Finite Element Method

Finite Element Method

Chapter 2
Introduction to the Stiffness
Method
 Elastic Spring Element:

f = k d d

where k = spring constant or stiffness of spring (N/m)

f

Consider the same spring but as a part of a structure such that it is connected to
other springs at its ends.; so
 points 1 & 2  nodes of element

xˆ  local axis, positive direction as indicated

fˆ1x , fˆ2 x  local nodal force, positive in xˆ direction
dˆ1x , dˆ2 x  local nodal displacements (DOF at each node),
positive xˆ in direction
 Elastic Spring Element:

So , we can write the vectors

fˆ1x  dˆ1x 
fˆ    and dˆ   
fˆ2 x  dˆ2 x 
so
fˆ1x   k 11 k 12  dˆ1x 
     
fˆ2 x   k 21 k 22  dˆ 
 2x 
 General Steps Applied to a Spring Structure:
 Step 1. Discretize and Select Element Type:
 Evaluate

General Steps Applied to a Spring Structure:

 Step 2. Select a displacement function:

In general,
total # of the ai coefficients = total # of DOF associated with the element

uˆ  a1  a2 xˆ
 a1 
uˆ  1 xˆ  
a2 
at each node;
uˆ 0  dˆ1x  a1 uˆ L   dˆ2 x  a1  a2 L

dˆ 2 x  dˆ1x
a2 
L
  Shape Function

uˆ  a1  a2 xˆ
 dˆ2 x  dˆ1x 
uˆ  
  xˆ  dˆ1x
 L 
 xˆ xˆ  dˆ1x  dˆ1x 
uˆ  1      N 1 N 2   
 L L  dˆ2 x  dˆ2 x 
xˆ xˆ
N 1  1 , and N2 
L L

are called the shape functions (interpolation functions); noticing that

N1 = 1 at node 1 and N1 = 0 at node 2

N2 = 0 at node 1 and N2 = 1 at node 2, and
N1 + N2 = 1 for any xˆ along the element.
 General Steps Applied to a Spring Structure:
 Step 3. Define Strain/Displacement & Stress/Strain Relationships:

For the linear spring, Hook’s law states (force/deformation

instead of stress/strain)

T k
  uˆ( L)  uˆ(0)
  dˆ  dˆ
2x 1x

Note that dˆ1x has a negative value because it in the opposite direction of xˆ
therefore;  = positive value - (negative value).
 General Steps Applied to a Spring Structure:
 Step 4. Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and
Equations:
Recall that we have three alternative methods that can be used to obtain
element stiffness matrix, namely;
1.Direct Equilibrium method.
2.Work or Energy methods (min. P.E. is the most common one).
3.Weighted Residual Methods (Galerkin’s is the most popular one).
For the spring elements, we will use the direct equilibrium approach:

fˆ1x  T
fˆ2 x  T
T  fˆ1x  k ( dˆ2 x  dˆ1x )
T  fˆ  k ( dˆ  dˆ )
2x 2x 1x
 General Steps Applied to a Spring Structure:
 Step 4. Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and
Equations:
fˆ1x  k ( dˆ1x  dˆ2 x )
fˆ2 x  k ( dˆ2 x  dˆ1x )
So the element equations in matrix form are:

 fˆ1x 
  k dˆ1x 
 k  
    
 ˆ   k k  ˆ 
 2x 
f  2x 
d

the “local” stiffness matrix for a spring element is

k  k
k̂   
 k k 
 General Steps Applied to a Spring Structure:
 Step 5. Assemble Element Equations to Obtain Total Equatio
Next we assemble element equations to obtain the total (structure) equations.

FKd
N N
K  K    k F  F    f
(e) (e)
,
e 1 e 1

Where k ( e ) , and f ( e ) are now element stiffness and force matrices, respectively,
in a global frame of reference. If not in a global coordinate axes, element matrices
would have to be transformed into a global frame then may be assembled.
 General Steps Applied to a Spring Structure:
 Step 6. Apply Boundary Conditions and Solve for Nodal
Displacements:
Next we impose boundary conditions to the total system Kd=F;
from which we obtain a reduced (smaller) system. This reduced system then can be
solved for the unknown d’s.

 Step 7. Solve for Element Forces:

Back substituting the values of d’s into equation Kd=F will yield the element
forces.
 Some properties of K

 K is symmetric (as the case in each k)

T
k̂  k̂

 K is singular (has no inverse) until sufficient boundary

conditions are imposes to remove singularity and prevent
rigid-body motion.
det (k̂)  k 2  k 2  0

 Main diagonal elements of K are always positive.

Note
The consequence is that the matrix is NOT invertible. It is not
possible to invert it to obtain the displacements. Why?
The spring is not constrained in space and hence it can attain
multiple positions in space for the same nodal forces
e.g.,
f̂1x   2 - 2 1 - 2
     
f̂ 2x  - 2 2  2  2 
f̂1x   2 - 2 3 - 2
     
f̂ 2x  - 2 2  4  2 
Problem of Springs System
Problem
Analyze the behavior of the system composed of the two springs
loaded by external forces as shown above

F1x F2x F3x

x

k1 k2
Given
F1x , F2x ,F3x are external loads. Positive directions of the forces
are along the positive x-axis
k1 and k2 are the stiffnesses of the two springs
Solution
Step 1: In order to analyze the system we break it up into smaller
parts, i.e., “elements” connected to each other through “nodes”

F1x k1 F2x k2 F3x

x
1 2 3
Element 1 Element 2
d1x d2x d3x
Node 1

Unknowns: nodal displacements d1x, d2x, d3x,

 F1x k1 F2x k2 F3x
x
1 2 3
Element 1 Element 2
d1x d2x d3x
Node 1
Solution
Step 2: Analyze the behavior of a single element (spring)


f̂1x   k - kd̂1x 
Two nodes: 1, 2     
f̂ 2x 
  - k k 
 d̂ 2x 
Nodal displacements: d̂1x d̂ 2x     

Nodal forces: f̂1x f̂ 2x f̂ k̂ d̂
Spring constant: k
Solution
Step 3: Now that we have been able to describe the behavior of
each spring element, lets try to obtain the behavior of the original
structure by assembly

Split the original structure into component elements

Element 2
Element 1
1 k1 2 2 k2 3

(1) (1) (2) (2)

f̂1x(1) d̂1x
(1) f̂ 2x d̂ 2x f̂ (2)
d̂ (2) f̂ 2x d̂ 2x
1x 1x


f̂1x(1) 
  k1 - k1   (1) 
d̂1x  
f̂1x(2) 
  k 2 - k 2  (2) 
d̂1x 
 (1)      (1)   (2)      (2) 
f̂ 2x 
   - k1 k1   d̂ 2x  f̂ 2x   - k 2 k 2  d̂ 2x 
            

(1) (1 ) (1 )
k̂ ( 2) (2) ( 2)
f̂ d̂ f̂ k̂ d̂
Eq (3) Eq (4)
To assemble these two results into a single description of the
response of the entire structure we need to link between the local
and global variables.

Question 1: How do we relate the local (element) displacements

back to the global (structure) displacements?
F1x k1 F2x k2 F3x
x
1 2 3
Element 1 Element 2
d1x d2x d3x
Node 1
(1)
d̂1x  d1x
Eq (5)
d̂ (1)
2x  d̂ (2)
1x  d 2x

2x  d 3x
d̂ (2)
Hence, equations (3) and (4) may be rewritten as


f̂1x(1) 
  k1 - k1  d1x   (2) 
 1x   k 2
f̂ - k 2  d 2x 
 (1)        (2)     

f̂ 2x   - k1 k1  d 2x  
f̂ 2x  - k 2 k 2  d 3x 
Or, we may expand the matrices and vectors to obtain
f̂1x(1)   k1  k1 0 d1x   0  0 0 0  d1x 
 (1)    d  f̂ (2)    d 
f̂ 2x   - k1 k1 0  2x   1x   0 k 2  k 2   2x 
0   0 d 3x  f̂ (2)  0 - k  d 3x 
  
0 0  2x 
  2
2 
k
(1) e d ( 2)e ( 2)e d
(1 ) e
k̂ f̂ k̂
f̂
Eq (6) Eq (7)
(1) e
k̂ Expanded element stiffness matrix of element 1 (local)
(1) e
f̂ Expanded nodal force vector for element 1 (local)
d Nodal load vector for the entire structure (global)
Question 2: How do we relate the local (element) nodal forces back
to the global (structure) forces? Draw 5 FBDs
F1x k1 F2x k2 F3x
x
1 A B2 C D3
d1x d2x d3x
2 3

F1x f̂1x(1) (1)

f̂ 2x f̂1x(2) (2)
f̂ 2x F3x
F2x
© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

At node 1 : F1x - f̂1x(1)  0

(1)
At node 2 : F2x - f̂ 2x  f̂1x(2)  0
(2)
At node 3 : F3x - f̂ 2x 0
In vector form, the nodal force vector (global)

 F1x   f̂1x 
(1)

   (1) (2) 
F  F2x   f̂ 2x  f̂1x 
F   f̂ (2) 
 3x   2x 

Recall that the expanded element force vectors were

f̂1x(1)  0 
(1) e  (1)  ( 2)e f̂ (2) 
f̂  f̂ 2x  and f̂   1x 
0  f̂ (2) 
   2x 
Hence, the global force vector is simply the sum of the expanded
element nodal force vectors  F 
1x
  (1) e ( 2)e
F  F2x   f̂  f̂
F 
 3x 
But we know the expressions for the expanded local force vectors
from Eqs (6) and (7)
(1) e (1)e ( 2) e (2)e
f̂  k̂ d and f̂  k̂ d
Hence

d   k̂  k̂ d

(1) e ( 2) e (1)e (2)e (1)e (2)e
F  f̂  f̂  k̂ d  k̂
 
FKd

F  Global nodal force vector

d  Global nodal displacement vector
K  Global stiffness matrix
 sum of expanded element stiffness matrices
For our original structure with two springs, the global stiffness
matrix is

 k 1  k 1 0  0 0 0 
K  - k1 k1 0  0 k 2  k 2 
 0 0 0 0 - k 2 k 2 
 
(1 ) e (2)e
k̂ k̂

 k1  k1 0 
 - k1 k1  k 2  k 2 
 0 - k2 k 2 

NOTE
1. The global stiffness matrix is symmetric
2. The global stiffness matrix is singular
The system equations FKd imply

 F1x   k1  k1 0  d1x 
     
F2x   - k1 k1  k 2  k 2  d 2x 
F   0 k 2  d 3x 
 3x   - k2

F1x  k1d1x  k1d 2x

 F2x  -k1d1x  (k1  k 2 )d 2x  k 2 d 3x
F3x  -k 2 d 2x  k 2 d 3x

These are the 3 equilibrium equations at the 3 nodes.

 F1x k1 F2x k2 F3x
x
1 A B2 C D3
d1x d2x d3x
2 3

F1x f̂1x(1) (1)

f̂ 2x f̂1x(2) (2)
f̂ 2x F3x
F2x
© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

F1x  k1 d1x  d 2x   f̂1x(1)

At node 1 : F1x - f̂1x(1)  0
F2x  -k1d1x  (k1  k 2 )d 2x  k 2d 3x
At node 2 : F2x - f̂ (1)
 f̂ (2)
0
2x 1x
  k1 d1x  d 2x   k 2 d 2x  d 3x 
(2)
At node 3 : F3x - f̂ 2x 0
 f̂ 2x
(1)
 f̂1x(2)
F3x  -k 2 d 2x  d 3x   f̂ 2x
(2)
Notice that the sum of the forces equal zero, i.e., the structure is in
static equilibrium.

F1x + F2x+ F3x =0

Given the nodal forces, can we solve for the displacements?

To obtain unique values of the displacements, at least one of the

nodal displacements must be specified.
 Direct assembly of the global stiffness matrix

Global
F1x k1 F2x k2 F3x
x
1 2 3
Element 1 Element 2
d1x d2x d3x

Local
Element 2
Element 1
1 k1 2 2 k2 3

(1) (2) (2)

f̂1x(1) d̂1x
(1) (1)
f̂ 2x d̂ 2x f̂ (2)
d̂ (2) f̂ 2x d̂ 2x
1x 1x
Node element connectivity chart : Specifies the global node
number corresponding to the local (element) node numbers

ELEMENT Node 1 Node 2 Local node number

1 1 2 Global node number

2 2 3
Stiffness matrix of element 1 Stiffness matrix of element 2

d1x d2x d2x d3x

(1)  k1 - k1  d1x ( 2)  k2 - k 2  d2x
k̂   k̂  
 1
- k k 1  d2x - k 2 k 2  d3x

Global stiffness matrix

d1x d2x d3x
 k1 - k1 0  d1x
K  - k1 k1  k 2 - k 2  d2x
 0 - k2 k 2  d3x
Examples: Problems 2.1 and 2.3 of Logan
 Imposition of boundary conditions
Consider 2 cases
Case 1: Homogeneous boundary conditions (e.g., d1x=0)
Case 2: Nonhomogeneous boundary conditions (e.g., one of the
nodal displacements is known to be different from zero)

Homogeneous boundary condition at node 1

k1=500N/m k2=100N/m F3x=5N
1 x
2 3
Element 1 Element 2
d1x=0 d2x d3x
 System equations
0
 500 -500 0   d1x   F1x 
-500 600 -100   d    0 
   2x   
 0 -100 100   d3 x   5 

Note that F1x is the wall reaction which is to be computed as part

of the solution and hence is an unknown in the above equation

Writing out the equations explicitly

-500d 2x  F1x Eq(1)

600d 2 x  100d3 x  0 Eq(2)
100d 2 x  100d3 x  5 Eq(3)
 Eq(2) and (3) are used to find d2x and d3x by solving

 600 100   d 2 x  0 
 100 100   d   5 
   3x   
 d 2 x   0.01 m 
  
 3x  
d 0.06 m 

NOTICE: The matrix in the above equation may be obtained from

the global stiffness matrix by deleting the first row and column
 500 -500 0 
 600 100 
-500 600 -100   100 100 
   
 0 -100 100 

Note use Eq(1) to compute F1x =-500d2x  5N

NOTICE:

1. Take care of homogeneous boundary conditions

by deleting the appropriate rows and columns from the
global stiffness matrix and solving the reduced set of
equations for the unknown nodal displacements.

2. Both displacements and forces CANNOT be known at

the same node. If the displacement at a node is known, the
reaction force at that node is unknown (and vice versa)
 Imposition of boundary conditions…contd.
Nonhomogeneous boundary condition: Node 1 has nonzero
displacement of 0.06 m)

k1=500N/m k2=100N/m F3x=5N x

1
2 3
Element 1 Element 2
d1x=0.06m d2x d3x
System equations
0.06
 500 -500 0   d 1x   F1x 
-500 600 -100  d    0 
   2x   
 0 -100 100  d 3x   5 

Note that now d2x , d3x and F1x are not known.
Q1   K 11 K 12   d 1 
Q  =  K K  d 
 2   21 22   2 

 500 -500 0  0.06   F1x 

-500 600 -100   d    0 
   2x   
 0 -100 100   d 3x   5 
  600 100  d 2x  0  500
 100 100  d   5   0   0.06 
   3x     
 600 100  d 2x   30
 100 100  d    5 
   3x   
Now solve for d2x and d3x
d 2 x  0.07
d 3x  0.12m
solve for F1x

500  0.06   500 d 2 x   0  F1x

F1x  500  0.06   500  0.07   5N
Recap of what we did

Step 1: Divide the problem domain into non overlapping regions (“elements”)
connected to each other through special points (“nodes”)

Step 2: Describe the behavior of each element ( f̂  k̂ d̂ )

Step 3: Describe the behavior of the entire body (by “assembly”).

This consists of the following steps

1. Write the force-displacement relations of each spring in expanded form

e
f̂  k̂ d̂e
Recap of what we did…contd.

2. Relate the local forces of each element to the global forces at the nodes
(use FBDs and force equilibrium).

F   f̂
e

Finally obtain

FKd

Where the global stiffness matrix

K  k
e
Recap of what we did…contd.

Apply boundary conditions by partitioning the matrix and vectors

 K11 K12  d1   F1 

K K  d   F 
 21 22   2   2 

Solve for unknown nodal displacements

K 22 d 2  F2  K 21d1
Compute unknown nodal forces
F1  K11d1  K12 d 2
 Physical significance of the stiffness matrix

F1x k1 F2x k2 F3x

x
1 2 3
Element 1 Element 2
d1x d2x d3x
In general, we will have a stiffness  k11 k12 k13 
K  k 21 k 22 k 23 
matrix of the form
(assume for now that we do not know
k11, k12, etc) k 31 k 32 k 33 

The finite element  k11 k12 k13   d1   F1 

k    
force-displacement  21 k 22 k 23  d 2   F2 
relations: k 31 k 32 k 33     
d 3  F3 
 Physical significance of the stiffness matrix

The first equation is

Force equilibrium
k11d1  k12d 2  k13d3  F1 equation at node 1

Columns of the global stiffness matrix

What if d1=1, d2=0, d3=0 ?

While nodes 2 and 3 are held fixed
F1  k11 Force along node 1 due to unit displacement at node 1
F2  k 21 Force along node 2 due to unit displacement at node 1
F3  k 31 Force along node 3 due to unit displacement at node 1

Similarly we obtain the physical significance of the other

entries of the global stiffness matrix
 Physical significance of the stiffness matrix

In general

k ij = keeping
Force at node ‘i’ due to unit displacement at node ‘j’
all the other nodes fixed
This is an alternate route to generating the global stiffness matrix
e.g., to determine the first column of the stiffness matrix
Set d1=1, d2=0, d3=0
F1 k1 F2 k2 F3
x
1 2 3
Element 1 Element 2
d1 d2 d3
Find F1=?, F2=?, F3=?
 Physical significance of the stiffness matrix

For this special case, Element #2 does not have any contribution.
Look at the free body diagram of Element #1
d̂ (1)
1x
d̂ (1)
2x
x
f̂1x(1) k1 (1)
f̂ 2x

fˆ2x(1)  k1 (dˆ (1)

2x  ˆ (1) )  k (0  1)  k
d1x 1 1

fˆ1x(1)  fˆ2x(1)  k1
 Physical significance of the stiffness matrix
Force equilibrium at node 1
F1
F1 =fˆ1x(1)  k1
f̂1x(1)
Force equilibrium at node 2
F2
F2 =fˆ2x(1)  k1
f̂ 2x(1) F1 = k1d1 = k1=k11
Of course, F3=0 F2 = -F1 = -k1=k21

F3 = 0 =k31
 Physical significance of the stiffness matrix
Hence the first column of the stiffness matrix is
 F1   k1 
   
 F2   k1 
F   0 
 3  
To obtain the second column of the stiffness matrix, calculate the
nodal reactions at nodes 1, 2 and 3 when d1=0, d2=1, d3=0
Check that
 F1   k1 
   
F  k 
 2  1 2 k
 F   k 
 3  2 
 Physical significance of the stiffness matrix

To obtain the third column of the stiffness matrix, calculate the

nodal reactions at nodes 1, 2 and 3 when d1=0, d2=0, d3=1
Check that
 F1   0 
   
 F2   k2 
F   k 
 3  2 
Steps in solving a problem

Step 1: Write down the node-element connectivity table

linking local and global displacements

Step 2: Write down the stiffness matrix of each element

Step 3: Assemble the element stiffness matrices to form the

global stiffness matrix for the entire structure using the
node element connectivity table

Step 4: Incorporate appropriate boundary conditions

Step 5: Solve resulting set of reduced equations for the

unknown displacements

Step 6: Compute the unknown nodal forces

Example 1

Given: For the spring system shown,

K1 = 100 N/mm, K2 = 200 N/mm,
K3 = 300 N/mm
P = 500 N,
Find:
(a) the global stiffness matrix
(b) displacements of nodes 3 and 4
(c) the reaction forces at nodes 1 and 2
(d) the force in the spring 2
 Solution
(a) the global stiffness matrix
 100 0 100 0  1
 0 2
 100 100  1  0 0 0

k1    
 100 100  3  100 0 100 0  3
 
 0 0 0 0 4

0 0 0 0 1
 0 2
 200 200  3 0 0 0

k2    
 200 200  4 0 0 200 200  3
 
0 0 200 200  4

0 0 0 0 1
 0 300  2
 300 300  4 0 300 
k3    
 300 300  2 0 0 0 0 3
 
0 300 0 300  4
K = k1 + k2 + k3 K=F
 100 0 100 0 1  100 0 100 0  d 1   F1 
 0 300 0 300  2  0 300 0 300  d 2  F2 
K        
 100 0 300 200  3  100 0 300 200  d 3   F3 
   
 0 300 200 500 4  0 300 200 500  d 4  F4 

(b) displacements of nodes 3 and 4

d1 = d2 = 0., F3 = 0 and F4 = P = 500
10 
 300 200  d 3   0.  d 3  11 
 200 500  d   500     
  4   d 4  15 
11 
(c) the reaction forces at nodes 1 and 2
0
 100 0 100 0   0   F1   1000 
 0   
300 0 300  10   F2   F1   11 
         
 100 0 300 200   11   0   2  
F 4500 
     11 
 0 300 200 500  15 500
 
 11 

(d) the force in the spring 2

 k2 k 2  d 3  f 32 
 k   
 2 k 2  d 4  f 4 2 
10   1000 

 200 200  3  11  f 32  f 32   11 
 200 200  4 15    2    2   
    f 4   4  
f 1000 
 11   11 
Example 2
22 3 4

© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Compute the global stiffness matrix of the assemblage of springs

shown above
d1x d2x d3x d4x
 1000 1000 0 0  d1x
 1000 1000  2000 0  d2x
   2000
K
 0 2000  2000  3000  3000 d3x
 
 0 0 3000 3000  d
4x
 Example 3

© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Compute the global stiffness matrix of the assemblage of springs

shown above

 k1 -k1 0 
 
K  -k1 k1  k 2  k 3 -  k 2  k 3 
 0 -  k 2  k3   k 2  k 3  
 Example 3
Given: For the spring system shown,
Find:
(a) Nodal displacements
(b) The reactions
(c) Forces in each element

 Solution
 100 100 0 0 1
 0 0 2
 100 100  1  100 100 
k1    
 100 100  2  0 0 0 0 3
 
 0 0 0 0 4
 0 0 0 0 1
 0 2
 50 50  2 0 50 50 
k2    
 50 50  3 0 50 50 0 3
 
0 0 0 0 4

0 0 0 0 1
 0 50  2
 50 50  2 0 50 
k3    4  0 0
 50 50  0 0 3
 
0 50 0 50  4

 100 100 0 0 1  100 100 0 0  1 d 1   F1 

 100 200 50 50  2  100 200 50 50  2 d  F 
K       2    2 
 0 50 50 0 3  0 50 50 0  3 d 3   F3 
       
 0 50 0 50 4  0 50 0 50  4 d 4  F4 
(a) Nodal displacements
d1 = d3 = d4 = 0., and F2 = P = 400
0 100 0 0   0   F1 
0 200 0 0  d 2  400
       d 2  2mm
0 50 0 0   0   F3 
 
0 50 0 0   0   F4 

(b) The reactions

0 100 0 0  0   F1 
F1  200N
0 200 0 0  2  400
       F3  100N
0 50 0 0  0   F3 
  F4  100N
0 50 0 0  0   F4 
(c) Forces in each element
Element 1
 100 100  0   f 1  f 1  200
 100 100  2   f 1  
f 21  200
    2 

Element 2
 50 50  2  f 2 2  f 2 2  100
 50 50  0    f  
f 3  100
    3 

Element 3
 50 50  2  f 23  f 23  100
 50 50  0     
   f 4  f 4  100
 Example
For the spring system with arbitrarily numbered nodes and
elements, as shown above, find the global stiffness matrix.

Solution:
First we construct the following
which specifies the global node numbers corresponding
to the local node numbers for each element.
Then we can write the element stiffness matrices as
follows :
Potential Energy Approach to Derive Spring
Element Equations
The alternative methods used to derive the element equations are:
1. Equilibrium method.
2. Energy methods (minimum potential, virtual work)
3. Weighted residual methods (Galerkin’s)

Energy Method (minimum potential energy):

 p   p d1 , d 2 , d 3 ,....., d n 
Potential Energy Approach to Derive Spring
Element Equations
Energy Method (minimum potential energy):

 p   p d1 , d 2 , d 3 ,....., d n 
Total potential energy is defined as the sum of the internal strain
energy U and the potential energy of the external forces 
 p U  
Internal strain energy, U, is the work done by internal forces (or
stresses) through deformations (strains) in the structure.
Potential energy of the external forces,  , is the potential energy
which is lost when work is done by external forces (body forces, surface
traction forces, and applied nodal forces)
  W
As an example, consider the linear spring shown:
The differential internal strain energy,
dU = internal force x change in displacement through which the
force moves
Or dU = F dx and since F = k x
then
dU = k x dx
therefore, the total strain energy is
x
U  k x dx  12 k x 2
0

U  12 (kx ) x  12 F x
U is area under the force-deformation curve.

Also, the potential energy of the external force

can be written as:

  W   F x
  p  12 k x 2  F x
 p   p d1 , d 2 , d3 ,....., d n 
For a function G(x)
The stationary value of a function G(x) can be a maximum,
a minimum, or a neutral point on G(x).
From differential calculus, any stationary value x of G(x)
must satisfy .

dG
0
dx
Then the first variation of has the general form:

 p  p  p
p   d1   d2     dn
 d1  d2  dn

To satisfy , all coefficients associated with the must be zero independently.

Thus,

 p  p
0 (i  1,2,, n) or 0
 di  d 
NE
 p    (pe )
e 1
For the linear spring element shown

The total potential energy is

 p  12 k (dˆ2 x  dˆ1x )2  fˆ1x dˆ1x  fˆ2 x dˆ2 x

 p  12 k (dˆ22x  2 dˆ1x dˆ2 x  dˆ12x )  fˆ1x dˆ1x  fˆ2 x dˆ2 x

 p
0 i  1, 2
di
 p 1
 2 k ( 2 dˆ2 x  2 dˆ1x )  fˆ1x  0
 dˆ1x

 p 1
 2 k ( 2 dˆ2 x  2 dˆ1x )  fˆ2 x  0
 dˆ2x
Simplifying, we get

k ( dˆ1x  dˆ2 x )  fˆ1x

k (  dˆ1x  dˆ2 x )  fˆ2 x
In matrix form, we write the element equations as:

k dˆ1x 
 k   fˆ1x 
  
 k    
 k  ˆ   fˆ 
 2x   2x 
d

It can be shown that the total potential energy of an entire

structure can be minimized with respect to each nodal degree of
freedom and this minimization will result in the same total
equations of the structure as those obtained by the direct stiffness
method.
Example 4
For the linear-elastic spring subjected to a force shown, evaluate the
potential energy for various displacement values and show that the
minimum potential energy also corresponds to the equilibrium position
of the spring.

We now illustrate the minimization of p through

standard mathematics
 Example 4

We now search for the minimum value of p for various values of spring
deformation x.
We observe that p has a minimum value at x = 2:00 in. This deformed
position also corresponds to the equilibrium position.
Example 4
Example 4
Obtain the total potential energy of the spring assemblage and find its
minimum value. The procedure of assembling element equations can
then be seen to be obtained from the minimization of the total
potential energy.
Example 4
Example 4

When we apply the boundary conditions and substitute F3x = 0

and F4x = 5000 lb into the above equation, the solution is
identical to that of Example 2.1.
HW

Fifth Edition:
P 2.9, 2.10, 2.17,2.18 and 2.19