01‐02‐2018

Characterizing WEEE
 Trace Components  Organic chemicals
Electronic Waste Inorganic chemicals PCBs

ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH Issue Lead Flame retardants

Mercury
Dr BRAJESH KUMAR DUBEY Cadmium
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Beryllium
Arsenic
Silver

Lead
Toxicity Concerns

PWB

CRT

CRTs: Where is the Lead? CRTs: Where is the Lead?

Funnel Color CRTs Funnel Monochrome

CRTs
24% Pb 4% Pb

Face Face
0 – 3% Pb 0 – 3% Pb

Neck 30% Pb Neck 30% Pb

Frit 70% Pb

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 01‐02‐2018

Arsenic
Metals in Solder Semiconductors

 Solder types Antimony

 Tin/Lead
Solder, CRT glass
(63%Sn, 37%Pb)
 Tin/Copper
(99.2%Sn,0.8%Cu)
 Tin/Silver/Copper
Beryllium Cadmium
(95.5%Sn,3.9%Ag,0.6%Cu) plated contacts and switches,
CPU motherboard, heat sink
 Bismuth/Tin/Silver
plastics, batteries
(57%Bi, 42%Sn, 1%Ag)
 Tin/Silver/Bismuth/Copper Mercury
(96%Sn, 2.5%Ag, 1%Bi, Lighting, Switches, Relays
0.5%Cu)

Organic Chemicals Brominated Flame Retardants

O
 Polychlorinated biphenyls  Typical BFRs of Concern:
 Brominated flame retardants x y
 Polybrominated diphenylethers
(PBDEs)
 Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD)

 Decabromodiphenyl ether (c-decaBDE)

 Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA)

Br Br
CH 3
HO OH
CH 3
Br Br

Nickel Cadmium
Battery Pack

Semiconductors
Arsenic, Selenium

Battery
Lithium, Nickel, Cadmium

2
 01‐02‐2018

Mercury Lamp
from Laptop

http://library.thinkquest.org/06aug/02342/websitefinal/disposa

Routes of Exposure

 Lungs (through inhalation of dusts, metal fumes, and

vapors)
 Skin (through contact with dusts)
 Mouth (by ingestion)

Forecasting of generation of obsolete computers in developed and developing world

Yu et al. (2010), Environmental Science and Technology, 44(9) 3232-3237

Graphical Representation of Health 77

Hazard Potential Exposure Media

 Air
 Soil/dust
 Water
 Sediments
 Biota/food

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 01‐02‐2018

Characteristics of Hazardous Substances on the

CERCLA Priority List of Hazardous CERCLA Priority List
Substances
 Pose the most significant potential threat to human health
 The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
because they:
(ATSDR) has identified a list of the top 20 hazardous
Have known or suspected toxicity and
substances, known as the CERCLA Priority List of Hazardous
Substances. Have potential for human exposure at NPL sites

 This list is revised every two years.  A substance can be on the list if there is a high frequency of
occurrence and potential for human exposure even if it is not
among the most toxic substances.

Top 20 Hazardous Substances from the 2017

CERCLA Priority List of Hazardous Substances Major Toxic Metals with Multiple Effects

1.Arsenic 11. Chloroform

2.Lead
12. Aroclor1260
Arsenic Mercury
3.Mercury
4.Vinyl chloride 13. DDT, P, P’ Beryllium Lead
5.Polychlorinated biphenyls 14. Aroclor1260
6.Benzene 15. Dibenzo(a,h)anthracene Cadmium Nickel
7.Cadmium 16. Trichloroethylene
8.Benzo(a)pyrene 17. Chromium, hexavalent Chromium
9.Polycyclic aromatic 18. Dieldrin
hydrocarbons 19. Phosphorus, white
10.Benzo(b)fluoranthene 20. Hexacholorobutadiene

Definition: Heavy Metals Arsenic

 A heavy metal has a high atomic weight with a  Varies in toxicity depending upon its chemical form
specific gravity that exceeds the specific gravity of  Byproduct of refining gold and other metals
water by five or more times at 4° C.  Used in pesticides, wood preservatives, and in manufacturing
processes
 Exposure can come from ingestion and inhalation.

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 01‐02‐2018

Standards for Arsenic Potential Health Effects of Arsenic

Exposure
 Skin, bladder, kidney, and liver cancer when ingested
 In 2001, the EPA announced the standard of 10 µg of arsenic  Lung cancer when inhaled
per liter of drinking water with the year 2006 set as the
compliance date for this standard.  Peripheral vascular disease

 This standard has been lowered from 50 µg of arsenic per  Cerebrovascular disease
liter of water.  Cardiovascular disease, e.g., hypertensive heart disease
 Diabetes (long-term exposure)
 Adverse pregnancy outcomes--spontaneous abortions,
stillbirths, and preterm births

Acute Toxic Metal Poisoning Symptoms of Long-Term Exposure at

Lower Levels

The symptoms of acute poisoning from exposure to  Reduced cognitive functioning

metals generally have rapid onset—from a few  Mimicking of chronic disease symptoms
minutes to approximately one hour.

Occupational Exposures Cadmium and the General Population

to Cadmium

 Occupational exposure to cadmium comes from the  Primary sources of cadmium exposure for the general
production of nickel cadmium batteries, zinc smelting, population are cigarette smoke and dietary cadmium.
manufacture of paint pigments, soldering, and from  Cadmium bioaccumulates in shellfish and is found in
employment in metal factories. some species of mushrooms.

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 01‐02‐2018

Effects of Cadmium Exposure Mercury

 Naturally occurring metal that is

 Osteoporosis in women
highly toxic
 Height loss in men
 Released into the environment as a by-
 Kidney damage product of industrial processes
 Elevated blood pressure  Coal-generated electric power plants
 Cardiovascular diseases are major source of Hg emissions
 “Itai-Itai” disease

Exposure to Mercury Legacy of Mercury Contamination

 At low levels, mercury represents a hazard to human Minamata disease

health because it becomes deposited in the beds of Water contamination around mines (e.g., New
lakes, rivers, and other bodies of water. Almeden) in California
 Microorganisms ingest these small amounts of
mercury.
 The process of bioaccumulation causes the mercury to
become more concentrated in aquatic invertebrates.

Target Organ: Nervous System

Spilled Liquid Mercury

e.g., Minamata Japan (1950’s)  Naturally a liquid at room temperature

 Mercury’s vapor pressure at room temperature produces
 Mercury discharged from factory
into bay air concentrations in excess of exposure limits
 Mercury transformed by microbes  Inhalation, skin absorption, ingestion
into methyl mercury  Clean-up is costly: special chemical scavenger
 Methyl mercury concentrates in compounds, vacuum equipment, PPE
fish
 then…. ?

6

Lead
 Sources of environmental lead include leaded
gasoline, tap water from soldered pipes, and painted
surfaces in older buildings.
 Another common source of household lead exposure
is imported pottery that is used in food service.
Children and Exposure to Heavy Metals
(continued)
Nervous system damage
Memory impairment
Difficulty in learning
Range of behavioral problems, such as
hyperactivity syndrome and overt aggressiveness
01‐02‐2018
Lead Exposure
 Serious central nervous system (CNS) effects and other
adverse health consequences occur even when ingested
at low levels.
 Lead poisoning is one of the most common
environmental pediatric health problems in the United
States.
Heavy Metal Exposure among Children
Versus Adults
Because a child’s body weight is smaller than that
of adults, children consume more food in
proportion to their body weight and consequently
receive higher doses of heavy metals that may be
present in their food.
7

Fetal Exposure Effects
 Lead and mercury have the capacity to cross the
placental barrier, causing potential fetal brain damage.
Effects of Hexavalent
Chromium(VI) Exposure
Digestive problems and damage to organs such
as the kidney and liver when ingested.
Produces skin ulcers when applied to the skin.
Inhaling chromium(VI) in high concentrations
may cause respiratory problems, for example,
nose bleeds, perforation of the nasal septum, and
runny nose.
Effects of Nickel Exposure
 One of the most common reactions to skin contact
with nickel is nickel allergy, manifested as contact
dermatitis.
 Cardiovascular-related and renal diseases as well as
fibrosis of the lungs
 Potential carcinogenic action
01‐02‐2018
Chromium
 Naturally occurring element in the earth’s crust (e.g.,
in rocks, soils, and materials of volcanic origin)
 Most common forms are:
chromium(0)
chromium(III): an essential nutrient
chromium(VI): classified as a carcinogen
Nickel
Classified as a heavy metal, nickel is one of the
constituents of the earth’s crust.
Human exposure to low levels of nickel is probably
universal and unavoidable.
Employed in the production of many of the
appliances and tools that are used in everyday life,
such as nickel cadmium batteries.
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What is Beryllium? “Chronic Beryllium Disease”

“CBD”
 Second lightest metal  replaces archaic term “berylliosis”
 Stiff  granulomas at multiple organ sites
 High melting  1st the lungs: shortness of breath
 Absorbs and distributes  Also: anorexia, fever, weight loss, night sweats
heat  Disabling, but treatable
 Reflects neutrons  Can be progressive & fatal
 Transmits x-rays  Signature disease
 Latency ~6 to 10 years (4 mo. - 30+ yrs)

Beryllium in the Workplace

“Beryllium Sensitivity” (BeS)

BeLPT
 Detects asymptomatic
people who have been
exposed.
 Early marker of
immune system’s
recognition of Be as
“foreign”
 Not yet ill on lymphocytes from
peripheral blood on lavaged lymphocytes

Copper and the Environment Exposure to Copper

 Copper appears in electrical wires, pipes, in Occurs by inhalation, ingestion of copper-

combination with other metals to form alloys, as a containing foods and water, and direct contact with
mildew inhibitor, and as a wood and leather the skin.
preservative.
Small amounts may dissolve into tap water from
 The ATSDR estimates that in the year 2000 alone,
copper piping, causing copper levels to become
approximately 1.4 billion pounds of copper were
released into the environment during industrial more concentrated when the water remains in the
processing. pipes overnight.

9

Effects of Copper Exposure
 Concentrated amounts (far above trace levels) can
produce respiratory and gastrointestinal disturbances.
 Respiratory effects from dust include irritation of the
respiratory tract (e.g., nose and mouth).
 Very high levels are known to cause liver damage, renal
damage, and death.
Negative Effects of Excessive Amounts of
Zinc
 Consumption of large quantities is associated with
gastrointestinal problems such as stomach cramps, nausea, and
vomiting.
 Zinc also can cause anemia and damage to the pancreas.
 Breathing high concentrations of zinc in the workplace causes a
disease known as metal fume fever (“galvy” fever). This
condition appears to be an immune-mediated response that
originates in the lungs.
01‐02‐2018
Zinc
 A frequently occurring element found in the earth’s crust,
zinc permeates air, soil, water and, to some degree, all
foods.
 Used commercially as a coating for rust inhibition, as a
component of batteries, and in combination with other
metals to make brass, bronze, and other alloys.
“Galvanized” coatings.
 A nutritional element that is important for maintaining
health
Aluminum
 This silver-white metal is used widely in food and
beverage containers, in pots and pans, and in
construction sites.
 An ingredient in various medicines and cosmetics, for
example, buffered aspirin and antiperspirants
 Concern about possible association with Alzheimer’s
disease
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Case Study of Heavy metal contamination due

to E-Waste Recycling
Case study 1:
Heavy metals in PM2.5 and in blood, and children's respiratory
Electronic Waste symptoms and asthma from an e-waste recycling area (Zeng et al.,
2016)
ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH  A total of 300 children, 3-to-8-years of age, were recruited from a
Issue kindergarten in Guiyu (the E-Waste exposed area)
BRAJESH KUMAR DUBEY  170 peers were enrolled from another kindergarten in Haojiang (the
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING reference area, located in the 31.6 km to the east of Guiyu)
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KHARAGPUR  Sampling was conducted between December 2012 and January 2013.
 Four kinds of heavy metal concentrations were measured in PM2.5 and in
blood.

Aim of the Study Air Sampling

 To measure the levels of heavy metals in PM2.5 and in blood in Guiyu  Two PM2.5 monitoring samplers are separately fixed on the roof of a 3-
and Haojiang story teaching building (10-m high) of two kindergartens in an open
environment from Guiyu and Haojiang

 To determine the factors contribute to blood heavy metals of children

from Guiyu and Haojiang  PM2.5 samples had been simultaneously collected every 24 h except rainy
or stormy days in Guiyu.

 The prevalence of respiratory symptoms and asthma of children from

Guiyu and Haojiang  Pre-weighed Teflon membrane filters (2 mm pore apertures; 37 mm
diameter; SKC Inc., Eighty-Four, PA) were used in Harvard-type PM2.5
impactors (MS&T Area Sampler; Air Diagnostics,Inc, Harrison, ME) for
 The factors contribute to respiratory symptoms and asthma. collecting PM2.5 samples.

Blood Sample Preparation Study Subject and Sample Characteristic

 Samples of venous blood are obtained from each child by nurses at the
kindergartens.

 Blood samples are gathered in lead-free containers, placed on ice and

stored at minus 700C until further analysis.

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Results from the study

Factor Contributing Heavy Metal Concentration
in Children’s Blood
Blood Heavy metals Guiyu Haojung
 Blood Lead is found positively associated with living in the E-Waste
Pb (µg/dL) 4.55-8.00 3.98-5.76
Cd (µg/dL) 0.442-0.779 0.372-0.642
exposed area, contacting with E-Waste, outdoor play and negatively
Cr (µg/dL) 6.30-10.29 5.76-11.38 associated with weight.
Mn (µg/dL) 24.39-35.48 23.28-35.04  Blood Cadmium is found positively associated with age and living in
the E-Waste exposed area and negatively associated with drinking dairy
Particulate Heavy Metals Guiyu Haojung
PM2.5 (µg/m3) 34.83- 74.83 26.36-53.21
products
Pb (ng/m3) 90.71-329.67 45.87-138.30  Blood Chromium is found positively associated with biting pencils or
Cd (ng/m3) 3.61-9.03 1.93-6.51 erasers
Cr (ng/m3) 3.47-12.39 3.89-12.30
 Blood Manganese is found negatively associated with the distance from
Mn (ng/m3) 10.29-35.86 10.18-41.42
home to road

Factor Contributing to Respiratory Symptoms

and asthma of Children
 Blood Cr and contacting with E-Waste is positively associated with cough
 Blood Mn is positively associated with wheeze
 Contacting with e-waste is positively associated with phlegm
 Blood Pb > 5 mg/dL and home close to E-Waste are risk factors for asthma.
Major Conclusion
 The major factors related to E-Waste exposure are use home as a
workshop, home close to an E-Waste recycling site, parents participation in
E-Waste recycling job and child contact E-Waste.
 The family income, passive smoking, and distance from home to a road
were secondary factors influencing the heavy metal levels and the
prevalence of respiratory symptoms and asthma in children
 The levels of Pb, Cd, Cr and Mn in PM2.5 from the E-Waste exposed area
in the present study were higher than the several Asian sites.
 The prevalence of respiratory symptoms in children was higher than those
from the reference area.

What Are PCB’s?

Polychlorinated Biphenyl
 Mixtures of up to 209 individual chlorinated compounds (known as  PCB’s are either oily liquids or solids, some exist as a vapor in air.
congeners).
 PCB’s are a fat-soluble, water-insoluble hydrocarbon containing 1 to  Colorless to light yellow
10 chlorine atoms.
 Common Structure C12H10-xClx:  PCB’s have no smell or taste
 PCB mixtures are known in the U.S. by the trade name Aroclor.
 Extremely stable, withstanding temperatures of up to 1,600°F (870°C).

 PCB’s are fire-resistant and an electrical insulator.

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 01‐02‐2018

Uses of PCB’s PCBs in the Environment

 PCBs were used in heat-transfer, lubricants and insulation fluid in cooling
systems and electrical equipment.  PCBs entered air, water and soil during their manufacture, use and disposal.

 Also used in sealants, rubber, paints, plastics, printing ink and insecticides.  Accidental spills and leaks during their transport, and from leaks or fires in
products containing PCBs.

 Products including old fluorescent lighting fixtures and electrical devices

and appliances, such as television sets and refrigerators made before 1977  Still released from hazardous waste sites; illegal or improper disposal of
may contain PCBs. industrial waste; leaks from old appliances.

 Manufacture of PCBs was stopped in the U.S. in 1977 because of evidence

showing large amounts in the environment can cause harmful health
effects.

PCBs in the Environment

Exposures to PCBs
 PCBs are not readily biodegradable
 Using old fluorescent lighting fixtures and electrical devices and
appliances, that are over 30yrs old.
 In water, stick to organic particles and bottom sediments; binds strongly
to soil.
 Eating contaminated food (fish, meat, and dairy products)
 PCBs are consumed by small organisms and fish in water.
 Breathing air near hazardous waste sites and drinking contaminated water.

 Workplaces during repair and maintenance of PCB accidents, fires or spills

involving products containing PCB.

Health Affects Caused by PCBs

PCBs Affect on Children
High dosage:
 Skin conditions such as acne and rashes.  Mothers exposed to high levels of PCBs in the workplace or ate large amounts of
 Changes in blood and urine, indicating liver damage. contaminated fish
Animals (eating high amounts/short time):
 Babies weigh less than others babies with mothers not exposed to PCBs.
 Mild liver damage; some death
Animals (eating small amounts/long time):  Problems with motor skills and decreased short term memory
 Anemia
 Skin conditions  Immune system complications
 Liver, stomach and thyroid glad injuries.
 PCBs are not known to cause structural birth defects.  Infants most likely exposed through breast milk.

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 01‐02‐2018

Can PCBs Cause Cancer? Reduce the risk of exposure to PCBs

 Studies show, workers exposed to high doses of PCBs can develop certain
kinds of cancers including liver and biliary tract cancer.
 Rats that ate food with high doses of PCBs for two years developed liver
cancer.
 The EPA and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)
have determined PCBs to be carcinogenic to humans.
 Avoid eating the fish and fish-eating wildlife that have been issued advisory
warnings about PCB-contamination.
 Avoid children playing with old appliances, electrical equipment, or
transformers that might contain PCBs.
 Discourage children from playing in the dirt near hazardous waste sites,
eating dirt and putting dirty hands, toys and other objects in mouth.
 If exposed to PCBs in the workplace, they could be brought home on clothes,
body or tools. Shower before leaving; keep work clothes and tools separate
from clean items.

Drinking Water Standards For PCB Environmental Standards of PCB For Food

 EPA considers PCBs a probable human carcinogen and prohibits
industrial discharges under the Clean Water Act Effluent Guidelines.
 EPA's goal for drinking water's maximum contaminant level is zero, and
the enforceable MCL for PCBs in public water systems is 0.0005ppm
[EPA 2001].
 EPA requires that PCB spills or accidental releases into the environment
of 1 pound or more be reported to EPA [ATSDR 2000]
 FDA mandates tolerances of 0.2-3.0 ppm PCBs for all foods, with a
tolerance level in fish of 2 ppm. FDA also limits PCBs in paper food-
packaging materials to 10 ppm [FDA 1996c].
 The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health
Organization (WHO) allow a daily PCB intake of 6 µg/kg per day [AAP
2003].

PBDEs: High Production Volume Chemicals

Environmental Standards of PCB For Air
(Common name: Bromkal, Tardex, Saytex)
Agency Focus Level Comments 3 commercial mixtures (Penta and Octa no longer made)
NIOSH Air: workplace 1.0 µg/m3 Advisory; TWA • Penta-BDE (used in foam; 40% tetra, 45% penta, 6% hexa)
– 18.3 million pounds per year in the Americas
(10-hour)
– 98 % of world use is in the Americas
– All congeners highly bioaccumulative
OSHA Air: workplace 1.0 mg/m3 for PCBs Both standards – 86 to 99% of congeners found in human tissues
with 42% Cl encompass all • Octa-BDE (plastics, textiles; 10% hexa, 40% hepta, 30% octa, 20% nona)
0.5 mg/m3 for PCBs physical forms of – 3.0 million pounds per year in the Americas
with 54% Cl aerosols, vapor, • Deca-BDE (plastics, textiles; 98% deca and 2% nona)
mist, sprays, and – 53.6 million pounds per year in the Americas
PCB-laden dust
particles. 24

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 01‐02‐2018

PBDE Point Sources

“They’re everywhere”
PBDEs are now ubiquitous environmental contaminants:
–Indoor and outdoor Air
–House and office dust Wastewater Treatment Plants
–Rivers and lakes and sediments
–Sewage sludge
–Remote Arctic regions (i.e., long-range transport)
–Food Chemical Plants
–Biota (terrestrial & marine mammals, fish, humans)
25 Landfills 26

Human Exposure
PBDE Non-Point Sources
Breastmilk

Maternal transfer to fetus

Furnishing Foam Diet (esp., fish)

Plastics

Indoor, house & office dust, outdoor air

Occupation
Electrical Circuitry Furnishing Foam 27 28

PBDE Dietary Intake of Why do we care about

U.S. Population by Age and Food Group
(Schecter et al., 2006) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers?
From dairy From meat From fish From egg From fat product From human milk
90
3,000
306,560
Persistent, bioaccumulative, and structurally similar to PCBs,
PBDEsource(pg/kg-dayww)

2,652
80
2,500
70 DDT, and other POPs.
2,000 1,755

60 1,429
1,500
50 1,045
1,264

900
1,172
912 957 869 East Levels are rapidly increasing in the environment and biological
1,000
40
500
West samples
30 North
0
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ale
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al

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Effects seen in animals are similar to those seen with PCBs

m

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d fa

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1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr

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29 30

5
 01‐02‐2018

Levels are increasing in the biological samplesr

Total PBDEs in 47 human milks Time Trends of PBDEs in
from Texas, 2002 (ppb lipid) Canadian Breast Milk
[Mean – 73.9; Median – 34.0 (6.2-418.8)] (Ryan and Patry, 2002)
(Schecter et al., SOT 2003)
450
30

400 25

PBDEs are structurally similar to PCBs 350

ug/kg milk lipid

20 47
300 99

ng/g, lipid based

100
15
250 153
Sum n=8
200 10

150
5
100
0
50

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 24 25 26 2 7 28 29 3 0 31 32 3 3 3 4 35 36 3 7 38 39 4 0 41 42 4 3 4 4 45 4 6 4 7
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Samples
year

31 32

Are PBDE levels approaching to those of PCBs

Developmental Neurotoxicity of PBDEs,
PBDEs are increasing while PCBs and other POPs are decreasing in
Human Milk in Sweden (Norén and Mieronyté, 1997) similar to PCBs

• Both mice and rats

Mice very sensitive (clear effects at 0.8 mg BDE-99/kg) in infantile period
PCBs
• Sensory and Cognitive Effects
• Mechanism Unknown
– Depression in serum T4
PBDEs – Effects on Intracellular signaling
– Effects on neurotransmitters
33 34

INTRODUCTION

GHANA

 Ghana (formerly known as the Gold Coast because of the vast

deposits of gold) became the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to
gain independence in 1957.

GHANA AND E-WASTE  Is located in the western portion of the African continent, bordered
by the Gulf of Guinea, Togo, Burkina Faso and the Coted’Ivoire;

PROBLEM has a total land area of 238,540 sq. km.

 The economy of Ghana is mainly agriculture controlled and is one

of the leading exporters of cocoa in the world.

 The climate is tropical, experiences both wet and dry periods and
has two rainy periods in the year except the northern sector. The
average annual temperature is about 26oC (about 79oF). Annual
Rainfall: 736.6mm / 29”.

 English is the official language, a legacy of British colonial rule.

6

INTRODUCTIONGHANA – WASTE
ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
 The demand for electronic and electrical equipment (EEE) has been on the
increase in the last decade as a result of accelerated economic growth, coupled
with urbanization around the world.
 Some of the equipment are household appliances like kitchen blenders,
refrigerators, computers, stereo systems, televisions, mobile phones, etc.
 Similarly, in Ghana, there has been remarkable growth in the consumption of
EEE since the mid-1990s.
 Today, Ghanaians have access to computer facilities, mobile telephones,
microwaves, refrigerators, washing machine, entertainment electronics, etc.
which are serving a good purpose in their daily lives and supporting the
development of the Ghanaian economy.
 Nowadays, these EEE have a short lifetime (only few months to years), so large
volumes of mix waste EEE (popularly called electronic waste or e-waste) are
generated annually in Ghana.
SOME OF THE E-WASTE ON THE GHANAIAN
MARKET
Some brown goods on display at a market in Ghana
SOME OF THE E-WASTE ON GHANAIAN MARKET
Some grey goods and others on display at a market in Accra
01‐02‐2018
E-WASTE PRODUCTS ON THE GHANAIAN
 MARKET
In Ghana, both brand new and used EEE products are found on the market. However many have
the belief that the used EEE products are inexpensive and better than the latter. Hence, the higher
patronage.
 Presently, large volumes of e-waste are imported legally/illegally into the country. Items such as
computers, televisions, stereos, electric irons, blenders, refrigerators, air conditioners, etc. are
abundant in the Ghanaian society.
 The dumping of these goods have risen lately, from Europe and United States into developing
countries including Ghana for reasons like lack of adequate recycling infrastructure, exorbitant
fees in the disposal of e-waste and potential environmental pollution.
 At the end of their useful life, everyone of these products becomes waste, forming the complex
mixture of materials that make up the EEE waste stream.
SOME OF THE E-WASTE ON THE GHANAIAN
MARKET
Brown(left) and grey (right) goods on display at a market in Ghana
SOME OF THE E-WASTE ON THE GHANAIAN
MARKET
Some white goods and others on display at Accra market
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EXTENT OF E-WASTE PROBLEM IN GHANA SOME SCENES OF E-WASTE DISPOSAL IN

ACCRA
 With advancement in technology, nationals of the developed world tend to replace their old EEE, whereas the
developing nations are the sinks for the obsolete products; this is the source of the ever increasing stream of e-waste in
the developing world.
 Ghana does not manufacture EEE goods, but imports both new and old EEE into the country.
 Cheaper e-waste product has led to increase patronage in Ghana, coupled with increased dumping from the developed
world into the country.
 Quantity of waste EEE entering the country, domestically generated (stored in artisan’s workshops), households,
institutions/companies, etc are unknown.
 At the end of EEE life span, group of youth called “scrap boys” are seen moving round to buy disposed end of service
EEE products, who in turn sell to recyclers and artisans who isolate precious minerals (e.g. gold, silver, copper). This
informal practice is popular in almost all the regional capitals as well as some municipal towns; number of people
involved in this informal business is uncertain.
 Likewise, there is no statistical data as regards the quantity of waste generated (secondary e-waste) after recycling and
recovery for re-use or for export.
 The recycling and disposal methods of e-waste are inappropriate, usually rudimentary. E-waste is processed in open air
and enclosures (small workshops and ramshackle wooden/metal buildings) by manual dismantling (stripping to recover
essential components like metals, printed wiring boards, cables, batteries, etc). The emerging wastes contain hazardous
materials (e.g. toxic metals, PCBs, BFRs, burnt plastics). These are discharged/ dumped/stock-piled along the streams,
rivers and or dispersed on large tracts of land. These could pose severe impacts on human health and the environment. A
case in point is, Agbogbloshie, a well-known market in Accra, for e-scrap buying, selling and processing.
 Some scenes as regards e-waste are illustrated:
Dysfunctional e-waste stockpiled at an artisan’s workshop, ready to be sold to “scrap

SOME SCENES OF E-WASTE DISPOSAL IN SOME SCENES OF E-WASTE DISPOSAL IN

ACCRA ACCRA

Stockpiled e-waste ready to be shipped to processing site, for stripping, Littered dismantled parts of computers, TVs, refrigerators, and others along
extraction and recycling the River Odaw in Accra

SOME SCENES OF E-WASTE DISPOSAL IN SOME SCENES OF E-WASTE DISPOSAL IN

ACCRA ACCRA

Scavengers working on stockpiled of e-waste littered along the entire stretch Stockpiled of e-waste along the river Odaw in Accra and dumped sites
of River Odaw in Accra

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SOME SCENES OF E-WASTE DISPOSAL IN SOME SCENES OF E-WASTE DISPOSAL IN

ACCRA ACCRA

“Secondary” e-scrap being prepared for recycling or export

Stockpiled “Secondary” e-scrap prepared for sorting

SOME SCENES OF E-WASTE DISPOSAL IN IMPACT OF E-WASTE IN THE GHANAIAN

ACCRA ENVIRONMENT
 E-Waste contains several components having toxic chemicals which could impact
human health and the environment.

 Atmospheric pollution –fumes of mixed obnoxious and toxic gases and particulate
emissions from opening burning of plastic-metal parts and precious metals via acid
leaching at recycling centres and dumped sites.

 Water bodies as well as soils are contaminated; e-scrap piles remain ages on the land at
the mercy of the sun and rain. Chemical leachates thus reach water bodies with ease,
the consequences are untold on aquatics and other users.

 Possible long term health effects on people involved due to exposure to toxic chemicals
during processing e.g. dermal absorption during rummaging piled e-waste in dumps,
A section of the processing site which serves as both residential and dump sites inhalation during burning of the waste. Serious repercussions for residences in
proximity to areas where e-waste is recycled or burnt.

E-WASTE DISPOSAL AND IMPACTS IN ACCRA CHALLENGES FACING GHANA IN E-WASTE

MANAGEMENT

 Ghana and Africa, in general, rely solely on imported used EEE. Consequently
enormous quantities of E-Waste are generated which are poorly managed.

 Problems affecting management of the waste are large:

 No pollution prevention and recycling control of waste EEE
 No basic structure for waste management
 No laws governing E-Waste management
 No legal framework for extended producer responsibility
 The government has now put a committee in place to draft policies and regulations as regards
waste EEE management.

Impact of e-waste activities on aquatic and terrestrial environments of some

parts of Accra

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Electronic Waste
Health Risk Assessment

BRAJESH KUMAR DUBEY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KHARAGPUR

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Risk assessment
Introduction to Risk assessment Hazard
Identification

 It is the gathering of data used to relate response to dose  Risk assessment is a Dose response Exposure
four step process assessment assessment

 Risk management is the process of decision making i.e. how to allocate

national resources to protect public health and the environment Risk
characterization

Risk
Management

Basic definition Basic definition

 Hazard identification is a process of determining whether

or not a particular chemical is causally linked to particular
health effects such as cancer or birth defects.
 Dose response assessment is the process of characterizing
the relationship between dose of an agent administered or
received and the incidence of a adverse health effect.
 Exposure assessment involves determining the size and
nature of the population that has exposed as well as
length of the time and toxicant concentration.
 Risk characterization is the integration of above three
steps and determination of the magnitude of public
health problem

Hazard Identification Hazard Identification (contd…)

 First step of the risk analysis
 To determine whether exposure of a particular chemicals  Acute toxicity refers that are caused within a short period of
likely to have any adverse health effects as well as time after a single exposure of chemical.
probability of their occurrence.
 Toxicant primarily enters into the body in three different  Chronic toxicity refers exposure of chemicals after a long
pathways such as inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact. period of exposure
 Information's are gathered through testing on
microorganism and animals by acute and chronic
carcinogenic bioassay.  LD50 is that dose which will kill 50 percent of the population

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Toxicity Testing on Animals Minimum test requirements for

 Short term carcinogenic assay is an intermediate testing
procedures in which specific organs of mice and rats are
subjected to known mutagens to determine whether tumors
develop.
 Chronic carcinogenesis bioassay is most costly, complex
and long-lasting test involves hundred or thousand of
animals over a long time period.
acceptable chronic bioassay
National Toxicology Program in the United States has
established following minimum requirements for an acceptable
chronic bioassay
 Two species of rodents must be tested
 At least 50 male and 50 females of each species tested

 At least two doses must be administered with a no dose control

Human studies Parameter for determining exposure

and disease
 Data obtained from animal testing methods difficult to interpret for With disease Without disease
humans
Exposed a b
Not Exposed c d
 Some substance causes tumor to rat may not be causes tumor for
human • The attributable risk is the difference between odds of having
disease with the exposure and odds of having disease without
exposure.
• Odds ratio is similar to relative risk. Number above 1.0 suggests
 By attempting to find, correlation between disease rates and various a relationship between exposure and risk
Odds ratio
environmental factors, a quantitative relationship between exposure
and risk can be developed
Attributable risk

Epidemiologic Data Analysis (An Example) Solution..

 Putting the data into the 2 X 2 matrix
With disease Without disease
An evaluation of personal records of employees of a plant that
Exposed 15 185
manufactures vinyl chloride finds that out of 200 workers, 15
developed live cancer. A control group consisting of individual Not Exposed 24 450
with smoking history similar to the exposed workers and who
Solving for each measure yield
are unlikely to have encountered vinyl chloride had 24 with
liver cancer and 450 who did not develop liver cancer. Find the Odds ratio = 1.52
relative risk, attributable risk and odd ratio for those data = 1.48

Attributable risk =0.024

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Classification of Potential Carcinogens Weight-of-Evidence Categories For Human

 Based on the accumulated evidence from clinical studies, epidemiologic Carcinogenicity
evidence, in vitro studies and animal data, the following categories are
used to describe the carcinogenicity of a chemical (EPA). Animal Evidence
Human Sufficient Limited Inadequate No Data No Evidence
Group A: Human Carcinogen Evidence
Sufficient A A A A A
Group B (B1&B2): Probable Human Carcinogen
Limited B1 B1 B1 B1 B1
Group C: Possible Human Carcinogen Inadequate B2 C D D D
No Data B2 C D D E
Group D: Not Classified
No Evidence B2 C D D E
Group E: Evidence of Non carcinogenicity

Dose-Response Assessment
One-hit Model
• For substance that induce a carcinogenic response, it is assumed that
exposure of any kind of carcinogen will create some likelihood of
 The relationship between dose (d) and lifetime risk (probability) of cancer, P(d)
cancer (passes through origin).
is given by
∗
• For non-carcinogenic, it is usually assumed that there is some 1

threshold dose , below which there will be no response q0 and q1 are parameters picked to fit the data.
 Put d=0; the result will be expression for background rate of cancer incidence;
• Two major dose response models are proposed for human exposure P(0)
include  The additional risk of the cancer above background rate is A(d)= P(d)-P(0)
• One hit model (for small dose)
• Multistage model  The value of A(d) is approximately equal to q1d (for small dose)

Multistage model Potency Factor for Carcinogens

 The relationship between dose (d) and lifetime risk (probability) of  The resulting dose-response curve has the incremental risk of cancer
cancer, P(d) is given by (above the background data) on the y-axis and the lifetime average
daily dose of toxicant along x-axis.
∗ ∗ ⋯
1
 At low doses, dose-response curve is assumed to be linear.
 The EPA model of choice is a modified multistage model  The slope of the dose-response curve is called potency factor(PF) or
slope factor (SF)

 It is linear at low doses with the constant of proportionality picked

in a way that the probability of overestimating the risk is 95
percent The denominator is the dose averaged over entire lifetime. It has units
of average milligram of toxicant absorbed per kilogram of body weight
per day.

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Potency Factor for Carcinogens CDI (Chronic Daily Intake)

 Since risk has no units, the units for potency-factor are (mg/kg-day)-1  Generally, CDI can be found out by the equation given below

 Rearranging the equation of potency factor, incremental lifetime cancer CDI(mg/kg-day)=
risk can be found using equation given below
 If the contaminant is in drinking water, then CDI can be expressed as
Incremental lifetime cancer risk = CDI x PF

Where CDI= Chronic Daily Intake; PF= Potency factor CDI(mg/kg-day)=

 If the exposure route is inhalation, then CDI can be expressed as

 Potency factor can be found from EPA data base on toxic substance

called Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) CDI(mg/kg-day)=

Determination of concentration

 The concentration of pollutant in air are generally determined

through air sampling using air sampler Solid Waste Size Reduce to Leach 100 g for 18
Less Than 1 cm hours at 30 RPM

 The concentration of pollutant in water is generally determined

by direct observation (measurement of Pollutant) or can also be
determined through leaching test i.e. TCLP

Filter Solids Analyze Leachate

from Leachate X mg/L

The Difficulty with Performing TCLP on WEEE

Options: Cut by Hand
Collecting a Representative Sample
and Size Reduction

Disassemble

TCLP

Size Reduce
By Hand

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Options: Grind Another Option?

Leach the Whole Thing

Put in Grinder
Disassemble

TCLP

Leach Entire
Device
Further Size
Reduce as Needed

Non-carcinogenic effects
 It is assumed that, for non-carcinogen there is an exposure threshold
 Any doses less than the threshold would not increase the adverse effect
 The lowest dose that resulted in a response is denoted by lowest-observed-
Effect of Non-carcinogens adverse-effect-level (LOAEL)
 The highest dose that does not create a response is called no-observed-adverse-
effect-level (NOAEL)
 Reference dose (RfD) used to be called the ADI (Acceptable Daily Intake)
indicates the level of human exposure which is likely to be without acceptable
risk.
 It is calculated by dividing the NOEAL by an appropriate uncertainty factor

Graphical representation Hazard Index (HI) and Hazard Quotient (HQ)

 Hazard quotient is used to compare the actual exposure of RfD to see whether
actual dose is safe or not

Response

RfD NOAEL LOAEL  If HQ <1; there is no significant risk of systematic toxicity

 For HQ>1; Chances of potential risk
 When exposure involves more than one chemical, the sum of the individual
Dose (mg/kg-day) hazard quotients is used to measure the potential toxicity which is known as
Hazard index
HI= Sum of Hazard quotients

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Bioconcentration
 Sometimes chemical pollutants from E-Waste recycling site are entered into
water body
 Accumulate in the aquatic animal such as fish tissue
 The equilibrium concentration of a chemical in aquatic animal can be
estimated by multiplying the chemical concentration in water by
bioaccumulation factor
Concentration in Fish = (Concentration in water)x (bio-concentration factor)
Solution
Part-I
. ∗ / =
CDI (mg/kg-day)= = = 0.00286 mg/kg-day
Incremental lifetime cancer risk= CDI X PF= .00286 (mg/kg-day)X 6.1X10-3 (mg/kg-day)-1
The calculated, Incremental lifetime cancer risk= 17.4X10-6
So over a 70 year period, the upper bound estimate of probability that a person will get cancer from
this drinking water is about 17 in 1 million
Problem-I
You have just taken a job at a metal plating plant and some of the metals you
work with contain arsenic as impurity. The heated metals give off arsenic
vapors, which create an average concentration of arsenic of 0.00002 mg/m3 in
the air in the workplace.
 What is the increased risk of cancer if you continue to work in this job for
the entire career?
 There are 220,000 workers in the US in metal casing plants similar to one in
which you work. How many worker deaths above the background cancer
rate would be expected due to their occupation?
01‐02‐2018
Numerical Problem
When drinking water is disinfected with chlorine, an undesired byproduct,
chloroform may be formed. Suppose a 70 kg person drinks 2L of water
everyday for 70 years with a chloroform concentration of 0.10 mg/L.
 Find the upper-bound cancer risk for the individual
 If a city with 500,000 people also drinks the same amount of water, how
many extra cancer per year would be expected? Assume the standard 70
year lifetime
 Compare the extra cancer per year caused by the chloroform in drinking
water with the expected number of cancer deaths from all causes. The
cancer death rate in the united states is 189 per 100,000 per year
Potency Factor = 6.1X10-3 (mg/kg-day)-1
Solution
Part-II
If there are 17.4 cancers per million people over a 70 year period, then in a given year in
population of 500,000, the number of cancers caused by the chloroform would be
500,000 people X 17.4 cancer X 1 year
=0.12cancer/year (not Detectable)
Part-III
The total number of cancer deaths that would be expected in the city of 500,000 would be
500,000 people X 189 cancer/ year
= 945 cancer deaths/yr
,
Problem-II
 Suppose an industrial facility that emits benzene into the atmosphere is
being proposed for a site near a residential neighborhood. Air quality
models predict that 60% of the time, prevailing winds will blow the
benzene away from the neighborhood but 40% of the time the benzene
concentration will be 0.01 mg/m3. Assess the incremental risk to adults in
the neighborhood if the facility is allowed to be built. If acceptable risk is
10-6, should this plant be allowed to be built?
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Problem-III

For Numerical problem, please follow

 Suppose a 70 kg man is exposed to 0.1 mg/m3 of tetracholorethylene in the air at
his workplace. If he inhales 1 m3/h, 8 h/day, 5 days/week, 50 weeks per year,
CHAPTER 4 (RISK ASSESSMENT) OF
for 30 years and if tetrachloroethylene has an absorption factor of 90% and
INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE
inhalation potency of 2 x 10-3 (mg/kg-day)-1, what would be his lifetime cancer
risk? What would the risk be to a 50-kg woman similarly exposed? BY GLIBERT M.MASTERS AND WENDELL P.ELA

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