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Iri,;{_Ile'ili ,ftpf*}A
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Edited by

E r,,
ri;
",,,,!r*,fPt, rW,,,,rr-.v r y

Consulting Editor
R. E. ASHER
U u it' a r.r i t of Etli a h u r y h
1,

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-tI
| 1998

I A}VISTERDAM-LAUSANNE-
ELSEVTER
J NEW YORK
-OXFOR.D-SHANNON.SINCAPO&E-TOKYO
i
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lrr,E, oge feqertoar

Sce iolimguistics
S. Romaine

frfr 'ffiflrsT-:H,"ffiisiiFr_{, j'n:r:i!:ii?"?'!rui,;;:xl"u;?r,ft:f

It has close.o'n."iion,
and s$cirtv'
socicty. close *iiiiil:lJ;i?i ;",H: rl;ffiT-rfriId"ffi ,Hl[,:hffi 'rffi,ffi
Fjffi[,:#Xt5n:':f.*:*:*fi:f;:i
pEtctiotosr,andcducarion anf,".""'np-"1il?il;lg iffi ranguage community. A ss.EE,
of mriltilinguatism. rociat e-id*i;,'-coT;d",1*rf "il"?;,f
;i#."i,;f,.; ;,1il-;i-r:"ffffitrX1..1 ffi
iatcractio'' attitudcs t,!igyi;'-i1Ts.d;!;F1 arily sharc"thi ,rilc tanguagc, but share a sct of aor*
and rutes ror itc use of tanguagc. Thc borindarln
i$3 *:*J:;;
for cxamplq
i*f*f*'"*x":ix,:il;l
in ii*old t
;;,;;,*,;L;"Lmunitics *rc csrcntiagr ra*i
domainspmetimcsarso-ffitr;*$"*i:r1iT,,diltT"lTf ;rlil:T:mimrx*;Jtx
domainsimcrir""i,r",r",ir.AilHtiffi.;;
tansuaee, Macrosociorioguisric, i"[.r
sraning point and 0..r. *itl rdg,ii.Ii'Sr,=l
&?:,ii:J:r,,,Li,?t:i:.,,;i[H"Tffiul*tr
l#l?it ro ;,il il;;#;;t[ simitar ro wa,,anr erlliag rh*s
;:U;:i,"1|ffi*. .
:Hlirh*Jffirtr,iffi*:li:d*l-tr
forccsaecsscnrietlacbrsinffuffiil;tffiilf:l
rhe rrery concepr ordiryretc rqnsuases is prob*br,,
a Europcan cuiturat artcfacr'r*ii*.i-ilv procegE.s

5ffi ffiT,*:,iltr"i1,*,,tlf#,,,f*ilffi'ffi#*,1,I;H,*#1"'gf ;f rlit*xi:ru

ffiftTffi em'rra[t;s;fril;;;:i
3Hm**::[rir; *ffi-fiHffi ilTff il#Tl",t""lm
spooa taraths, roa

rffiiffifxtr**,ffi#i,H,ffiffi
*t"r.ffi

d[H:filF;#ffi
SrHrl;',ff#1"f#f,miXjil,1l::;tu r:*r:;, ;#,:,,qr-iaoi'.irit-a
,il:m
lttllarcycasivc-cfiainsofiarciclarcd.-r*t

aiffci*

'' ffi
rhc . noriosr
coumuiffes, end
ir'.p*o,-tI*rrnity'
munrcative compctenoc are fundamentar.and
.com-
#q:#,fiiffi{ffi1ffi"{t#
ffi:!: f;H"ffir*ffi**r"rrffl'" ffi
to inairo- ,ti,*tir"ringriril"air"r*"o. -::
892 :

-Ir ':'
-

ffdft;$;i#.d,i:itry*r1,ilr"#*;l}#::?Hi'$r:i:;Hiii:ii::L!rrx.jrr.:rx"*
rru;
*3:ir;dl*ffi*,,mrrffi tr##"iffi$kffl frffijq,ffi

'*xury,fli,ffiffi*,,r*gfiffi
t*t#*#Nl:*#r:*''*ffix
i;A;fl
*uo,* i#'
r
**'**-ti*
- *ii.f*ffi
r"ffi
;m:# granl- n, ur*i3. ;!: '-i#
i::il, f ;X
matical compctcnce uas .!ifi-ff:-#,:il#o-T:
wea&. takcs nrany of rls narmar
i,tr .,j^* i-."^.
*#;*f#,,"ru;"X'd;L* *:*:S i:"-."1*::'f;';
p.u*n"*' is used b,v ;'11;r:#fi:.:f J;;;:

ffi ki:#trlt'H'####isl";'*trr*d$^;;J*irTi*h:llu';*;:;xii;6';'*
w uric'iio :)s iijch as I
in rc'oc'ling iiih
ffi:flr,t:'H},:#iffiffit#ffii$ :tr'#lfffi :H::*lHiiijiT:::r'nrlrn
[n*:E:r*,***;ffi]ffi ffi#"TJtT,r:ri;Iilffi
rtrrilE rn **Nt +l#["# mi**f,.?:i,irs*l;*rui.xf;
fr g*'ffi Hffil*,Hliiffi f$.$;**li**;l'''ru,f*'-::#ffi:

ffiffi,m*tu*m*'ffi -- 'i" ' ilffi fiiH;1:*.x*-xl*ilHF:t,;i*

,1-T:j$TficrarndDigroscr
r\otaiislreechcnmmr.-li:---- ',T}illfr_.Ii:io.*r,;.n
partmchtriir., r^ '.. thcse run*ioric o* Lv,n-
. --v a.r ^^_
^.-1.

ffim$-.*
*trt1f;*nl}:f ';f Y*r.l-"I'r,l"qr,,t'ilffi{trl?Jffi :?,Tff #*ff fi
lfi
,

lorv *un,,v t *tjlH:ffi

f#rg gx,rr**ffir}*#effi i$iffitif
I;;*f [;;ji"ffi:]itffiffiffi :lru:l*o-*,*-uil?'i,',ixff rnyi:+*ffi i:l

ffiffi,+ffiffiffi ";ri;;?11",1;elJE,i,,Hi jil,ff,hh:,*1,#,T11ff";?";,,,,:ld;fi

893
 rl.E

#
-* 1S

:&
ffi
Scriof ingaistirs
w
:+
i:aqe stxtias *l"separ:r{* lar:gua,ers. sur:h as Spanish
Efu* *'?o{ grierai:ieei{s c!:ai:rcrii;rirce. ir-i irelanC tirr ;,.. . ,:,ij
**d Guara:li 1an lndiet"r iatrguilge t*taXly unrelated to ulj1f
usjng Efiglis}: has *verpi:*eroi
Emglisl: anripariryy: i+,
*verpi:*ereitr u,"ttlpuri i,,:,;, :$
1i
1f .i*
Spanish) in Paraguay. Spanish serrrec here.as thc high English aud Engtish rpeakers. lr: ronre crseisfta -iH
varicty and is uscd for high function*. The notion is may. be forbiCden io use rhc;r language alrci= E
also sornetimes exteoded to inclyde s::ore ti?an t*,o for exaruple. the Kurds in Tur}:ey at one rimr $
varieties arianguages which parlicipate iil such a func- eommunity whose larguage is uader tJrre;:i. ,, B
tio.al relationship: for cxamplc, in Tunisia. French, difficult foi cUiitdrea ro icquire rhc language fi:ii; ';B
Cla,Isical. and Tunisian araOic are in 'triglossic'dis- Languages undergoing shift often displal, er; ,,;
eril ;gion. lvith Fre*ch anti Classical Arabie sharing teristic tyiles of changes such as siniplificatior * i ,:
E.{ I'rrrtin*c ?L. r-.*'*^lr'-t^.-:..'
yv,J tsrvrJo /.-^-., .^--,.-^.r
i
\ .rrar.J (UiaBUES ,
has a.lso beeq l.lsed. to E+{.t.r ts car€.s slrctr as Singaporc t-hr rtssh of decrrasc<] usr: of ilrl 1:rngulge in ;:
'"vhrrc roany varieties coexisl icx a functiolla! relatioa- cor!{ex(s r+'hich rnay lc:rd ;o a ic,ss oi'.sll:iisi'i..:,-';
ship- ln scnie Nativr A::re:ican lndil:n !u nguages +i ..,:
southwcslern Unitd St*tes ccmpler svr-rtactic s-t-
3. {xnguag.e S&i{t ead'Dcath furcs have bccome less frequcnr because t!-te I;::
Macrosociolinguistics also srudies the f;rctors wtrrich anci pcetic styles cf la*guagc arc nc lr-:s:ge r t.,*:
picm+(e th"- maintenance and shifi or death. of Tirt Cegree cf ii*guisLic assimilati*n illii]' :-*:;s
languages. l-anguage shift gencrally irrvolves rn inder of social assimilation of a group. lt de;*:
bihngualism [ofrcn-with diglossia] as a stage on thc on msny factors such as rcccptivenrss oi thc grr.--:
lvay to eventua! monolingualisln in a new language. the olher cutture ahd language, po*sibility oi *,,,=
?yplcaliy s community which was oocc monolingual ance by thc-,donrinant group, degrec cf si**ja:
bccornes bilingual as a rcsult ofcontict nith aaothcr bctncn eic two groups, irc. etOsn;an spcakcrs *
{usualty rocially rnorc powcrfuf group and brcomes emigratcd to Creea have more rcadily given rp rr ,l

' traasilionatly bilingual io thc ncw language uatil their languagc and assinilatcd than have A!bania:-: :*t*: ._

. own language is given up altogcther- In some cascs crs in ltaly" whcre attitudcs toward diver:ity are exi ,,1i
shifi occurs as a result of forccd or voluntary immi- favorable. :.,:

gration to a placc where it is oot possible to maintain ,x

*ne's native language, c.g., ltalians in the U*ited 4" Lingua Frarcas, Fidgins, and Cneoles .i;
$tates. ar as a resutl of conguest. e-g., the Cacls in ln somc multiliqguat conmuniti* spea*ers xne. , $
Scotland and lreland. Tlre fab ot a iinggc ia thts rot shere, ,;1fi t;g"atc u$c a .lingua rr=,u*.: . ,-9
uay fs
-!!qd languagc dcarh. Many fairors are
responsible. for_language shifr, for exampte. religious
communicatt in ccrtain Contcxts, suclr as it ss, .j
and ducational background. scttlcrnent patterns-. tics
mercial trarsacrions. The chos*n.
!fqu1 fr113 * ,rj .

be in{igenqus ta a$ area, as Swahili is to Aicice-;

with thc homcland (in the
".e.cof lmmigr;ntbiTrnguat-
ismJ. -cxtcnt of exogarnous marriagi, attitudes of
r*d mi.nority languagc Cro;ps, govcrnmc$r r
Iii:,lll
poltocs conccrnrng langrragc, and cducation. cic.
{hcrc la4gc5rrorlr 4fjnnfiArafis oonccntrate in ,
p€rticulai geographiei ar"as, fr"y-rre ofiin bcrrer
ablc to preservc their languageg c.g. third generation-
C!i,"* Americans who reJi& in=Ctio"t6** t"r"
shiftcd lcts totilard lprglmh rhan tbcir agc-ma16 qut-
side Cthinatowns. Oftcn a shift from riral ts urban
areas triggers a languagc shift, e.g., in papua
Ncw
uurnca, whcrc Tok pisin (an English-bas;d pidgio
,oiirrlro i"
used as a lingua franca) is tire tangilgi
rhc lowrs. many chifdrrcn grory up not spcaking tfteir
par€ots vcmacular laaguagcs. Whcn a language
servcsimportant rcligioui functons, as Germs;dscs
ayougt!?umsytranraDutctr. it may gtand a better
chancc of suMval-'
The inability ofminorities to maintain the homc as
a1 intact domain for tlrc u$c of thcir langrra8p &as
{q, f.crr qb{rfvc for languagc shitt. I?rer6 is i ni*
rate of-loss in inixod maniag6. e.g,, in lilalcs. whcre
if Wclshil nit rhe tanguage 6f ire"no*", t[" oo* Au,
transmission is shifted to the scbooL. iacntitcatioa
tith a language and pocitirre attitud€s torrrard it can_
nonindigcnous, as Englistr is to lndia. lr ma) b,c t .:
doer nOt havc to be thc nativc language of *n-r o1* ii}
spcakcrs (x*. Lingno ftanco).
, ;l$
.In somccarara rr*rrknguage catkd a.pidgin' p.,.r.$,$
arisc. A pidgin is a coniicr-languagc Arait*E * 'r{
ciemcnts l^rom at teast two. but -usuallt m*:, ,,ll
la-nguages, which is normally not the native lae€e*' ,.
of any of its sp,cakers. lt cxists as a marginal !a* r,
ro fulfill certain rcsirictivc communicitive fu*d ,:.
among pcople who have no common ianguage. &fu j
rhough.lot alwayq whcre prdgrns dcvclo!, Jn* ssz**
is socr'ally supcrior. and thcirlanguagc ii su6Jlt*1: =t
,i,
inaocessible to the other grouplsi rhit rherc is -*rt l'
motivation or opportuniti to imBrovc pcrfai:laarnr ;
Whcre communi&tion aeeds arc minirirat .*: **uq;1
A--l
Sncd r^
to a- C^--.
fcw L--:^ ,--
basic domains such as wark and r*d*
a dcfegivc vcrsion of languagc can be functk#
a{e{uate. Manypidgin languages arose in the Ws
of cont etbctwecn Europcancololizees wllo
orcmploycd thecolonized popuhtr'on on pla nr*riu$;,
-
Thc^lariguages from which ihe pidgin is'deri.,*E::ry;,
s|mglificd. and vocabulary and grimrnatical e
plexities.lgve bccn rcdued. A piidctn is charaere
by a smatl vehulary of ber.rrccn s few hundrtd
a lhousand or so words d rawnlargely from the i;

894
t.::i
it';
.l

'it
;,,,i:;l

':r{9-
 lffi
S!tiof nsLristr.cs

rfg,d;ffi**t?r#' ##r.L:iryi
#q:-#}'ffi:ffi r*:n#:##,T:irfi ii{+ii-:l;"*}i,!ffi $[r,*?il,r#x#t]
#*drH*H,FniH,h
sryalcrs
principlcs ," u.arln
lr,rt.#*j,
must bring somcgcntral
ii,Ji".i
end scisi Drv
iiFffffi:J.ffi:;m
rnna rc ish-based cr
;f[*";1"1r^,i::: :}Y*o creotes arc usrd irril." *
i,,, ni", t. uni;:*-"1,$flii:X.'Lpc'sr

,ffiwi'xunitrx;ilt*rffi! i'*r:y,T,'t*#.ttr[x$#,i]t
l;ffi{H",t*[frffi fu ,ffi #*;rydffiT'ffif]:ff
iffi:r*flr+$ffi
'"fr,fl;.rr*,,o*r.u*,]*"::-Ircom-fr
*t+'ffin,{X.ffi :;,f
ffitr't*qff.:Trf*$,Hi,d;:Hlit?
langu.agc of a. soa
rreote.' creotizaiion
*"1-;iiliifi"i'"'"uo aad Hiri Moti

Jamarcan Creolc it r

ffi
#iH,Sfl1T"il}l,1i,*.*,,o_""ia.iri#dJj;,#n,#._,Hrffi:#rfl:x,#rffir,m,r,;
rst stabiliz
"*prnaJ: fh,il#rn''ao$arcr'
;m*':Xf :ffi.'$-!F.roH'*er'
fi

;r''*r-
" sJffiifflfffi
ffifl

filps
ffi*ffi:i,illrNtrd;:t#nfr
ffii*F#rriklffi
;#ffi,;ffi
'ffi ffi ,
89J
 .!ocrolrhgaisrir-r

f;:'::,LIffH ffit; :H,l?T,:[:t:H;,a8*rsric.is jooked ro s€e how cerrain ringuisrii rur,*il

thcEng[is]r-sfr[** *"r0. -v in group' T]e;;;";# b;i;;;. *-
PJ:|"n
. t,1; i,;;i;;;f r#ffic iin.re rit*t dirrerencr* io, *'-l:$:i:li:fstures wa$ io seh*r iierns c*;r*

[:fg*f ffiq:H,lt$X["#l,E]l]j.,Xl;lli,l]fl:lltr:
;;il;:;'il ii'&HlTffi'llffiYTiiL:*11::,,,Hj
ff#,fft.,;1"":;t**i,#,:::ryil
tbat ccrtain rexicar and phonotosi;i

*"?l*.::il,H":T.jif"il,::,.::s:;:::',,....':ll-
u {rower ctassl e.e.- saruie,t. ,'*,-*$
"'tT*:lx;iT,H,H'H;g$,ll}ffffi:L:ffi
in deran b,y Lrbo*+nd orh*:*eiori*s
r'?hich he deseribed "fi;;;;;i;;ffi,.
is oe+apt'tl'" u*, t""l"ir yrn ,*olifirr"irrrqrrrncn(
"ri or. rhis
,r,,r oo'i-p,,in;:T::"1.,:*,,,lj,,tl '.nab*: &
ix',''$'L:i:::x'#'tr,;{fi:'J,:l;i1",}lli}l1!*,
r\:_,^_J h. , ilol f-pronfluncing
,lr:* ,**_
f't;-l--t urls
-.-r
yj-,... u,tu h:-r- -- -r
--., ututt..totog r :rM?r-6 *rOrk
!,ttut(<-trltttsrr!tlj. t_iltl,fl,.5 a*a-*. r*
:*: .,-
.::_:l 1,ix-r-pr9n1u=org
l{r.* }""(t".* {r:cnsi:otrc}.
.---..,..-.!Lr. in {r.c
.rr ilic rd{,
liiit iB,F*t
isrr
city was rhenrsr ro-"inrrcdc,.ci . ,i.;*,,,;;i.-;;il
tffJffilT;.1:*"::?l*.*:: j; fijl:',nil:'i;,1*;[:il*l::Tff.:r]i,tr_,,7
trir,[:r_ 1f".:.
,ili;.fil{;;
wiriantt. r;is bookl?rr"3;;,,, b,;;,;,,* prcst.,gc rhan
rhose. kkcscorrish Enrrish rhe, *.

*#'#;$J,:f"59#',fi*ri::**1jii,-ri*:
tcciotinguixicsurvcyof
[t,r{iH-r:,,fif;li;},::,f[T-Ji:i.;1;,:ffi
'a:):r; Ns'tr ruc-
ri'da
lrilc. allhoLJeh
ar,hoursh this
rhis lras
rras not alrv,ays
arrv.ays bccn rhc.as*
bcen thc.as

ts#l',',flr'JH#t,ff #**#ti"*:tk'.kgr.'m,',:;'H:i""ffi ::ffi

i"i;;;; *;,r, io:ffii*i,;;;;"""#
raire-rccorded
flt:j,t6.1il5jrifrf iJix*,r*iiyr,*l
H,,ml-:F[l ""-?:"ff.*,fgl#"Xt.]l sociar s."rus. as nrcasurd in rerms
-one.s
or &
ffiS:ufr ti tri#trH mtr-:tt#::dx; portv€,lic;r/s
ffit##i"j. ,$ffit'*[',fil: TJ
**J^"rrj,j:3s1it+*; il ;,}liIL
one uses. while m naairg tt*
ihar rhc
;ffi1ffir;Hal?:-ffH:y:1y:"
arid unprcdicrabrc manner. _:random ur. "irry fcaturcs invcsrioararr <ryi,r,i
ilJt;.iilffi;:,*T;ffi1{;lf:,S bw
nouned the namcs lan and.x'*
'ii[" ""i roJ*,i'** g;e'ffir;:H;;lHHf ,?i trffi as sociagysignificanr
dis{r*x
tril'fieffi,T:ffi"Jja**g1i::i*,jT':*
'f'HilmJ"':'0ff Ilj:,l,Frr.amonsdiarscrsorEngrish isricr
;'ffi #r'I::-ixH,f:#tr:*rri:mi*;,*fiiff
be any cxplanation
that whcn such il#;;: ii""*.q ugo in *ui't
r"t it' rauo'l
free'*q"" ry''r'Jlp*..i,li""a "i"i:qn*,rno and sprcad noirh r,rd *q*-
,ffl,#ffi
betweca individuats was vicwud ri*a;riilrtinorpo"rroc" txhlrnrhcuoitcdsuor
ground of the oommunity "e"in"i;.i""t- rcncctirr,.liri".yrrTrucmentparrcrnsorcoukr
wtroii-ir't*i irr"r.*, r*,, Iid.i*ii J.1o,"q Britain and treraad. B.eryt

#i
as a

F_:1fffiff:Xrgf,'rro;mil## *iy:ifi_iiilnic rac,or ror rhis

:

changc wrc *e

nffi'ffidffiffi ffiffijffilfififfi
ffi'}*ffii#hd
:r;':-T-rrxT#ir*Jte"* "r '*i.i'ui-i;r*'[fi ""rll','::'fiJiir;r1ron orr;,,gui,ti"
Hj,ffi:,*,",fff iffi il,I,,,fff ;:rH* ";."..;;;
. tn order to demonsurarc a rcgurar reration^sh.ip
H,":fiAdil+tfi-6:lxik#iffit,,
ffi'fi,"fi
"" "'' HlTjiJtrj#J?tr:T"lf
ocs.ru
*:hffi
ffi1:;,EI,,li.l*,1-1i.6,*;nfrh,X
t'"*'uen d;T* rabte t.pcrccor orpostvocaric/rrspronounccd.
Wltffi'f,T,X:it*ts
socialcta:s-halu"fr:ihlg'sex' and style' of Newyork€irv' **o6* 'sociata-i8ss. - ,,
'lT, ,,,:

g96 .l, towcr_working ctass

 gfr ffi
;;;Lf;gr-{r*r#;ii1f:ffi i#*::.#nxi:t'$ii;":,;.,,:,,".r:my,
tosocial-fr".ri..iiiindr.-'rsSoupordoxlrinrerarron
of r,arjarion
grotPs.* *ii*ii"iisrr
rrt no sltarp brcrks tN ,n'9reilson!oassumcthetryrryirlst.nce
r1;r r oi r.,ii*,'Liii :f '.e"iers,ffi
i;. ':fr
ff :l *lruXl-6ifu4:1p5r#-.ffi
il
[#;;ffi
***j+
:Ht##',H*fr :f ;iH,-ff''ii'*il:::]r.,:r!r#."r.l],llnx

t;l#**i*spirr*r*.l,.'',''.'l.*e
rtrc ; ;;;;fi l" i j ;affii"i; *i
.'-f lliTfi : tr J}'Si ,'
n
rh su's n i
r Je' r'h
$:lli{:i'fi
;
"p'* " " " "

f ffi '#*#i:|fr i11,.*,*al;;;;m'*U};-',ffi ',,'l,,"';"--,ilif i:ifii:Iffi H,yXfffi X'#

i;***#Nmr;l+mrfr'ttr*r**u***,r--*t,,"r*'**i.,*",;,,
ffi1id#Eg!]ijft#q,:h1il ffiil;ffii,iT;:ltr*ntu::

6p*
rcters to atrcrnrrion .tral..;;-X;:i':"yn1o1e (h)
;ilr ffi,ffiiffi,!{#,ifl,.

'ffi*r$*+rtl*ffilffix
#-H,roffi
-

"us'|c c tr*
3,,'thc working
and &i,Fi!:uil",X;ly_',*f*H;
f"'.u.r:
**t of non-a,e fiormi in
Norwid,. **y u" ..d""=toiii L*
chss
uog or
Socialdnss
uPper-qriddlectass' 0ng) (t) $)
";'
roucr-nriddtcctass l! '41 y!!.lncidencer
*ru;frulffu'':*inarrcavrrolmcntscom-
;r,ffif#trfrgl
,on'cr-no.unlirai: ii
# i trf
,3f # ;l i:,,U*m" t:. :i: ii ,i:l #f,
897
 S*rioJing'ai*rrs

Table 1. Vcrtc withod -s.

Ia&/e J" peteear *f fc,ra.ats rslth**ii
Class finat_$ iresultj fr*e.,_i,i
Norwie& il: EST"tj.
xpper-middk$e-rs I m ,rl
rdrier-miuailcrassigsryts€,;r:.,sd
upscr-wortiagchs l9 ; .'*ul '''* -y,.19
middtc-wor&ing c-lass ffi,llffinn *,*ru
{awer-working class Bt ,***;#;,_;;;" *:
? a il uppcr-workiuS ciais gz r=: .,il
, - ;* ;"s
:rriddlc-*orking class
lowtr-wor"*ingclass ;i {e S
sorne linguietis fe&ture. Tit finglish t}r) 'E -i
rotx gramrnatili;;ry
sueh ib*lure ar.*
nrore iikeiy
thc $se of rnultipte aesation (:'q.:
;",f,::ffi,T ,lirl
.rt!
.:
, dr*'r- r.ir, ,n and .akrs!t{obea nr*nife${*{iori,*f,.hyper.*r-*-+}
rn" o*i*,;o* *-i,i. ro**,.-n:i<i,irec,assls govex-.,*e
$'.*:q.Lffi!-*,.
De{roir.:l,q-},{oi&f
llU*'*,jlJftt"',1;t['*' thcirrccogniri#nofanr-tier;"irr-"Jr.a"F.-nw, g 1
rL*,
rpza.'i-*a*r ta?.tt z^ -. -dir;-'-:
on [hc Derroit
rurveJ. wolf.r*.en

prE*nr rense vcrb

pre$e$ttense vcrbformswithour-.(Fo
forn:s withou,-* --*- *j?.:
-" 1t:'
r
and thcir insecuf ty ab+*r rheir
##*Yffi #mf"ffiJiffi ff J,il: oftheirighesrso.i*lgr;u;;ffi;;H#;,r*#Lud:
;ff""i"".:liffi ffi
l.*il'&H:::
*"e..];*;.'6ni1 ,"ffiffiffi;?l;il;;X;
";;;;ffi "E*d#x]*
X#
H,,*H,-d:T:ffi,
:uffir
Htltr ffiJr H:H*;r*r;,1]
Dctrcit' Thc Brp bcrsecn rh" ;dd;';;
;#yg i[f:;* #[gx,;,ffi
*t"n , rorrrris'undcrgoing .ri,ng,in-ropo*
p.ssui* r** H,
sry,
1fl:,tiffi'#,ftr:iiffir*lifi:
*:..ff:l T#;1'.. orhcr filii*"
varictice
.'oo1r
sbqi:, i.-"," px,ie. iore
.r rnfffl 3*:,*::tj=', Il 1t"1 v*f'6ifii. ,"* ssr
o**e,

ffiN*m',sxn*,ffi [$;h*}l'**ffi
tr;x#lllH',FjTiiilitffi
xffix#:*tr$h$uiifri[1,#,""..i,:*rg]flff

xr*mx*ffi mi':r#,,l*-lr,:ffi*,.,",ffi.
ffi*fri;t*,;;ifg,#ffd,-,:,,,ffi
*:sx$:jdriffi t:H*'"iffi f d#?,[:ffi"f r.;ffi X,l#,1I,#*,:Hffi
3if-i*t *-'ii
rurrrcxL relauodshio," ;r,r.ii*iiip."jii'i}:l'[?1 orten 'coircci' lbii-rrs *i
i.i'-"o,i.io]il I".a <*:.
"rrhc paruciio,'i":5^-:1iIfal
so that tor?er becomes rerkt
a6d Doil irccomes ae,f.
ffi T:'.:[gg;;;;;ffi:Xf ffirj}i[3,$ In* t"* "ii"' ilL unds bil;;;y;; warc d
ru $['*,,J"ff:H?hx**.*,#,ffiH
so
a

g,g'#ffi -#?tfit;.i.*.*
ffiffirr r#'"H,ffi"Jffi
, #
fu *Ijl}
::-lf Yqtzittrco,rcrti,reaiaii-i;-Tifll,6{
"T;ffffi,11j:**,iffi'ffffiff:,I,*rff lffi:
tigio,s formor"".."i _i,a';i'i:'j'.l1-T*
X,X

j
;r###,il[fmffir*]lil;i?,*ii# =
 ,Soc{oCmgulsllhs

. *9 rppcr<aiddlcrhss
ea e g-g
s I-3
x
o
,c i

--v lilw4y-q1.*!faidg €iass

*
ertual
fo*ue!

Table d.Multiplc n€gutioft in

-.''n r\brncn
Derroir.
t
,1,'

ff.*** 6'l
H?r-,:Unffi1trffii#H"*#;?iffiHn:
,:ffiffi fif ,.:ii
d**;id,;ffi o ables.c.e., inaicators,wtrlctr*iitiw'i&u'nruio*uoiio,

_l_
:.trll,-lr*us.,rc -.. . #;:"ffit'ffii##.mrlriir-rr#
ffi**i#ffi,h*Hfffiffi.ffiffiffi
ffil1.L5nf T,Tj. sr,ii [iLirl-i"r,-uor

r;ffum
aass. ai&.rui

*#xililJi+!iffi-&"i:'$s,H"g:x " -1I P;ffiilE".ii:&iiil*I

*ffi'**tfr#trffi*#l *ffi
wcrc couperncd to tho
c.g., the'irsc of
un,y*,
ic
titna;;;as i#T[.,#,t';Bl as ii tiltti r#';;dffii
;"ffiffi"mn*t,::"tr:j."H.: i;+r,#.
bil;,i;G#;il $ffi;fff: #fjhffJ:Hp 9l'p""k;;, ffii;;;t
renr correrations
aorms as cxciaqtifi en ilii-il ,iJJ
i; in1,
:w 1.g^t '
'ggg
 ,Sers-r#i:i?Ef &iJIrrs

+f tlre *lder and younger.generulions respeciive!.-v" worrld be cxampies cf elrange fronr bclclrl..At lhc
Anut{iel'- inv*stiga{io* sci:ne 115 -Ye*r-s iai.er' ile;i:- i1!or!r(.iri s+riciingui;iir pa:l*Jn.s i:,ie r*uglt grlid*liri*:
$rrstrated that the varia*t use<5 by ehe y*unger ge:i- beseel 6* ge:teralizati+r.:s ir*cr the stuclies avaiiebie.
erationhadestablislred jtsclf es thc ncw norm. Both Paft of thc problem in making extrapolations fro;
*udies sho\"'td the importance of varia(ic$ and *ge these pattcrns to build a theoryis that ilrc relationstif
prrading asa rnechanistn ofchange.- betlveen iangurgc and sociai irrr*tur* nlay vary con-
Thc social dimcnsions of linguistic elraagc rrr;e siderably. both synchronicslly and diachronically.
cxplored in nror-cdetnil by Labov on Marlha's Vir;:- Contac{ bctwecn groups in urban sogicly nral;also
yard. u snlall island cornrnuni{y *ff the *:asi ,lf .xcceleru{e lheuseofnonstandardfcalurcsandinionre
M;rssacfruse{ts. r':lrere e gx+{!p *f frsi*r;nE* rve;* *lses in?aibit ch:r*se qc-*'.rit'.ii the risodilrC. Irr S";o!f-
inlroducing irrcrasi*glycccitralir-{d vortels ic :v*:-,is n::r"s {!!ti4} s:.uiy *iPi:tri+ Flican speakers iri },lr;+
such as nig&t aad fioaarc {*t t'abov t9??: eh- i}. Such York City, it emerged rtlat Puer{a Ri.arr* who wJe
variasts had nol been {ecorded by earlicr dlaieei in coiltact with blxck spcak+rs delctr4 fisal r/d more
g.eog;aphers ar:d qere $ew to {he c*srn:urrity, Leh-*v cft*il {e
"6- fa*' tr*ir:. gci' rvatc!:} ehan blacks or la,hites
f.rrrad a strong correlalion le{*'cen thc dcaree *f ee*- or Pile;tc} Ricans *,ho diii nor sociatize with hlacks-
iralization and thecxtcnt lo which speak*rs idei'rt!fied Ttrc pe+pie wi{h w!-ronr one intenrcts are e pou,erful l

with life on thc island and.u'anrcr! {$ remni*. source rr!'inffuence on sp.eech. The eoncept of soclal
sociolinguisti* work has ied t* can- netw*rk- ad*ptcd from- aBthropology into scci-
- Quantkative
sidcrable untlcrstanding sf how linguistie ch*.nge oiinguistics. lakes into eccrGurrt aitrcrint socialiaing
rnight procecd in a funcl.ional systcm !y means *l habitsof individualsandthoirdcgrccof invotvqneri
i*lcr*al ard cxlcrnal structuring of inhercnt varia- in leeal ccmrnunity" The.use of lcrwork is an ana-
hili.ty which shows dircctional gradienee though saeial iyiical construcr doe! nor rcquire grouping individuak
gro}qs: and tinc (scc Wcinrcich, into social classcs. Netwo*s may cut iross socia!
-8j:ogjephlcal lparr:
a-1. t968)' Rcscarch indicatcs rhat formal slytes and class boundarics and rhey my also rcvcal ditfcrenccs
9!
high rcgistcrs ar€ rnorc co$s€r'rlativer while iafiorma! svithin social ctssses. Milioy I t'g8o). who uscd nctwork
spceth daws Qn thc latest innovations- Sornctirncs analysis in Betfast. founC ihar r*o *o*cn who livcd
itcnrs lag-belind.in ccrtain chan-ges and.remain in io thc samc typc of housing in the samc area and
the.spcech of older 9gopte as *ylistic variants- New had similar cmptoynrent^ ncicrtheless. behaved quite
variantsoftinappearfirstincasual speech,whileotder di$erently lingllsrically- One was mrrch rnorc stan-
oncs.rcmain in morc cmphatic forrnal stlee- Forrnal dard in hcr speeh than other. Their socialization
st/1 may er.ovig: a tocus for thc introduaion- of pattcrns wbre, however.theclcaily wry differcnt. Thc
prcslige changcs..It was wcll known to dialcctologisls !.vomar whosc spccch t"r,s mo.i nbristandard g,as a
studying rcgional diqlcctl that older malc informints membcrofa local bingo-plaioggro"p;Jt adexrcn-
frorB rural areis vrcrc often thc best sour€s of con- sirc.kin tics in thc arc".'ftre 'mdrs sianrtard
$peakcr-
servatile, eryh- W-.oglc1- oa rlrc othcr hand. harrc laa no fin init. and did not associstc with local
becn oftcn nbccrrcd to intfoducc-ncw prcstige vari- pcoplc. Milroy founa.tuai "r." tlo* *111 t tf, il;"*
11,!h"fq: PaY Tmc.From so,lh euooc ani uctow io,ii
l"aiori'r,i *re ctrcngth of association ;i;h ih;
tn,lfic social hienarchy" At thc timc whcn postvocalic local community uscd *ori l*"1.
nonstanderil forms
varicrics of Eogrish, -dis- ofspecch.Thoscwhoscnerworkswcrcoorcopcnand
f{-f.,:,{-ln:-TTy.
y,lf}t Qglc an importirnt issue. less locallycoastrained.ud morc srandardipccch.
:]It-'?-Ti
somc assocaatcd the lossof /r/ with thc.cvorking class hJctworks in which individ-u"tr
il;;;i i;[y within
$$l:y^u.p"th sf t{'ndoo-'[icryAlford *"?i" m e.wellde6nJieiriiory*oawhosemembcrsarclintcd
lifi\1..19{y-,1i:.P:*} ?ltish', tbal thc of to
toag othci in *vcrat capaaities,e.g., as kin, ncish-
*{T-:.Y-",=.r||]l qqth- misusc of ftf
the aspirate- "actr
bor. workrnate, etc; acr as a powcrfuiiaflucncc on ihe
flc quotcs cx_tcnsi'ely from a lctter professedly from maintenance of iocat norrns. If thesc networks are
a correspondcnt-in thc Housc of C.onnrnonr -to ihe disrupted, thea people wiI
'of rtunat bc ,oor" op.n
-rr* to
-it the influ-
cffcc{ tbat 'woc bdc any unfortunatc membcr if hc
ipccch. Spcakcir to"ut
*rcua ihgfoor.wi& his'ai,rchcs ': thckulhrciir op.n *;; "ro "i, to
of afrrmiag identity and toyatty
rnd merciless: but thc honourablcmcmbcrs may tatt rscar gr"up.lit"r.
";;;; * a broaf, uit**-"ii"i*lir
f 'taYr,'l of th-9 latd, scawn thc -idcar- ryirh ri*.ct and sicial class to rhe cxtcnr thatii"tmiaar"+"*
Alford dcnounces riris ,s ,frLl
lp.Tlv:^.j]:f:S. crs terd'to have looscr nerworts rhap lhc working
cnough to. make lhc hair of anyone but a rrcll sa- elass- However, densc netlrrortcs *.y ;i b" tirunJ
!ry4-loctncr.sll{.on cnd;' it is cvidcnt from this "i.o*rr"*-iii*"-
ttre uppcr rcviii oisocicty, as in Bri6in,
.nd other examplcs that thc vocalization ot.lr,l,
/hl called oldboynetwork,'whosc*"*O"""Urrr*urfiy
::t{f::_f !I..,p$_o.nr:ronofintrusive
ldcspread in thc'bcst
lrlwcri bccn cducarid "t e"iriri,-puuii";'[r"lr and at
socigf in ninet€enth€rtury Oxbridge, gives risc ro-an equally distinctive sp*ch
hgland- Thcsc fdaturcs may originally have
made variery,-arf Milroy also found thar morc mcn than
reirwayirrtothclaaguagcviathctowcrcIassesaadwomenhaddenscnetworks,*r,i"t.lugg.'sar1expla-
30

gurtion for some of the patterns of scx differentiation
i-eunel by other soci*linguists.
Si*ee the study of language varietie$ has raken *
central plaer in sociolinguistics. sociolinguists havc
produccd formal modcls of variation which try to
incerpor*te inforraation about the social end liaguis-
lic cous(rain{.s on variabtes. Labov proposed that vari-
ablc rutcs arc a fundamcntal part of botft grammar
*nd compctcnce, The.forrnuta ior u varisble iulc is:
A * { I }J--_{ linguisric consrrai*rs!
tsocial constraints]
This stat;s tfu6t fcdture A varial'ly hecorfics B in a
parlicutrf contcxt in aocordanr* with social and
ilnguistid constrainrs which arc ranked hicrarchically.
"l&e social constraints rnay bc social class
mcn:bcrship.
ag,er sex, ctc. rvhilc the linguisl.ic constraints are sys-
{em-internal and arc thc environmcnG in which the
variable occurs, c-g- beforc/aftcr a.,vouret. ctc- Various
tYlathcmarical procCdures asc uscd to compute the
t.atues agld weightinp attachcd to thc.differeni con-
Etilai$ts- This ir generatty kndwn as \ariabtc tulc
analysis'{rcrnetiarrcc also vananut} and is cspccially
jlopular in ilIbrth Arneilcan quanrirariv; soci-
olinguistics. Variablc rulc analysis incorporatcs
mullivariate statistics and assigns probabilitics to
constraints. Vailrtic rulcs. ho$rcver. posc substantial
philosophical. psl,chological. and linguistic q$c$dons
*bout rhe fornrs of gr&rnlnars. oalurc of rutes and
reprcsenrations, lrnd thc rolc,ilry play in clrarac-
terizing human compctcnc?. pomc havc oby:ectcd to
thcm bccause ,utonomous iiiodcls of granrmar rulc
out thc possibility thar probabilities of rule appli.
cation haw any plaec in formal gr.lmtnars whictraim
to modcl compstcncit which is sccn as invariant. lt is
$ot clcilr u'h$t a sociolirrguisth gr,ammar as oppord
ro a Eaditi6nal' grammai wouiJ toot like (Bimaine
; brotght undcr Egualiry of Opporrunity legislation.
19{15). Others objcct morc spccificrlly to thc idca rhat
expianations for variabiliti can bc'found in social
rather than-purcly liirguistic factors (s* Dialect aad
Dialetalagyl. Such digputrs arc indicativc of rhe facr
that not all scholars are egrecd on thc boundarics and
rclationship tctvrccn linguistics and sociolinguistics.
Downcs (i984: !5i, for instanoi. argucs th;t soci-
olinguistics is that branch 66 tinguistics urhich sttrdir*
)ust rliose propcrties of languagcend l*qguages which
ryquirc rcfdenoe to social. irptuding contextual
factors" in thcir cxplanation-'Others suc{ as Hymes
(19?4) would bc unhappy with thcbharaitcrizationof
sociolioguitths at a iubdidplinc of linguistics and
hltc proposcd instcad a 'socially c<instituted' thegyy
of languagc. Hymcs rejicul thc notion ihat languagc
.has an cxisteilcc aEart'fiom thc
social rcality bf its
users. Similarly, Latlrev g9n) proltsscs that hc fias
resisrcd the term tociolinglistics'becausc it .implies
that thcre can be a sucressful linguistic ttrory of prac-
tioc that is not social-'
5-'oriciragtrisrirs
6. Pr*cticE{ Applica{iors
S+ci,*ii*grii*ti* s'+searr:h" rn pit*'ii*;*ia; *-'l"i i;*fiai
draieeLq" ir;rs he.C ena:ty praeticutiruplicati*ras sinrx it is
conccrnld with fundanrcntal incqualitics in language
usc. Languagc hascftcn been cired as the mcin caus€
fsr {he €rcater r-atc ol school failure amsng rninority
and w+rkin6,-class children, Becare schools nncacure
suess in krms of rnaslcrl; of standard &rglish (or
wlsalc\rcr l hc *cccpted lacgr',r ge of llrc'eociety is). oo*-
stsndai$ ,Fei;.h is ,rett as :!lcg!c;,:!. Ttlere is si*lil;tr
** n<i il: it-; ir::rt *.ee *f r: ! * eri l y !ang* a ges'suctr
;:rej uti ir*
as,Paej".bi ul {trit".lia aqlC *p*;-,iti.l rn rtre Unircd States.
S+cioii*guis!-s -surh r.rs !-abtrv l:avc. lror,v*,er, arguec
!ha{ nsrasirfld*,rd sree+h f,*nns ure just *s rtructura}ly
cornplei" rgtregc'''rer*e<{ end ca;:ab!e of expressing
logicat argnrncels #5 sranCzid fl;:-tlisfi (l,xbov lg6g).
&fdrecver. {xea**: sr:ch v;rrier.ie: *!a3r an i*rp*rian{
rol* in speeker idcndly, eha$ge qsw.srd standard E*gi-
ish nral' be rrsis{ed. Labov f*slld that in inner city
argasbiack yculhsr*ho rocializcd in ltrcct gangs werc
those *ho uscd the sncs{.non-standard forms ofspcech
ond were slrcs{ opposed to the valuc syctcm of the
ghool Nct only did ahcy.have rfuc hr'gtcsr ratc.of
failurc. but they wcrc atso rcgardod aJ those most
likely to fail by thcir tcachers, L*bov concluded rher
ncgat;ve attit$des toward nonstandard speech rrcre
more decisivc in dctcrmining school outcornes thah
thc actual linguistic diffcrencrs betwecn standard and
acnstandard sp*cfu. Pslitic{l rcobitization of linguis-
tic minoritie* and hgislation promptcd by equaiiry of
opporlurityfiss led in $omc plsces to thc developnlent
and fundingof programs aimed ar recrifying linguisiic
incqdalities. In sorne cascs" howcver. thc courts have
bccomc battlegrounds for issucs, which. althougtr not '
primarily linguistic" havc had fundamcntal linguisric
implicatioas..The Ann Arbor decision on Black Eng-
lish in thc United States is an cxamptc of litigation
whieh makes rlo me4tion of languag6- !t gr:arente*
sirnply that:no one shitt be derii& *iu"i"iui"ii*il
oppdrtunity on acccuni irfracc; eolor. scx, cr national-
origrn:,Black percnu filed a suit agaidst thc schoot
board.for failnsrc tc take into accou$t ttrc linquistic
backgrcund of their childrcn. The issuc otlarif:uage,
in particular. the auronomy ef Slack Eoglish. bicame
salicot in thiS case bccausc it s'as argued ther a
languagc grcup, ,i.c., spcakcrs bf Bkck Enfitish,
coincicicd with a racla! group. Thi:Ann ,trirorlcase
probably. could not have oocurrcd or bcen ,won with-
out the rcscarch doirc oir iocAl dialccls in the.l9.60e
end 1970s, wtrich supportcd thc argumcnt thst Dliitk
English $lashoi a dcficicnt, but only different, linguis.
tlc systcm..Thc judge, who ruled in favor of the bladk
parents and their chiHrcn, sras ctearly influcnocd by
thc cxpcr( testimony ofsociolinglists. ,.
_
Bibliography
Dorian N C l98l r anguagc dcath. ln: The Li{e C-tclc o! a
901