:.:.~.:.:~:~:~....~.......~.~..~..~.~&:.:.~.x.~.:~:~:~:~x~:~:~ :.:.:
13: :!:i$i:i:i:i:i:!:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:!:!:!:!:!:i:::!:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::I:::::
LLI
I-- :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: < 0.2 miili:i:!:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i: :i:i:i
.<
iiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiii!i!iiiiiiiiiiiiiii!i::iiii!i!iiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiii!i!iiiiiiiiiii!i!i!i!iiiiiiiiiiiii:
300
::::h:::::l
: : BENTHIC:"
:" :" :" :' :' :":::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::FAUNA
DEPAUPERATE/ABSENT':':':':
':" :" :" :" :" :" :" :" :" :" :" :" :':':':':':':':':[::1:::::,

FIG. 6(B). Estimated salinity/oxygen gradients in the U.S. Western Interior Seaway water column during
deposition oforgC-rich layers (see text).

of time-equivalent orgC-rich units within basins (2) disappearance of many species of keeled
of very different palaeoceanographic-palaeocli' planktonic foraminifera and some cephalo-
matic character, pod genera and species at the boundary, and
(3) a peak in abundance of radiolarians and/or
calcispheres (e.g. Pithonella ovalis) near the
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary in many
Faunal changes associated with the pelagic sequences. These faunal events can
Cenomanian-Turonian event be interpreted within the framework of our
palaeoceanographic model for the Cenoman-
Although the faunal turnover at the Cenoman- ian-Turonian OAE.
ian-Turonian boundary is not drastic, some The occurrences of benthic-free zones, or
interesting marine faunal events do occur. These intervals characterized by depauperate benthic
are: foraminiferal assemblages where the planktonic/
(1) the common occurrence of benthic-free zones benthic ratio commonly increases at or near the
or depauperate benthic faunas in marine Cenomanian-Turonian boundary, have been
sequences from environments with inferred discussed in Schlanger et al. (1987). In general,
palaeodepths of more than 100-200 m (e.g. the lithological and geochemical evidence from
see Schlanger et al. 1987 for review), many sections, particularly finely laminated to
414 M. A. Arthur, S. O. Schlanger & H. C. Jenkyns

sparsely bioturbated relatively orgC-rich strata, lamination and of orgC, and some epifaunal
suggests that benthic faunas are absent or sparse benthic faunal elements may be found in orgC-
because of poorly oxygenated conditions at the rich strata. However, the exclusion of a benthic
seafloor during the period of expanded and infauna aids in orgC preservation because biotur-
intensified oxygen deficits mainly within inter- bation tends to increase the residence time of
mediate to shallow intermediate water masses. orgC particles in the oxygenated zone and benthic
However, in some sequences (e.g. the dark macrofaunal consumption of orgC may be great
relatively orgC-rich marls of the Bridge Creek in comparison to that accomplished by bacterial
Limestone near Pueblo, Colorado), a low-diver- populations (e.g. Brooks 1978; Mfiller & Suess
sity benthic foraminiferal assemblage character- 1979; Demaison & Moore 1980). Many of the
izes somewhat laminated, orgC-rich layers and pelagic sequences from the Cenomanian-Turon-
Chondrites-type burrow systems are found within ian that we have studied are marked by cyclic or
the lower and upper parts of many otherwise periodic interbedding of laminated to slightly
laminated units. Very thin inoceramid shells are bioturbated, relatively orgC-rich and CaCO3-
also found lying parallel to bedding in certain rich intervals. These cycles apparently represent
finely laminated dark-coloured intervals. We periodic oxygenation-deoxygenation events at
have also found crushed, thin-shelled inoceram- the seafloor, and therefore, benthic faunal abun-
ids and Chondrites burrows in some but not all of dance may also fluctuate.
the more-or-less finely laminated black marl or The disappearance of some keeled planktonic
clay layers at the Wiinstorf (Germany) locality. foraminifers and the extinction of certain am-
We interpret the inoceramid and benthic fora- monites (Sepkoski 1982; Raup & Sepkoski 1982)
minifera occurrences as indicating extremely over a brief interval of latest Cenomanian-early
low-oxygen concentrations but not anoxic condi- Turonian time is perhaps the most intriguing of
tions at the sediment water interface. The benthic the biotic events associated with this boundary.
foraminifera are morphologically similar to mod- Planktonic foraminifera (and probably ammon-
ern bolivinids or buliminids, which today are ites as well) are specifically adapted to a given
characteristic of benthic environments within water mass. Any disturbance of the salinity/
well-developed oxygen-minimum zones (e.g. temperature characteristics of that water mass
Phleger & Soutar 1973; Ingle 1981). Certain and/or a change in its nutrient and oxygen content
inoceramids may also be extremely tolerant of might result in the disappearance of the forami-
low-dissolved oxygen concentrations and are nifera that typically inhabits that water mass (e.g.
found in orgC-rich strata having no other benthic B6 1977; Hart & Bailey 1979; Haig 1979). Because
faunas or signs of bioturbation (for example, in dissolved-oxygen levels in shallow-intermediate
parts of the Greenhorn and Niobrara Formations water masses probably decreased rapidly during
of the Cretaceous Western Interior U.S., e.g. the latest Cenomanian and changes in the
Kauffman, pers. comm., 1982). Thus, it is likely distribution of salinity and temperature with
that some laminated intervals represent very low depth may have occurred in response to changes
oxygen concentrations at the sediment/water in production of deeper water masses concomi-
interface (perhaps <0.2 ml/1) which would tant with a sharp sea-level rise, we suggest that
exclude most benthic infaunal organisms, but the deterioration of this habitat and increasing
allow a few tolerant epifaunal organisms to stress levels led to the extinction of keeled
survive. Also, it is possible that brief periods of foraminifers (Wonders 1980; Caron & Home-
slightly better oxygenation occur within domi- wood 1983) and of certain cephalopods (see
nantly anoxic episodes such that colonization of Sepkoski 1982). In this regard, it is interesting to
the seafloor by certain opportunistic organisms, note that new keeled planktonic foraminifer
such as inoceramids, might take place. The species evolved shortly after the beginning of the
relatively small size and thin shells of these Turonian ( e . g . P . helvetica). The Whiteinella
inoceramids may attest to the short-lived nature archeocretacea PRZ zone spans the interval
of such oxygenation events. Chondrites generally during which few keeled forms existed (Hart &
appear as the last (or only) trace fossil in many Bailey 1979; Haig 1979). The planktonic forami-
Cretaceous black shales (e.g. Bromley & Ekdale niferal population was, for a brief interval,
1984) and is probably also very tolerant of low dominated by a low diversity generalized fauna
dissolved oxygen concentrations and even of during the peak transgression.
dissolved sulphide below the sediment/water Finally, the abundance of calcispheres and
interface. Many of the Chondrites burrows in radiolaria increases in pelagic marine sequences
orgC-rich layers may occur following reoxygena- across the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary at
tion of the seafloor. Total anoxia, therefore, is not many localities. In part, the increased abundance
a necessary condition for the preservation of fine of these more resistant forms may be a preserva-
The Cenomanian-Turonian OAE, H 4I 5
tional phenomenon because of possibly increased have had an impact on the geochemical cycles of
rates of carbonate dissolution associated with redox sensitive metals, phosphate, and sulphur.
high organic productivity in surface waters and Important mineral deposits may have formed in
low dissolved-oxygen contents and high CO2 conjunction with the OAE and the events may
input to intermediate waters because of increased also have led to significant perturbations of the
rates of orgC degradation. Berger and Winterer ocean chemical cycles of some elements.
(1974) among others have discussed the increased The Cenomanian-Turonian 613C excursion
rates of carbonate dissolution along highly pro- occurs in conjunction with an apparent positive
ductive continental margin regions (see also 63aS excursion (Claypool et al. 1980). This implies
Berger & Soutar 1970). We have noted (Schlanger that significant amounts of reduced sulphur were
et al. 1987) that many Cenomanian-Turonian buried along with the organic carbon (e.g. see
sequences are marked by transitions from highly Veizer et al. 1980; Garrels & Lerman 1981;
calcareous Upper Cenomanian chalks to more Berner & Raiswell 1983 for discussion of overall
marly and/or condensed units at the Cenoman- relationship between C and S and their isotopic
ian-Turonian boundary, followed again by re- curves), perhaps in excess of normal rates.
sumed pure chalk deposition in the mid- Arthur and Jenkyns (1981) discussed the
Turonian. De Graciansky et al. (1982) and Arthur relative paucity of major economic phosphorite
and Dean (1986) have suggested a possible CCD deposits associated with Cretaceous OAEs. The
rise in the late Cenomanian-Turonian. There- lack of such widespread sedimentary minerali-
fore, sequences in deep-sea settings representing zation could indicate that the oceans were
that time period are highly condensed or marked relatively phosphate-poor and/or that the phos-
by a hiatus. The postulated CCD rise is probably phate was fixed rapidly in organic carbon in such
due to a combination of increased rates of a Short a time period over widespread regions of
carbonate dissolution in midwater masses asso- the ocean that it was not mobilized to form
ciated with intensified orgC degradation there significant deposits.
and to the much larger shelf area and increased Force et al. (1983), Cannon and Force (1983),
shallow-water carbonate deposition at maximum and Frakes and Bolton (1984) have made the
transgression. The radiolarian and calcisphere intriguing suggestion that OAEs may correspond
relative abundance patterns probably also indi- to times of widespread marine manganese miner-
cate increasing surface water instability, fertility, alization. Pomerol (1983) and Renard and Letolle
and productivity. The abundance and accumula- (1983) have also drawn attention to Mn enrich-
tion rate of siliceous microfossils in pelagic ments in pelagic carbonate strata of Cenoman-
sediments is probably proportional to rates of ian-Turonian age (see Schlanger et al. 1987 for
production (e.g. Berger 1976). Calcispheres, on correlations of Mn and •13C). Pomerol (1983)
the other hand, are generally assumed to indicate appealed to volcanism as the cause, but we agree
neritic conditions (Masters & Scott 1978; Caron with Force et al. (1983) that economic Mn
& Homewood 1983); however, as such, they deposits of Cenomanian-Turonian age probably
probably inhabit surface waters where nutrient resulted from major mobilization of reduced Mn
supply is episodic and/or conditions are inimical via an increase in the volume of anoxic interme-
to normal pelagic calcareous plankton produc- diate waters and in the interiors of epicontinental
tion. The calcispheres have been termed 'oppor- seas. The same reasoning may apply to sedimen-
tunistic' species (e.g. Fischer & Arthur 1977) and tary iron ore deposits such as the Cenomanian-
may be resting cysts of dinoflagellates or calcar- Turonian chamositic ooids of Egypt (Van Houten
eous nannoplankton (Keupp 1979), as are thora- & Bhattycharyya 1982). Further search for min-
cospheres today. Their abundance at the eral deposits of Cenomanian-Turonian age may
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary in offshore and be fruitful.
in onshore regions may be in response to
instability and intermittent upwelling during the
Cenomanian-Turonian OAE.

Conclusions
Other geochemical implications of The correlation of the 6 ~3C spike and the well-
the Cenomanian-Turonian event dated occurrences of layers rich in organic c a r b o n
detailed in Schlanger et al. (1987) indicate that
The increased burial rates of marine orgC under the global episode of intense orgC burial took
widespread anoxic mid-water masses during the place during the latest Cenomanian-earliest
late Cenomanian-early Turonian OAE also must Turonian OAE (upper R. cushmani TRZ through
416 M. A. Arthur, S. O. Schlanger & H. C. Jenkyns
W. archeocretacea P R Z planktonic foraminiferal mass stratification were probably directly related
zones) over a period of no more than 1 m.y. The to the sea level change; oxygen depletion and
positive 6a3C excursion from pelagic carbonate enhanced orgC preservation were periodic rather
sediments and fossils records orgC burial and the than continuous, suggesting short period (e.g. 20-
effect of this burial on the 613C of oceanic total 40,000 y) climatic pulses superimposed on the
dissolved carbon. Peak rates of orgC burial were overall pattern of transgression and orgC burial.
probably as much as one and a half times as high We noted such cycles in the U.S. Western
as those in the mid-Cenomanian or mid-Turon- Interior, Danish North Sea, German (Wfinstorf)
ian, as indicated by the more than 2 parts per and Tunisian localities, whereas they are not so
thousand 613C excursion. The shape of the 613C obviously developed in the Gubbio section
curve suggests that rates of orgC burial gradually (Schlanger et al. 1987).
increased in the lower part of the late Cenoman- The disappearance of some types of keeled
ian, increased more rapidly in the uppermost planktonic foraminifers and ammonites at the
Cenomanian, and levelled off at peak values in Cenomanian-Turonian boundary is probably due
the latest Cenomanian-early Turonian during to the rather sudden but short-term disappearance
the maximum orgC burial interval. The •13C of suitable shallow midwater habitats because of
values decreased nearly to pre-late Cenomanian widespread severe oxygen depletion in these
levels in the early to middle Turonian. The levels. This interpretation is strengthened by the
decrease in 613C reflects decreasing rates of orgC occurrence of benthic-free zones or depauperate
burial following the Cenomanian-Turonian benthic faunas near the Cenomanian-Turonian
'oceanic anoxic event' as well as the probable boundary in many localities (Schlanger et al. 1987
oxidation and return of significant amounts of for review). Blooms of radiolaria in many locali-
orgC to the oceans following reoxygenation of ties near the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary
much of the deeper water masses in contact with and the peak in abundance of calcispheres (e.g.
the seafloor. Pithonella) which mark the b o u n d a r y transition
The Cenomanian Turonian OAE coincided in many places probably indicate the highly
with a maximum sea level highstand. We suggest fertile but unstable ecological conditions at that
that sea level is the common link and ultimately time.
the driving force for orgC deposition in globally We have provided an integrated model for
widesprcad basins under different climatic and Cenomanian-Turonian events which links events
ocean circulation regimes. The C e n o m a n i a n - seen on a global scale to change in sea level and
Turonian transgression flooded arid low-latitude continental area. Palaeoceanographic events at
shelves and this led to increased rates of produc- the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary may have
tion of warm, saline water which sank to become been ultimately influenced by some as yet
various intermediate to deep-water masses de- undocumented volcano-tectonic event. Nonethe-
pending on density contrasts and production less, we suggest that understanding the interac-
volumes (Brass et al. 1982). The rate of deep- tion between sea level changes, climate, and
water production may have been proportional to ocean circulation is fundamental to the explana-
the area of shelf flooding such that the maximum tion of such significant relatively short-term
occurred near the Cenomanian-Turonian bound- palaeoceanographic events as the C e n o m a n i a n -
ary. As rates of deep-water formation increased, Turonian OAE and that stratigraphical, litho-
rates ofupwelling of deeper oceanic water masses logical, geochemical, and palaeontological data
must also have increased thereby increasing sea are all necessary in order to provide satisfactory
surface fertility and productivity, particularly comprehensive palaeoceanographic models.
along continental margins. This, in turn, probably
caused short-term expansion and intensification
of a midwater oxygen-minimum zone. The post- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: We thank Eric Barron, Gary
early Turonian regression caused a decrease in Brass, Walter Dean, Erie Kauffman, Abe Lerman, Lisa
deep-water production, upwelling, and produc- Pratt, Peter Scholle and Colin Summerhayes for
tivity; orgC burial rates decreased as a result. In discussion of various aspects of this work, and Chuck
somewhat restricted higher latitude basins, such Threlkeld, Jane Murphy and George Claypool for some
of the analytical support. The work was done under the
as the Cretaceous Interior Seaway of North
auspices of National Science Foundation Grants OCE
America periodic high rates of freshwater runoff 82-14931 to The University of South Carolina and
coupled with deepening seas during the transgres- EAR 82-07387 to Northwestern University. We thank
sion created a periodic salinity stratification, Malcomb Hart and an anonymous reviewer for their
oxygen depletion in bottom water, and resultant comments and Andy Fleet and Jim Brooks for inviting
enhanced orgC preservation. Climate and water us to contribute this paper to their symposium.
The Cenomanian-Turon&n OAE, H 417
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M. A. ARTHUR, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island,


Narragansett, RI 02882, USA.
S. O. SCHLANGER, Department of Earth Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL
60201, USA.
H. C. JENKYNS, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, Parks Road. Oxford
OXI 3PR UK.

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