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Electric Turbocharging for Energy Regeneration

and Increased Efficiency at Real Driving
Conditions
Article in Applied Sciences · April 2017

DOI: 10.3390/app7040350
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applied
sciences
Article
Electric Turbocharging for Energy Regeneration and
Increased Efficiency at Real Driving Conditions
Pavlos Dimitriou 1, *, Richard Burke 1 , Qingning Zhang 1 , Colin Copeland 1 and Harald Stoffels 2
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK; R.D.Burke@bath.ac.uk (R.B.);
Q.Zhang@bath.ac.uk (Q.Z.); C.D.Copeland@bath.ac.uk (C.C.)
2 Powertrain Research & Advanced, Ford-Werke GmbH, Köln-Merkenich, Cologne D-50725, Germany;
hstoffel@ford.com
* Correspondence: P.Dimitriou@bath.ac.uk; Tel.: +44-1225-38-3313
Academic Editor: Jose Ramon Serrano

Received: 23 January 2017; Accepted: 14 March 2017; Published: 1 April 2017
Abstract: Modern downsized internal combustion engines benefit from high-efficiency turbocharging
systems for increasing their volumetric efficiency. However, despite the efficiency increase,
turbochargers often lack fast transient response due to the nature of the energy exchange with
the engine, which deteriorates the vehicle’s drivability. An electrically-assisted turbocharger can be
used for improving the transient response without any parasitic losses to the engine while providing
energy recovery for increasing overall system efficiency. The present study provides a detailed
numerical investigation on the potential of e-turbocharging to control load and if possible replace
the wastegate valve. A parametric study of the optimum compressor/turbine sizing and wastegate
area was performed for maximum torque, fast response time and energy regeneration across the real
driving conditions speed/load area of the engine. The results showed that the implementation of a
motor-generator could contribute to reducing the response time of the engine by up to 90% while
improving its thermal efficiency and generating up to 6.6 kWh of energy. Suppressing the wastegate
can only be achieved when a larger turbine is implemented, which as a result deteriorates the engine’s
response and leads to energy provision demands at low engine speeds.
Keywords: turbocharger; e-turbo; boosting; electrically-assisted; turbo-compound; energy

regeneration; internal combustion engines; 1D simulation
1. Introduction
The demand for low fuel consumption and CO2 generation vehicles over the last few years
has popularly increased the necessity of downsizing and increasing the overall thermal efficiency of
Internal Combustion (IC) engines. Downsizing is the process of reducing the volumetric capacity
of an engine for reduced throttling and friction losses while its boosting capabilities need to be
increased for higher specific heat. This can be achieved by the implementation of a boosting device
(turbocharger or supercharger) for increased air pressure at the intake of the engine and therefore
higher volumetric efficiency.
A turbocharger is a device that recovers the waste energy from the engine’s exhaust gasses and
uses it to compress the air at the engine’s intake. The level of compression is directly linked to the
amount of air passing through the turbine, and it can be controlled by either bypassing part of the flow
through a Wastegate (WG) or by changing the nozzle position of the turbine (VGT, Variable-geometry
turbocharger). The proportion of the waste-gated flow can be up to 50% for high speed and load
conditions, which imply a vast amount of unexploited energy. The drawback of this device is that due
to the nature of the energy exchange between the engine and the turbocharger (filling of the intake and
exhaust manifolds and low exhaust energy at low speeds/loads), the transient performance during
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350; doi:10.3390/app7040350 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 2 of 25
engine load increase is relatively poor, which deteriorates the drivability of the vehicle [1]. On the other
hand, a supercharger is a device mechanically driven by the engine to increase its volumetric efficiency.
It has a very fast response time in transient conditions, but the power required for its operation is a
parasitic loss for the engine; therefore, it is not widely used in recent technologies.
The parallel use of a turbocharger and a supercharger could potentially improve the transient
performance of the system during load increase while reducing the engine losses compared to a solely
supercharger boosted system. However, this will increase the complexity, as a two-stage boosting
system is required [2,3]. An electrically-assisted turbocharger of a larger size and with higher efficiency
could be used in case a simpler one-stage boosting system is needed. The motor can provide the
electricity required at the periods of load increase for a faster response, while the turbocharger works
as a conventional system during steady-state and tip-out conditions.
Katrasnik et al. [4] investigated the influence of an electric motor attached to the turbo shaft on
the transient response of a diesel engine. It was found that the time required to perform transient
power increase was reduced from 3.9 s for the original conventional turbocharger down to 1.7 s.
Ibaraki et al. [5] tested a hybrid turbo developed by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries under transient
operating conditions. An improved engine peak torque and enhanced transient response compared
to a conventional system was demonstrated. Torque was enhanced by 18% at low engine speeds,
while the response time was reduced by 70% when 2 kW of turbo motor assistance was provided.
Millo et al. [6] investigated the potential of an electrically-assisted turbocharger for a heavy-duty diesel
engine to evaluate the turbo-lag reductions and the fuel consumption savings that could be obtained in
an urban bus at different operating conditions. The system allowed fuel consumption reductions of 6%
to 1%, depending on the driving cycle, with lower values corresponding to congested traffic conditions.
Burke [7] applied various electric boosting systems to a gasoline and a diesel engine and evaluated
their steady state and transient performance from the perspective of the air path. The author compared
the performance characteristics of an electrically-assisted turbocharger with those of a two-stage system
with an electrically-driven compressor placed before or after the main waste-gated turbocharger. He
found that under steady-state operating conditions, there was significant system efficiency to installing
the electric compressor downstream of the turbocharger’s compressor. The author also concluded
that an electrically-assisted turbocharger is not ideal as a replacement for the second compressor in a
two-stage system, as it will push the compressor into surge. However, it was mentioned that this could
be overcome through re-matching of the compressor. Bumby et al. [8,9] investigated the technical
problems in selecting an appropriate machine to use with an electrically-assisted turbocharger. The
authors also demonstrated that the required time for accelerating an electrically-assisted turbocharger
from 40 to 110 krpm could be around 50% less than a conventional turbocharger.
However, albeit an electrically-assisted turbocharged engine requires less energy for its operation
than a solemnly supercharged engine, the power required is still a parasitic loss for the engine, which
results in an increased fuel consumption. Divekar et al. [10] proposed an electrical supercharging and
a turbo-generation system integrated in a diesel engine for overcoming the issue of parasitic losses.
The proposed system showed distinct transient response improvement benefits over a conventional
turbocharged system and 7% improvement in fuel consumption over the Federal Urban Driving
Schedule (FUDS) cycle. Furthermore, during transients and high load operation, the proposed system
did not build up exhaust backup pressure in order to accelerate the supercharger, and as such,
no additional pumping losses were incurred. However, the authors commented that the electrical
energy required by the supercharger can be only partially obtained by the turbo-generation system,
which still leads to additional energy losses.
Panting et al. [11] was one of the first research groups to implement the idea of a motor-generator
electrical turbocharger for a 5.2 L truck diesel engine in a theoretical study. Adding a directly-coupled
motor-generator offers tremendous advantages to the operation of the turbocharger. It abolishes the
requirement of the turbine and compressor power to be matched under steady-state conditions while
it assists the acceleration and deceleration of the shaft during transients with no engine energy needs.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 3 of 25
Over the last few years, keen interest has been shown in the numerical and experimental investigation
of the motor-generator technology application in high-duty engines by several research groups.
Terdich and Martinez-Botas [12] experimentally characterized a variable geometry turbocharger
with a motor-generator technology. The authors found that the motor-generator is capable of
delivering a maximum shaft power of 3.5 kW in motoring mode and 5.4 kW in generating mode.
The peak electrical efficiency was more than 90% in both modes and occurred at 120,000 revs/min.
Airse et al. [13] developed a comprehensive powertrain model to evaluate the benefits of an electric
turbo-compound, working in both generator and motor mode, in reducing CO2 emissions from small
diesel passenger cars. The simulations showed a reduction in CO2 and fuel consumption of over 4%
for the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC). Algrain [14] developed an advanced control system
for a motor-generator fitted in a heavy-duty diesel engine for improving the overall fuel efficiency.
The simulation results showed that at the rated power, the fuel consumption of a Class-8 on-highway
truck engine could be reduced by almost 10%, while the overall reduction in fuel consumption was
estimated to be around 5%. Pasini et al. [15] focused on the evaluation of the benefits resulting from
the application of an Electric Turbo Compound (ETC) to a small-sized twin-cylinder Spark-Ignition
(SI) engine and to a four-cylinder Compression-Ignition (CI) engine with the same power rating. They
found that by absorbing electrical energy from the battery, the ETC can lead to significant Brake-Specific
Fuel Consumption (BSFC) reductions of up to 4% at the highest engine speeds and loads for the SI
engine and up to 6% for the CI engine at 4000 rpm half load. Furthermore, calculations have shown
that in the case of the CI engine, the maximum electric power that can be recovered by the ETC is
around 4 kW at 4000 rpm full load, while in the case of the SI engine, the maximum power is 1.5 kW.
Tavcar et al. [16] presented a comprehensive study on engine performance improvement
attributable to the application of different electrically-assisted turbocharger topologies, including
a single-stage turbocharger, an electrically-assisted turbocharger, a turbocharger with an
additional electrically-driven compressor and an electrically-split turbocharger (supercharger and
turbo-generator). The results revealed that all of the electrically-assisted turbocharger topologies
improve the transient response of the engine and, thus, the drivability of the vehicle. However, no
electrically-assisted turbocharger topology could clearly be favoured in general.
In this paper, a detailed investigation of the potential of e-turbocharging to control load while
providing energy recovery for increasing the overall system efficiency and if possible replace the
wastegate boost control is provided. The current approach of e-turbocharging requires larger turbine
systems that do not build up backup pressure and provide electrical assistance at low engine speeds.
However, with this configuration, the energy regeneration occurs only at high speed and load areas of
the engine, as shown in Figure 1a. The proposed study focusses on shifting the energy regeneration
towards the low-speed area, which represents more realistic driving conditions, as shown in Figure 1b.
Energy assistance is provided to the engine when the maximum power characteristics of the engine
need to be met. The study is performed on a 2.0 L turbocharged SI engine under steady-state and
transient driving conditions. The research work focuses on the availability of energy and the effects of
component sizing, the transient behaviour for eliminating turbo lag and the overall system energy
balance during various driving conditions.
After a comprehensive introduction in this section, Section 2 outlines the engine model used
for the study and any relatively small modifications occurring for the purpose of electrifying the
turbocharger. A detailed model validation against experimental data is also presented in Model
Validation. Section 3 describes the methodology followed for all of the simulation studies conducted
under steady-state and transient conditions. The simulation results for all of the studies performed are
analysed and discussed in Section 4. Finally, Section 5 summarizes the main findings of this work and
proposes future work in the area of the electrification of turbocharging systems.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 4 of 25
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Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Figure Energy
1. Energy regeneration
Energy regeneration areas
regeneration areas over
areas over the
over the load/speed
load/speed map
the load/speed map of
of an engine:
engine: (a)
an engine: (a) current approach;
current approach;
(b) desired
(b) desired
(b) operation.
desiredoperation.
operation.
2. Computational
2. Computational Model
Model
The present
The present numerical
numerical study
study was
was performed
performed on
on aa 1D 1D gas
gas dynamic
dynamic environment
environment using
using the
the
GT-Powersoftware
GT-Power softwaretool
tool(v7.5.0,
(v7.5.0, Gamma
Gamma Technologies,
Technologies, LLC.,
LLC., Westmont,
Westmont, IL, USA,
IL, USA, 2014).2014). The model
The model used
used for this study, shown in Figure 2, represents a 2.0 L spark-ignition turbocharged engine.
for this study, shown in Figure 2, represents a 2.0 L spark-ignition turbocharged engine. The model, The
model, previously used in [17], was provided by the engine supplier, and it has
previously used in [17], was provided by the engine supplier, and it has been validated against been validated
against experimental
experimental data in data
both in both steady-state
steady-state and transients
and transients by POWERTECH
by POWERTECH Engineering
Engineering (see
(see Model
Section 2.1).
Validation).
Figure
Figure 2.
2. 1D
1D model
model of
of the
the baseline
baseline 2.0
2.0 L
L turbocharged engine used
turbocharged engine used in
used in the
in the present
the present study.
present study.
study.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 5 of 25
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 5 of 25
The baseline 2.0 L engine model was used only for the Phase 1 study of the steady-state
simulations, which2.0
The baseline included a wastegate
L engine model wasenthalpy
used loss
onlystudy forPhase
for the quantifying
1 study theof
energy availability
the steady-state
across the speed/load
simulations, map ofathe
which included engine. enthalpy loss study for quantifying the energy availability
wastegate
acrossFor
thethe Phase 2 and
speed/load mapPhase 3 of
of the the steady-state simulations, as well as the transient simulations
engine.
included
For thein Phase
this paper, the model
2 and Phase 3 of thewas modifiedsimulations,
steady-state by implementing
as well asa the
motor/generator (M/G)
transient simulations
component
included model.
in this Thethe
paper, motor/generator was connected
model was modified directlyatomotor/generator
by implementing the turbocharger’s shaft,
(M/G) as shown
component
in Figure
model. The3. motor/generator was connected directly to the turbocharger’s shaft, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Motor/generator
Motor/generator component
component model
model used
used for
for converting
converting the
the model
model to
to an
an e-turbo engine.
e-turbo engine.
The original
The originalmodel
model was
was fitted
fitted withwith a wastegate/boost
a wastegate/boost pressure
pressure and a throttle/brake
and a throttle/brake mean
mean effective
effective pressure
pressure proportional-integral-derivative
proportional-integral-derivative (BMEP
(BMEP PID) PID) controllers
controllers for achieving
for achieving the targeted
the targeted boost
boost pressure and BMEP. The target values for different engine speeds and
pressure and BMEP. The target values for different engine speeds and loads were provided toloads were provided
the model to
the model using look-up tables. For the electrically-assisted model, two new PID controllers
using look-up tables. For the electrically-assisted model, two new PID controllers were introduced or were
introduced
replaced the or replaced
original the original
controllers controllers
as necessary, as necessary,
depending depending
on the type of study. on the are:
These type of study.
These are:
• A motor/generator (M/G)/boost pressure controller for achieving the desired intake pressure
•• A A motor/generator (M/G)/boost pressure controller for achieving the desired intake pressure
WG/pre-turbine pressure controller for achieving the desired pre-turbine pressure
• A WG/pre-turbine pressure controller for achieving the desired pre-turbine pressure
The compressor and turbine mass flow multipliers were modified and spanned in the range of 0.7
to 1.3The
for compressor
the purpose and turbine mass
of undertaking flow multipliers
parametric studies were
with modified and spanned
different component in theasrange
sizing, shown of
0.7Equation
in to 1.3 for(1).
theBypurpose of undertaking
restricting or enhancingparametric studies
the mass flow ratewith
withindifferent component
a component, sizing,
the size as
of the
shown in Equation (1).
component can be simulated. By restricting or enhancing the mass flow rate within a component, the size
of the component can be simulated.
R ·
∫ Rṁ
mddt
Average mass
Average flowrate
mass flow Multiplier ×
rate ==Multiplier × (1)
(1)
∫ ddt
where ṁ
where ṁ is
is the
the mass
mass flow
flow rate
rate through
through the
the part
part (in
(in the
the case
case of
of the
the turbine,
turbine, the
the wastegate
wastegate mass flow
excluded).
is excluded).
Although this
Although this approach
approachwould
wouldnot notpromise
promisea ahigh
highlevel
levelofofaccuracy,
accuracy, it is
it is deemed
deemed to to
be be reliable
reliable to
to predict
predict the trend
the trend of theofoverall
the overall
system’s system’s behaviour
behaviour when thewhen the or
turbine turbine or compressor
compressor sizing is
sizing is increased
increased
or decreasedor compared
decreased to compared
the originalto the original components
components based on a highly-calibrated
based on a highly-calibrated engine.
engine. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the wastegate area was modified from completely closed to diameters
the wastegate area was modified from completely closed to diameters larger than the baseline engine. larger than the
baseline engine.
However, due toHowever,
the change due
of to
thethe change
size of thecomponents,
of critical size of criticalthecomponents,
operation ofthetheoperation
engine and of the
its
engine and its main parameters needs to be closely monitored to ensure realistic
main parameters needs to be closely monitored to ensure realistic performance. For this reason, the performance. For
this reason, the
parameters parameters
limits shown inlimits
Tableshown
1 wereinset
Table
and1 established,
were set andwhich
established, which
were not were not
violated violated
during the
during the studies.
parametric parametric studies.
Table 1. Maximum
Table 1. Maximum limits
limits set
set for
for the
the parametric
parametric studies.
studies.
Parameter Unit Value

Parameter Unit Value
Engine torque (Nm) 304
Engine torque
Turbine inlet temperature (Nm)
(°C) 1000 304
Turbine inlet temperature (◦ C) 1000
Turbocharger speed (krpm) 200
Turbocharger speed (krpm) 200
Pre-turbine pressure (bar) 3
Pre-turbine pressure (bar) 3
Post-compressor temperature
Post-compressor temperature (◦(°C)
C) 200 200
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Model Validation
Model Validation
A high
A high fidelity
fidelity engine
engine model
modelvalidated
validatedagainst
againstexperimental
experimentaldatadataforfor
a conventional
a conventionallayout, in
layout,
both steady-state and transients, has been applied in this study. The calibration of the combustion
in both steady-state and transients, has been applied in this study. The calibration of the combustion
model(SI
model (SIWiebe)
Wiebe) waswas performed
performed by isolating
by isolating Cylinder
Cylinder 1 of
1 of the the engine
engine and performing
and performing a Three
a Three Pressure
Pressure Analysis (TPA). Figure 4 represents the comparison between measurements and
Analysis (TPA). Figure 4 represents the comparison between measurements and simulation results for simulation
results
all forcylinders
engine all engineatcylinders at low loads.
low loads.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 4. Simulated cylinder pressure from Three Pressure Analysis (TPA) and measured pressure at
Figure 4. Simulated cylinder pressure from Three Pressure Analysis (TPA) and measured pressure at
low loads. (a) Cylinder 1; (b) Cylinder 2; (c) Cylinder 3; (d) Cylinder 4.
low loads. (a) Cylinder 1; (b) Cylinder 2; (c) Cylinder 3; (d) Cylinder 4.
The small cylinder-to-cylinder variations observed in the measured data were difficult to
The
capture in small cylinder-to-cylinder
the 1D simulation. Thesevariations
variations observed
may be in the measured
a result data
of several were such
factors, difficult to capture
as 3D air and
in the 1D simulation. These variations may be a result of several factors, such as
gas flow behaviours at the intake and exhaust or different thermal conditions. Although there3D air and gas were
flow
behaviours at theaintake
slight variations, good and exhaustbetween
agreement or different thermal
measured andconditions. Although
simulated mass there
air flow were
and slight
averaged
variations, a good agreement between measured and simulated mass air flow and
indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) (error of less than 2%) was observed for full load averaged indicated
mean effective
conditions, pressure
as shown in(IMEP)
Table 2.(error of less than 2%) was observed for full load conditions, as shown
in Table 2.
Table 2. Measured data and simulation results at full loads. IMEP, indicated mean effective pressure.
Table 2. Measured data and simulation results at full loads. IMEP, indicated mean effective pressure.
Attribute Value Cylinder 1 Cylinder 2 Cylinder 3 Cylinder 4
Measured total massValue
Attribute air flow (kg/h) Cylinder 1 Cylinder 2 258.69 Cylinder 3 Cylinder 4
Simulated
Measured totaltotal
massmass air (kg/h)
air flow flow (kg/h) 263.65
258.69
Error intotal
Simulated totalmass
massairair flow
flow (%)
(kg/h) 1.92
263.65
Error in total mass
Measured air flow
net IMEP (%)
(bar) 20.71 21.19 1.92 20.75 18.29
Measured net IMEP (bar) 20.71 21.19 20.75 18.29
Simulated net IMEP (bar) 20.44 20.76 20.30 18.02
Simulated net IMEP (bar) 20.44 20.76 20.30 18.02
Absolute
Absolute error
error in IMEP
in net net IMEP prediction
prediction (bar) (bar) 0.39 0.39 0.430.43 0.45
0.45 0.27
0.27
Error
Error in net
in net IMEP IMEP prediction
prediction (%) (%) 1.87 1.87 2.05
2.05 2.15
2.15 1.47
1.47
Averaged
Averaged absolute errorerror
absolute in netinIMEP (bar) (bar)
net IMEP 0.36
0.36
Averaged
Averaged error in net
error inIMEP (%) (%)
net IMEP 1.89
1.89
For part-load
For part-loadcases,
cases,thethe discrepancy
discrepancy between
between measured
measured and simulated
and simulated resultsresults was slightly
was slightly larger,
larger,
as asfound
can be can beinfound
Table in
3. Table 3. However,
However, despite
despite the 9.37%the 9.37%
error error
in the in the averaged
averaged IMEP for IMEP for the
the low-load
low-load
case, case, the averaged
the averaged absolute absolute error
error in net in net
IMEP wasIMEP was0.3
below below
bar. 0.3 bar. Therefore,
Therefore, the modelling
the modelling of the
of the scavenging system and combustion system at low engine load
scavenging system and combustion system at low engine load is satisfactory. is satisfactory.
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Table 3. Summary of combustion model validation at 2000 rpm.
Attribute Value Low-Load Medium-Load Full-Load
Error in total mass air Attribute
Attribute Value
flow prediction
Value (%) Low-Load
0.69
Low-Load Medium-Load
3.26
Medium-Load Full-Load
1.92
Full-Load
Averaged
Error error
Error in total
total mass
massinair
net
air IMEP
flow prediction
prediction
flow (%) (%)
prediction (bar) (Cylinder 1) 0.19
0.69
0.69 0.39
3.26
3.26 0.39
1.92
1.92
Averaged error
Averaged errorininnetnet
IMEP
IMEPprediction (bar) (bar)
prediction (Cylinder
(%) 1)
(Cylinder 1)1)
(Cylinder 0.19
7.39
0.19 0.39
2.56
0.39 0.39
1.87
0.39
Averaged error in net IMEP prediction (%) (Cylinder 1) 7.39 2.56 1.87
Averaged error in net IMEP prediction (%) (Cylinder 1) 7.39 2.56 1.87
The overall shape of the port pressures at three operating points was captured. Figure 5 outlines
The overall
the measured shape
and of the port
simulated pressures atpressure
instantaneous three operating points was
at the exhaust port captured. Figure
of Cylinder 1 for5 medium
outlines
the measured
engine andcan
loads. As simulated
be seen instantaneous pressure
from the figure, at the exhaust
the magnitude of theport of Cylinder
pressure 1 for medium
wave reflections was
engine loads. As can be seen
well predicted.As can be seen from the figure, the magnitude of the pressure wave reflections was
well predicted.
predicted.
Figure 5. Instantaneous pressure at exhaust port of Cylinder 1, 2000 rpm medium-load.

Figure 5. Instantaneous pressure at exhaust port of Cylinder 1, 2000 rpm medium-load.
The validation of the transient performance of the model was also performed against
The validation
experimental data of of the from
collected transient performance
transient tests of the with
performed model was wastegate
various also performed against
The validation the transient performance of the model was also performed againstpositions. The
experimental
experimental
calibration wasdata collectedforfrom
performed transient
three different tests
boost performed
pressures withthe
and various wastegate
comparison positions.
between measuredThe
data collected from transient tests performed with various wastegate positions. The calibration was
calibration wasmass
and simulated performed
air flowforisthree different
presented boost pressures
in Figure and the comparison
6. comparison
The experimental between
andmeasured
simulation measured
results show
performed for three different boost pressures and the between and simulated
and
a simulated
good mass
agreement air small
with flow isvariations
presented(5%)
in Figure
that 6. The
could be experimental
a result of theand simulation
scavenging results
model in show
the 1D
mass air flow is presented in Figure 6. The experimental and simulation results show a good agreement
aengine
good agreement
simulation. with small variations (5%) that could be a result of the scavenging model in the 1D
with small variations (5%) that could be a result of the scavenging model in the 1D engine simulation.
engine simulation.
Figure 6. Comparison
Figure 6. Comparison between
between measurement
measurement and
and simulation
simulation results
results of
of transient
transient performance
performance for
for
different
Figure 6.boost targets
Comparison with imposed
between turbocharger
measurement androtational speed.
simulation results
different boost targets with imposed turbocharger rotational speed. of transient performance for
different boost targets with imposed turbocharger rotational speed.
3. Methodology
3. Methodology
The simulations performed in this paper are divided into two main subsections of steady-state
The simulations
and transient performed
analysis. in subsections
Each of the this paper are divideddivided
is further into two main
into subsections
smaller of steady-state
segments to represent
and transient analysis. Each of the subsections is further divided into smaller segments to represent
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 8 of 25
3. Methodology
Appl.
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7, 350
simulations
2017, 350 performed in this paper are divided into two main subsections of steady-state88 of
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25
and transient analysis. Each of the subsections is further divided into smaller segments to represent
different types
different types
different of
types of studies.
studies. A
of studies. A detailed
A detailed flowchart
detailed flowchart of
flowchart of all
of of
all of
all the
of the simulations
the simulations performed
performed in
simulations performed this
in this
in paper
this paper
paper isis
is
shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure
shown in Figure 7. 7.
7.
Figure 7. Flowchart
Figure7.
Figure 7. Flowchart of
of the
the simulation
simulation process.
process. WG,
WG, wastegate.
wastegate.
Finally,
Finally,itititneeds
Finally, needs
needstoto
be be
to be highlighted
thatthat
highlighted
highlighted all ofall
that theof
all the
the studies
ofstudies
studies presented
presented
presented in
in this
this
in this paper paper
theshow
paper
show show the
the
potential
potential
available available
potential energy
available energy
energy
in the in the
in the
system. system.
Anysystem. Any
Any
electrical electrical
electrical
losses losses
such aslosses such as
such as
alternator, alternator,
alternator,
converter converter
and converter and
and
battery losses
battery
notlosses
battery
have been have
losses have not
not been
considered been considered
point. at
considered
at this at this
this point.
point.
3.1. Steady-State
3.1. Steady-State Simulations
Simulations
The
The steady
steady state
state analysis
analysis ofof the
the model
model was performed in
was performed in the
the area
area of
of three
three axes,
axes, compressor
compressor and
and
turbine
turbine size
turbinesize and
sizeand
andWGWG
WG area,
area, as
as as
area, shown
shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 8.
8. The
in Figure The purpose
purpose
8. The of the
of theofstudy
purpose study was
was towas
the study to understand
understand the
the effects
to understand the
effects
of of
of the
the compressor
the compressor
effects and turbineand
compressor turbine
sizing
and on thesizing
turbine amounton
sizing of the
on the amount
energy of
of energy
that needs
amount energy that
that needs
needs toto be
to be provided/harvested be
provided/harvested
by the motor/generator
provided/harvested by
by the
and
the motor/generator
to identify anyand
motor/generator to
to identify
regions
and where any
identify regions
regions where
the e-turbo
any can
where the
the e-turbo
replace can
can replace
the wastegate
e-turbo for
replace
the
the wastegate
load control. for
wastegate for load
load control.
control.
Figure
Figure 8.
8. Area
Area of
of investigation
investigation for
for the
the steady-state
steady-state simulations.
simulations.
Figure 8. Area of investigation for the steady-state simulations.
The
The steady-state
steady-state simulations
simulations are are divided
divided intointo three
three phases
phases based
based on
on the
the type
type of
of investigation.
investigation.
•• The steady-state
Phase
Phase 1: simulations
1: Assessment
Assessment of of the are
the amountdivided
amount of into
of enthalpy three
enthalpy loss phases
loss for
for the based on
the baseline the
baseline enginetype of
engine across
acrossinvestigation.
the
the speed/load
speed/load
map
map and
and how
how this
this is
is affected
affected by
by the
the compressor
compressor and and turbine’s
turbine’s size.
size.
•• Phase
Phase 2:
2: Investigation
Investigation of of the
the potential
potential ofof suppressing
suppressing WG WG and
and using
using e-turbo
e-turbo to
to control
control boosting.
boosting.
•• Phase
Phase 3:3: Reinstatement
Reinstatement of of the
the WGWG to to control
control exhaust
exhaust manifold
manifold pressure
pressure and
and explore
explore the
the
trade-off
trade-off between
between WGWG and and turbine
turbine size.
size.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 9 of 25
• Phase 1: Assessment of the amount of enthalpy loss for the baseline engine across the speed/load
map and how this is affected by the compressor and turbine’s size.
• Phase 2: Investigation of the potential of suppressing WG and using e-turbo to control boosting.
• Phase 3: Reinstatement of the WG to control exhaust manifold pressure and explore the trade-off
between WG and turbine size.
3.1.1. Phase 1: WG Enthalpy Loss Study

The first phase of the study was performed to calculate the amount of energy that is lost through
the wastegate of a modern 2.0 L turbocharged gasoline engine. The amount of power loss was
calculated using the equation:
Q = m × cp × ∆T, (2)
where Q is the amount of heat to the system (power), m is the mass flow rate through the wastegate, cp
is the specific heat of the gas and ∆T is the temperature difference.
A Design of Experiment (DoE) analysis was performed to evaluate the effects of the compressor
and turbine’s size on the amount of enthalpy loss, combustion limiting parameters and maximum
engine power. The nine cases studied are described in Table 4.
Table 4. Phase 1: Design of Experiment (DoE) analysis for different compressor and turbine sizes.
Case Turbine Size Multiplier Compressor Size Multiplier

1 0.7 0.7
2 0.7 0.85
3 0.7 1
4 0.85 0.7
5 0.85 0.85
6 0.85 1
7 1 0.7
8 1 0.85
9 1 1
3.1.2. Phase 2: Suppressing WG and Using e-Turbo to Control Boosting

Phase 2 of the steady-state simulations section involves the application of a motor/generator,
which is directly linked to the shaft of the turbocharger. The purpose of the motor/generator is to
provide or harvest energy, as needed, to/by the compressor for achieving the boosting demands of
the engine. For this phase, the WG has been completely suppressed and the model run once with the
original size of the compressor and turbine. However due, to the shut off of the WG valve, extremely
high pre-turbine pressures violating the limits at high loads were noticed.
A sweep study was performed for five different turbine sizes (10% to 50% larger) to evaluate
the optimum turbine size for the model without a WG valve. Then, the optimum turbine was
tested for different compressor sizes (20% smaller to 20% larger) to evaluate its effect on the energy
harvesting/provision requirements.
3.1.3. Phase 3: Reinstating WG to Control Exhaust Manifold Pressure

Phase 3 of the steady-state simulations involves the reinstatement of the WG valve for reducing
the required size of the turbine and enhancing the energy performance across the low speeds area of
the engine’s speed/load map. This section is divided into four studies, as shown below:
• Turbine size: WG area balance study
• Smaller turbine: increased WG area study
• Smaller turbine: increased pre-turbine pressure study (smaller WG area)
• Smaller turbine: variable pre-turbine pressure study (smaller and larger WG area)
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 10 of 25
3.2. Transient Simulations

The findings in the steady-state simulations section (see the Results Section) demonstrated that
a model fitted with a motor-generator and a turbine 10% smaller than the original could provide
energy harvesting and thermal efficiency gain across the speed/load map of the engine. The transient
behaviour of the model with this configuration, an original size compressor and increased pre-turbine
pressures was tested by performing three different types of simulations, as shown below:
• Load step transient

• Fixed gear vehicle speed transient
• Energy balance study for various driving cycles and real driving conditions
The purpose of the transient study was to reveal the response time improvement under different
levels of energy provision to the compressor, as well as to perform an energy balance review. This is
required in order to identify whether the e-turbocharger can operate without energy consumption
from the engine and if any excess on the total energy generated.
3.2.1. Load Step Transient Simulations

The load tip-in study was performed for two engine speeds of interest, 1600 and 1100 rpm, close
to the surge limit of the compressor. The load tip-in step requested was from 2 bar BMEP to full load
BMEP (19 bar). However, due to the engine speeds at which the tests were performed, the requested
BMEP could not be achieved.
The study was initially performed for the model with all of the PID controllers. However,
for ensuring that the results are not affected by the tuning of the controllers, the study was repeated
in an open-loop environment (no PID controllers). The PID controllers in the model were removed
and replaced by look-up tables for controlling the boost pressure and throttle position of the engine,
as shown in Table 5. This allows a hardware capability investigation to be performed by eliminating
any effects of the PID controllers. The energy provided to the compressor was divided into four
sections of 0.25 seconds, and different levels of power (1, 3 and 5 kW) were provided in each section.
Table 5. Control of basic process parameters for the model with proportional-integral-derivative (PID)
controllers and the open-loop model. BMEP, brake mean effective pressure; M/G, motor/generator.
Process Parameter Model with PIDs (Control Variables) Open-Loop Model

M/G Power - Provided power profiles
Boost pressure M/G power Speed/load look-up table
Throttle position Engine speed/BMEP Speed/load look-up table
Pre-turbine pressure WG position WG position (PID)
3.2.2. Fixed Gear Vehicle Speed Transient Simulations

The purpose of this study was to represent the vehicle’s driving conditions and test the model for
a fixed gear (third) vehicle speed transient. For this reason, a driving resistance load of 30 Nm
was applied to represent the rolling resistance along with the flywheel’s inertia given by the
following formula:
Ieq = Ieq,eng + Ieq,prop + Ieq,axle + Ieq,veh , (3)
where Ieq is the total inertia (kg·m2 ), Ieq,eng is the engine’s inertia, Ieq,prop is the prop shaft inertia,
Ieq,axle is the axle inertia and Ieq,veh is the vehicle mass equivalent inertia, as shown in Figure 9.
for a fixed gear (third) vehicle speed transient. For this reason, a driving resistance load of 30 Nm was
applied to represent the rolling resistance along with the flywheel’s inertia given by the
following formula:
Ieq = Ieq,eng + Ieq,prop + Ieq,axle + Ieq,veh, (3)
Appl. where Ieq7,is350
Sci. 2017, the total inertia (kg·m2), Ieq,eng is the engine’s inertia, Ieq,prop is the prop shaft inertia, Ieq,axle11 of 25
is the axle inertia and Ieq,veh is the vehicle mass equivalent inertia, as shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9. Schematic of total inertia applied to the engine.

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 Figure 9. Schematic of total inertia applied to the engine. 11 of 25
The study was performed

performed for
for four
four different
different levels
levels of
of targeted
targeted BMEP,
BMEP, as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 10,
10,
representing the aggressiveness with which a vehicle’s pedal can be pressed. The tests were repeated
twice for different pre-turbine pressures, which were controlled by implementing a pre-turbine
pressure/WG PID
pressure/WG PID controller.
controller.
Figure
Figure 10.
10. Fixed
Fixed gear
gear vehicle
vehicle speed
speed BMEP
BMEP tip-ins.
tip-ins.
3.2.3.
3.2.3. Energy
Energy Balance
Balance Simulations
Simulations
The studies performed
The studies performed in in the previous sections
the previous sections highlight
highlight the significant improvement
the significant improvement on the
on the
transient response time of the engine during load and speed tip-in conditions (see Results
transient response time of the engine during load and speed tip-in conditions (see Results Section). Section).
The work
The work performed
performed in in this
this section
section investigates
investigates whether
whether the power harvested
the power harvested by
by the generator is
the generator is
enough
enough to cover the
to cover the motor
motor demands.
demands. TheThe energy
energy balance
balance study
study for
for aa specific vehicle was
specific vehicle was conducted
conducted
for thefollowing
for the followingdriving
driving cycles
cycles with
with the the pre-turbine
pre-turbine pressure
pressure targettarget set at
set at 15% 15% than
higher higher
thethan the
baseline
baseline engine for the low to medium loads and 5% for the full
engine for the low to medium loads and 5% for the full load conditions: load conditions:
1.
1. New European Driving
New European DrivingCycle
Cycle(NEDC):
(NEDC): designed
designed to represent
to represent the typical
the typical usage usage
of a carofinaEurope,
car in
Europe,
but oftenbut often criticized
criticized for delivering
for delivering unrealistic
unrealistic economyeconomy
figures. figures.
2. Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC): a harmonized driving cycle
2. Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC): a harmonized driving cycle
representing realistic driving conditions data in different regions around the world, combined
representing realistic driving conditions data in different regions around the world, combined
with suitable weighting factors.
3. US06: representing aggressive, high-speed and/or high acceleration driving behaviour, rapid
speed fluctuations and driving behaviour following startup.
4. Combined driving conditions: including equal amounts of various realistic driving conditions,
such as low speed, start-stop, highway, motorway, uphill, downhill and dangerous
overtaking conditions.
The engine speed and BMEP demands for the four driving cycles are shown in Figure 11.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 12 of 25
Figure 11.Figure 11. Driving

Driving cyclescycles conditions:
conditions: (a)(a)engine
engine speed;
speed;(b)(b)
engine BMEP.
engine NEDC,NEDC,
BMEP. New European
New European
Driving Cycle; WLTC, Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Cycle.
Driving Cycle; WLTC, Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Cycle.
4. Results and Discussion

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 12 of 25
The results of the simulation studies performed in this paper are categorized in a similar manner
4. Results and Discussion
to that of the Methodology Section.
The results of the simulation studies performed in this paper are categorized in a similar manner
to that of
4.1. Steady-State the Methodology Section.
Analysis
4.1. Steady-State Analysis
4.1.1. Phase 1: WG Enthalpy Loss Study (Baseline Engine)
4.1.1. Phase 1: WG Enthalpy Loss Study (Baseline Engine)
The results in Figure 12 show that the energy loss through the wastegate for the model with the
original size ofThe results in Figure
compressor and12turbine
show that the energy
(Case 9) can loss through
reach thethe wastegate
amount of for the model
5 kW with
at high the
engine speeds
original size of compressor and turbine (Case 9) can reach the amount of 5 kW at high engine speeds
and loads. The amount of the potential energy dismissed at medium load and engine speed conditions
and loads. The amount of the potential energy dismissed at medium load and engine speed
is of lowerconditions
magnitude, up tomagnitude,
is of lower 2 kW. Atup low
to 2loads
kW. Atand speeds,
low loads there isthere
and speeds, no is
wasted energy,
no wasted energy,as
asthe WG is
completelytheclosed.
WG is completely closed.
Figure 12. Figure

Phase12.1:Phase
DoE1:analysis
DoE analysis of the waste-gated enthalpy loss for the different compressor and
of the waste-gated enthalpy loss for the different compressor and
turbine sizes; the blue line represents the maximum torque line of the baseline engine’s model as
turbine sizes; the blue line represents the maximum torque line of the baseline engine’s model as
provided by the manufacturer (λ < 1); the ○ symbols indicate data points; the ⨂ symbolN indicates a
provided by the
limit manufacturer
violation (λ < 1); the # symbols indicate data points; the
at specific points. symbol indicates a
limit violation at specific points.
Figure 12 highlights the effect of a smaller turbine and compressor on the amount of waste-gated
flow and the maximum power of the engine. As can be seen, a smaller compressor (Cases 7 and 8)
cannot provide the boosting requirements needed to achieve maximum engine’s power at medium
and high engine speeds. On the other hand, a smaller turbine (Cases 3 and 6) can slightly increase the
amount of waste-gated flow at medium engine speed and load conditions. However, a smaller
turbine leads to increased pre-turbine pressure, in some cases violating the maximum limit set, and
reduces the maximum torque of the engine.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 13 of 25
Figure 12 highlights the effect of a smaller turbine and compressor on the amount of waste-gated
flow and the maximum power of the engine. As can be seen, a smaller compressor (Cases 7 and 8)
cannot provide the boosting requirements needed to achieve maximum engine’s power at medium
and high engine speeds. On the other hand, a smaller turbine (Cases 3 and 6) can slightly increase the
amount of waste-gated flow at medium engine speed and load conditions. However, a smaller turbine
leads to increased pre-turbine pressure, in some cases violating the maximum limit set, and reduces
the
Appl.maximum torque of the engine.
Sci. 2017, 7, 350 13 of 25
4.1.2. Phase 2: Suppressing WG and Using e-Turbo to

to Control
Control Boosting
Boosting
Suppressing
Suppressing thethe wastegate
wastegate of an engine leads to extremely high pre-turbine pressures at medium
to high loads. Figure
Figure 13 presents the pre-turbine pressures and peak engine torques achieved for
various turbine sizes and the wastegate valve closed. As shown from the figure, a turbine 30% larger
than the original size can provide or even increase the maximum power targets of the baseline engine
without
without violating
violating the
the pre-turbine
pre-turbine pressure
pressurelimit.
limit. A
A torque
torque deficit
deficit occurs
occurs at
at 1000
1000 rpm, but this is mainly
due to
toa apoor
poormodel convergence
model at this
convergence at specific engineengine
this specific speed speed
near thenear
surge line
the and not
surge linethe
andincapacity
not the
of the engine
incapacity to achieve
of the engine the targetedthe
to achieve torque.
targeted torque.
Figure 13.
Figure 13. Engine’s
Engine’s performance
performance results
results for
for various
various turbines
turbines sizes
sizes and
and the
the wastegate
wastegate completely
completely shut:
shut:
(a) pre-turbine pressure; (b) engine torque.
The results in Figure 14 show that with this configuration, extremely high amounts of energy,
more than 15 kW, can be harvested at high engine speeds and loads. The system can harvest energy
up to 10 kW at medium to high engine speeds. However, as can be seen, the larger turbine results in
up to 10 kW at medium to high engine speeds. However, as can be seen, the larger turbine results
considerable amounts of energy that need to be provided by the motor for meeting, if possible, the
in considerable amounts of energy that need to be provided by the motor for meeting, if possible,
targeted maximum torque at low engine speed conditions. This is happening due to the lower
the targeted maximum torque at low engine speed conditions. This is happening due to the lower
pre-turbine pressures and increased turbocharger’s inertia at a non-boosting area of the engine’s map.
pre-turbine pressures and increased turbocharger’s inertia at a non-boosting area of the engine’s map.
The next stage in this phase was to investigate the potential of reducing the amount of energy
needs to be provided by changing the compressor’s size. For this reason, five different compressors
(multipliers of 0.8 to 1.2) were tested, and the results are presented in Figure 15.
It is clearly shown in Figure 15 that a small compressor could reduce the power level needs to be
provided by the motor from 0.6 down to 0.2 kW at 1600 rpm with no effect on the engine’s maximum
torque. However, a smaller compressor would also reduce the amount of energy that can be harvested
(from 18.5 down to 17 kW) at high engine speeds; but foremost, it would struggle to meet the maximum
engine’s torque demands.
Figure 14. Phase 2: Motor-generator average energy for the case with original compressor, 30% larger
turbine and the WG valve completely shut; negative values indicate energy harvesting; positive
values indicate the need for energy provision; the blue line represents the maximum torque line of
the baseline engine’s model as provided by the manufacturer (λ < 1); the ⨂ symbol indicates limit
The results in Figure 14 show that w
up to 10 kW at medium to high engine speeds. However, as can be seen, the larger turbine
more than results
15 kW,incan be harvested at high
considerable amounts of energy that need to be provided by the motor for meeting, upiftopossible,
10 kW at the
medium to high engine spe
considerable
targeted maximum torque at low engine speed conditions. This is happening due to the lower amounts of energy that need
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 targeted maximum
pre-turbine pressures and increased turbocharger’s inertia at a non-boosting area of the engine’s map.14 of torque
25 at low engine
pre-turbine pressures and increased turboc
Figure 14. Phase 2: Motor-generator avera

Figure
Figure Phase
14.14. Phase2:2:Motor-generator
Motor-generatoraverage
average energy forthe
energy for thecase
casewith
withoriginal
originalcompressor,
compressor,30%30%
turbinelarger
largerand the WG valve completely s
turbine
turbineandand thethe
WGWG valve completely
valve shut;shut;
completely negative values
negative indicate
values energy
indicate harvesting;
energy positive
harvesting; valuesvalues
positiveindicate the need for energy provi
indicate
valuesthe need for
indicate theenergy provision;
need for the blue line
energy provision; the represents the maximum
blue line represents torque linetorque
the maximum of the baseline
theline
baseline
of engine’s model as provided
engine’s model as provided by the manufacturer (λ < 1); the
N
symbol indicates limit violation; ⌼ indicates energy provision ar
violation;
the baseline engine’s model as provided by the manufacturer (λ < 1); the ⨂ symbol indicates limit
indicates
violation;
Appl. Sci.
energy
2017, 7, ⌼
provision area.
350indicates energy provision area. 14 of 25
The next stage in this phase was to in
needs to be provided by changing the com
The next stage in this phase was to investigate the potential of reducing the amount of energy
(multipliers of 0.8 to 1.2) were tested, and
needs to be provided by changing the compressor’s size. For this reason, five different compressors
(multipliers of 0.8 to 1.2) were tested, and the results are presented in Figure 15.
Figure
Figure 15.15. Effectofofcompressor’s
Effect compressor’ssize
sizeon
on average
average power
power and
andtorque:
torque:(a)
(a)1600
1600rpm;
rpm;(b)(b)
5800 rpm.
5800 rpm.
It is clearly shown in Figure 15 that a small compressor could reduce the power level needs to
4.1.3. Phase 3: Reinstating WG to Control Exhaust Manifold Pressure
be provided by the motor from 0.6 down to 0.2 kW at 1600 rpm with no effect on the engine’s
maximum
Turbine Size:torque.
WG AreaHowever,
Balancea Study
smaller compressor would also reduce the amount of energy that can
be harvested (from 18.5 down to 17 kW) at high engine speeds; but foremost, it would struggle to
Thethe
meet first part of this
maximum phase
engine’s includes
torque a DoE study for investigating the benefits on the engine’s
demands.
maximum power and energy recovery for a smaller turbine (multipliers less than 1.3) and the WG
4.1.3.
valve Phase
open 3: Reinstating
at different WG to
positions Controlthan
(smaller Exhaust Manifoldmodel),
the original Pressure
as shown in Table 6.
Turbine Size: WG Area6. Balance

Table Phase 3:Study
DoE analysis for different turbine sizes and WG areas.
The first part of this phase includes a DoE study for investigating the benefits on the engine’s
Turbine Size Compared to the WG Area Compared to the
maximum power and Caseenergy recovery for a smaller turbine (multipliers less than 1.3) and the WG
Original Model Original Model
valve open at different positions
Turb×1.1–WG/2 (smaller than the
10% largeroriginal model), as shown in Table 6.
50% smaller
Turb×1.1–WG/3 10% larger 67% smaller
×1.2–WG/2
TurbTable 20% for
6. Phase 3: DoE analysis larger 50%WG
different turbine sizes and smaller
areas.
Case Turbine Size Compared to the Original Model WG Area Compared to the Original Model
The results
Turb in Figure 16 show that
×1.1–WG/3 10%with
larger a 20% larger turbine (rather than 30%) and the WG valve
67% smaller
open atTurb ×1.2–WG/2
half the size as the baseline20% engine,
larger maximum engine torque can besmaller
50% achieved. The smaller
turbineTurb
and×1.2–WG/3
the open WG reduced the 20% larger
maximum amount of energy harvested 67% smaller
at high speeds from
18 down to 12 kW. However, the benefit on the low-speed side of the map was relatively low, as the
amountThe results in
of energy Figure
that needs16toshow that withby
be provided a 20%
the larger
motorturbine
at 1600(rather thanfrom
rpm went 30%)0.6
anddown
the WG valvekW.
to 0.45
open at half the size as the baseline engine, maximum engine torque can be achieved. The smaller
turbine and the open WG reduced the maximum amount of energy harvested at high speeds from 18
down to 12 kW. However, the benefit on the low-speed side of the map was relatively low, as the
amount of energy that needs to be provided by the motor at 1600 rpm went from 0.6 down to
0.45 kW.
Turb×1.2–WG/3
The results in Figure 16 show that with a 20% larger turbine (rather than 30%) and the WG valve
open at half the size as the baseline engine, maximum engine torque can be achieved. The smaller
turbine and the open WG reduced the maximum amount of energy harvested at high speeds from 18
down to 12 kW. However, the benefit on the low-speed side of the map was relatively low, as the
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350of energy that needs to be provided by the motor at 1600 rpm went from 0.6 down to
amount 15 of 25
0.45 kW.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350

Figure 16. Balance study for different turbine sizes and wastegate areas for meeting the baseline
Figure 16. Balance
engine’s studytorque.
maximum for different turbine sizes and wastegate areas for meeting the baseline
4.1.2. Phase 2: Suppressing WG and Using e-Turbo to Control Boosting
engine’s maximum torque.
Suppressing the wastegate of an engine leads to extremely high pre-turbine pre
Smaller Turbine: Increased WG Area Study to high loads. Figure 13 presents the pre-turbine pressures and peak engine tor
various turbine sizes and the wastegate valve closed. As shown from the figure, a t
Despite the fact that
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 a large turbine allows energy
than harvesting
the original size canwithin
providethe pre-turbine
or even increase pressure
15 of 25 the maximum power targets of t
without violating the pre-turbine pressure
limit at the high speed and load conditions, it also leads to low speeds and loads’ poor performance. limit. A torque deficit occurs at 1000 rpm
Smaller Turbine: Increased WG Area Study
This could be theoretically resolved by implementing a small turbine and controlling the pre-turbinespeed near the surge
due to a poor model convergence at this specific engine
incapacity
Despite the fact that a large turbine allows of the engine
energy harvesting withintothe
achieve the targeted
pre-turbine pressuretorque.
pressure limits by increasing the wastegate area. The following DoE study results show the effects of
limit at the high speed and load conditions, it also leads to low speeds and loads’ poor performance.
three compressors smaller than the original (multipliers of 0.7 to 0.9) and the WG area open at values
This could be theoretically resolved by implementing a small turbine and controlling the pre-turbine
10% to 50%pressure
larger limits
(multipliers of 1.1
by increasing the to 1.5) than
wastegate area.in the
The baseline
following DoEengine.
study results show the effects of
three compressors smaller than the original (multipliers
The results in Figure 17 illustrate that a small turbine can lead of 0.7 to 0.9) and the WGenergy
to lower area open at values and power
demands
10% to 50% larger (multipliers of 1.1 to 1.5) than in the baseline engine.
generation at low speed/load conditions. However, the smaller the turbine, the higher the pre-turbine
The results in Figure 17 illustrate that a small turbine can lead to lower energy demands and
pressures, which deteriorate
power generation thespeed/load
at low engine’s conditions.
power output at full
However, load conditions.
the smaller the turbine, theByhigher
increasing
the the WG
area, the pre-turbine pressure which
pre-turbine pressures, drops,deteriorate
and therefore, the full
the engine’s power load performance
output at full load of the engine
conditions. By increases.
increasing
However, even a 10% theincrease
WG area, inthethe
pre-turbine
WG area pressure
leadsdrops, and levels
to high therefore,ofthe full load
energy performance offor meeting
requirements
the engine increases. However, even a 10% increase in the WG area leads to high levels of energy
the baselinerequirements
engine’s power characteristics.
for meeting the baseline engine’s power characteristics.
Figure 13. Engine’s performance results for various turbines sizes and the wastegate co
The results in Figure 14 show that with this configuration, extremely high am
more than 15 kW, can be harvested at high engine speeds and loads. The system c
up to 10 kW at medium to high engine speeds. However, as can be seen, the larger
considerable amounts of energy that need to be provided by the motor for meetin
targeted maximum torque at low engine speed conditions. This is happening
pre-turbine pressures and increased turbocharger’s inertia at a non-boosting area of
Figure
Figure 17. Phase 3: DoE analysis of the motor-generator 14.energy
average Phase for
2: Motor-generator average
different turbine sizes and energy for the case with original compres
Figure 17. Phase 3: DoE analysis of the motor-generator turbine average
and the energy
WGindicateforcompletely
valve differentshut;
turbine sizesvalues indicate energy harve
negative
WG areas; negative values indicate energy harvesting; positive values need for energy
and WG areas; negative values indicate energy harvesting;
values positive
indicate the values
need forindicate
energy need for
provision;
provision; blue line represents the maximum torque line of the baseline engine’s model as provided energy
the blue line represents the maximum
provision; blue
by theline represents
manufacturer 1); ⨂
(λ <the maximum torque
symbol indicates line
limitthe of the⌼baseline
baseline
violation; engine’s engine’s
indicates as model
modelprovision
energy providedasby
area. provided by
the manufacturer (λ < 1); the ⨂ symbol
the manufacturer (λ < 1);
N violation; ⌼ indicates energy
symbol indicates limit violation; indicates energy provision area.provision area.
Smaller Turbine: Increased Pre-Turbine Pressure Study
The next study in phase 3 focuses on the effectsThe
of anext stage
smaller in thiswith
turbine phase was to WG
a reduced investigate
area the potential of reducing the
needs to be provided by changing the compressor’s
compared to the baseline engine for benefiting from a good energy balance across the low and high size. For this reason, five diffe
load areas of the engine’s speed/load map. For(multipliers of 0.8
this study, the WGtoarea
1.2) iswere tested,indirectly
controlled and the results
by are presented in Figure 15.
setting up a PID controller between the WG valve and the pre-turbine pressure. The targeted value
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 16 of 25
Smaller Turbine: Increased Pre-Turbine Pressure Study

The next study in phase 3 focuses on the effects of a smallerAppl. turbine with a reduced WG area
Sci. 2017, 7, 350
compared to the baseline engine for benefiting from a good energy balance across the low and high
load areas of the engine’s speed/load map. For this study, the WG 4.1.2. Phase
area 2: Suppressing
is controlled WG and Using
indirectly by e-Turbo to Contro
setting up a PID controller between the WG valve and the pre-turbineSuppressing pressure. The targetedofvalue
the wastegate an engine leads to extreme
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 16 of 25
is the pre-turbine pressure, which is set to increased values of 5%,to10% highand loads.
15% Figure 13 presents
(multipliers of the
1.05pre-turbine pressures
to 1.15) compared to the baseline engine, various turbine sizes and the wastegate valve closed. As show
is the pre-turbine pressure, which is set but always within
to increased values ofthe5%,
set10%
pre-turbine pressure limit.
and 15% (multipliers of 1.05
than the original size can provide or even increase the maxim
Figure
to 1.15) 18 showstothat
compared for a 10%
the baseline smaller
engine, turbine
but always (multiplier
within of 0.9) than
the set pre-turbine the baseline
pressure limit. engine,
without violating the pre-turbine pressure limit. A torque def
the e-turbo can harvest
Figure 18 showsenergy
that for(up
a 10%to smaller
4 kW) at most(multiplier
turbine points of of the0.9)
map,than except
the the
baseline 1000 rpm
engine,
due to a poor model convergence speed,
the at this specific engine
e-turbo can harvest energy (up to 4 kW) at most points
where the results are not highly trusted due to non-convergence of the of the map, except the 1000 rpm
model.ofAlthough,
incapacity speed,
the engine to where
theachieve
increasedthe targeted torque.
the results
pre-turbine are notleads
pressure highlytotrusted
increased due energy
to non-convergence
harvesting of the model.
levels, it also,Although,
as expected,the increased
reduces the
maximum power output of the engine. A 5% pre-turbine pressure increase leads to a 5% the
pre-turbine pressure leads to increased energy harvesting levels, it also, as expected, reduces penalty
maximum power output of the engine. A 5% pre-turbine pressure increase leads to a 5% penalty on
on the engine’s maximum torque, while for the case with the pre-turbine pressure set at 15% higher,
the engine’s maximum torque, while for the case with the pre-turbine pressure set at 15% higher, the
the torque penalty is around 10%.
torque penalty is around 10%.
Figure 13. Engine’s performance results for various turbines si

The results in Figure 14 show that with this configurat

more than 15 kW, can be harvested at high engine speeds an
up to 10 kW at medium to high engine speeds. However, as
considerable amounts of energy that need to be provided by
targeted maximum torque at low engine speed conditions
pre-turbine pressures and increased turbocharger’s inertia at
Figure 14.turbine
Figure 18. Phase 3: DoE analysis of the motor-generator average energy for different Phase 2: Motor-generator
sizes and average energy for the cas
Figure 18. Phase 3: DoE analysis of the motor-generator average energy for different turbine sizes
valve and
pre-turbine pressures; negative values indicate energy harvesting; positiveturbinevalues and the WG
indicate the need completely shut; negative value
pre-turbine pressures; negative values indicate energy harvesting; positive values indicate thefor
need
for energy provision; the blue line represents the maximum torque line of the baseline engine’s model energy provision; the blue line r
values indicate the need
for energy provision;
as provided by thethe blue line represents
manufacturer (λ < 1); thethe maximum
⨂ symbol torque
indicates lineviolation;
limit of the
thebaseline
baseline engine’s
engine’s
⌼ indicates energymodel
model as provided by the manufacture
as provided by the manufacturer (λ < 1); the
N
symbol indicates limit violation; ⌼ indicates
violation; indicatesenergy provision area.
energy
provision area.
provision area.
The next stage in this phase was to investigate the pote
Smaller Turbine: Variable Pre-Turbine Pressure Study
needs to be provided by changing the compressor’s size. Fo
Smaller Turbine: Variable
The previous Pre-Turbine
study showed thatPressure
with theStudy (multipliers
right component sizing, energy of 0.8 to 1.2) could
harvesting were tested,
be and the results are pres
achieved
The acrossstudy
previous most of the speed/load
showed mapthe
that with area of thecomponent
right engine. However,
sizing,this leads to
energy torque sacrifice
harvesting could be
at full load conditions. This penalty can be reduced or even eliminated by adjusting the targeted
achieved across most of the speed/load map area of the engine. However, this leads to torque sacrifice
pre-turbine pressure of the engine when running at full load conditions. The present study shows the
effects of various pre-turbine targeted values, larger and smaller than the baseline engine, to the
maximum power output of the engine and the average power harvested or that needs to be provided
by the motor-generator.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 17 of 25
at full load conditions. This penalty can be reduced or even eliminated by adjusting the targeted
pre-turbine pressure of the engine when running at full load conditions. The present study shows
the effects of various pre-turbine targeted values, larger and smaller than the baseline engine, to the
maximum power
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 output of the engine and the average power harvested or that needs to be provided 17 of 25
by the motor-generator.
As is
As is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 19,
19, at
at full
full load
load conditions,
conditions, the
the maximum
maximum power
power output
output of
of the
the baseline
baseline
engine can
engine can bebe met
met byby running
running the
the engine
engine at at the
the original
original pre-turbine
pre-turbine pressures
pressures oror slightly
slightly lower.
lower.
However, this leads to energy provision demands by the e-turbo of up to 2 kW.
However, this leads to energy provision demands by the e-turbo of up to 2 kW. Higher power outputs, Higher power
outputs,
which oftenwhich
workoften workpoints
as selling as selling points formanufacturers,
for automotive automotive manufacturers,
can be achievedcan be achieved
by running by
at lower
running atand
pressures lower pressures
providing and providing
significant amounts significant
of poweramounts of power to the compressor.
to the compressor.
Figure 19.
Figure 19. Effect of pre-turbine
Effect of pre-turbine pressure
pressure % % change
change on:
on: (a)
(a) engine’s
engine’s torque
torque at
at full
full load;
load; (b)
(b) M/G
M/G
performance at
performance at full
full load;
load; negative
negative values
values indicate
indicate energy
energyharvesting.
harvesting.
4.1.4. Overall
4.1.4. Overall Engine
Engine Efficiency
Efficiency
The overall
The overall efficiency
efficiency of
of the
the baseline
baseline engine,
engine, which
which isis calculated
calculated using
using the
the brake
brake power
power achieved
achieved
over the total fuel power, can reach levels higher than 35% at medium to high
over the total fuel power, can reach levels higher than 35% at medium to high load conditions. On the load conditions. On
the other
other hand, hand, the overall
the overall efficiency
efficiency of theofelectrically-assisted
the electrically-assisted turbocharged
turbocharged engineengine
is givenis given
by theby the
brake
brake power achieved plus the energy harvested or provided by the e-turbo
power achieved plus the energy harvested or provided by the e-turbo divided by the total fuel power. divided by the total fuel
power.20
Figure Figure
shows 20the
shows the comparison
comparison charts between
charts between the overall theefficiency
overall efficiency of the engine
of the baseline baseline andengine
four
and four cases studied in Phase 2 and Phase 3 of the
cases studied in Phase 2 and Phase 3 of the steady-state simulations. steady-state simulations.
It is
It is evident
evident in in Figure
Figure 20
20 that
that the
the implementation
implementation of of aa motor-generator
motor-generator linkedlinked toto the
the turbocharger
turbocharger
leads to an overall engine efficiency increase at medium and high loads
leads to an overall engine efficiency increase at medium and high loads and engine speeds for and engine speeds for all
all of
of
the cases. The cases with a reduced turbine size (multiplier of 0.9) benefit from
the cases. The cases with a reduced turbine size (multiplier of 0.9) benefit from an increased overall an increased overall
efficiency across
efficiency acrossthethewhole
wholemap.
map.Finally,
Finally,thethe high
high pre-turbine
pre-turbine pressures
pressures showshow a significant
a significant effect
effect on theon
the overall
overall efficiency
efficiency gaingain of model.
of the the model.
By assessing the work presented
By assessing the work presented in in the
the three
three phases
phases of of the
the steady-state
steady-state simulations,
simulations, the the ideal
ideal
engine layout can be summarized as shown
engine layout can be summarized as shown in Figure 21. in Figure 21.
It is evident in Figure 20 that the implementation of a motor-generator linked to the turbocharger
leads to an overall engine efficiency increase at medium and high loads and engine speeds for all of
the cases. The cases with a reduced turbine size (multiplier of 0.9) benefit from an increased overall
efficiency across the whole map. Finally, the high pre-turbine pressures show a significant effect on
the overall efficiency gain of the model.
Appl. Sci. 2017,
By 7,assessing
350 18 of 25
the work presented in the three phases of the steady-state simulations, the ideal
engine layout can be summarized as shown in Figure 21.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 18 of 25

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 18 of 25
FigureFigure 20. Absolute

20. Absolute difference
difference in overall
in overall efficiencybetween
efficiency between four
four different
differente-turbo
e-turbo configurations
configurations andand
Figure 20. Absolute
the baseline engine;difference
negative in overall
values efficiency
indicate between
efficiency four
loss; different
positive e-turbo configurations
values and
the baseline engine; negative values indicate efficiency loss; positive valuesindicate
indicate efficiency gain;gain;
efficiency
the baseline
thein
area engine; negative values indicate efficiency loss; positive values indicate efficiency gain;
the area redincircle
red circle indicates
indicates non-convergence
non-convergence ofofthe
themodel:
model: (a) model
(a) modelwith
with30%30% larger
largerturbine
turbineandand
the
WG completely shut; (b) model with 20% larger turbine and WG half opened compared toand
area in red circle indicates non-convergence of the model: (a) model with 30% larger turbine the
WG completely
WG shut; (b) model
completely with with
20% larger turbine and WG WG half opened compared to the
to baseline
baseline engine;shut; (b) model
(c) model with 10% 20% turbine
smaller larger turbine
and 5% and
increasedhalf opened
pre-turbine compared
pressure the
compared
engine; (c) model
baseline engine;with
(c) 10% smaller
model 10%turbine and 5%and increased pre-turbine pressure compared to the
to the baseline engine; (d)with
model smaller
with 10%turbine 5% increased
smaller turbine and 15%pre-turbine pressure
increased pre-turbine compared
pressure
baseline engine;
tocompared (d)
the baseline model
engine;
to the
with 10%
(d) engine.
baseline
smaller turbine and 15% increased pre-turbine
model with 10% smaller turbine and 15% increased pre-turbine pressurepressure compared
to thecompared
baseline toengine.
the baseline engine.
Figure 21. Ideal component sizing for maximum power and energy harvesting.
Figure
Figure 21. 21.
IdealIdeal componentsizing
component sizingfor
for maximum
maximum power
powerand energy
and harvesting.
energy harvesting.
4.2. Transient Analysis
4.2. Transient Analysis
4.2. Transient
TheAnalysis
results in the steady-state simulations section demonstrated that a model fitted with a
The results inand
motor-generator thea steady-state
turbine 10% simulations
smaller thansection demonstrated
the original that aenergy
could provide modelharvesting
fitted withanda
The results in the
motor-generator and steady-state
a turbine 10% simulations
smaller than section
the demonstrated
original could providethat a model
energy fittedand
harvesting with a
thermal efficiency gain across the speed/load map of the engine. The transient behaviour of the model
motor-generator
thermal and gain
efficiency a turbine
across 10% smaller than
the speed/load map the original could
of the provide energyof harvesting and
with this configuration, an original size compressor andengine. The pre-turbine
increased transient behaviour
pressures the model
were tested
thermal
withefficiency
this gain across
configuration, an the speed/load
original size map
compressor
by performing three different types of simulations. of the
and engine.
increasedThe transient
pre-turbine behaviour
pressures wereof the model
tested
by performing
with this three different
configuration, an original types of compressor
size simulations. and increased pre-turbine pressures were tested
by performing
4.2.1. Loadthree
Step different
Transient types of simulations.
4.2.1. Load Step Transient
Model with PID Controllers
The load step transient study was repeated five times for 1600 and 1100 engine speeds by
The the
limiting loadamount
step transient
of powerstudy
(fromwas
1 to 5repeated five times
kW) provided for 1600
as electrical and 1100toengine
assistance speeds byas
the compressor,
limiting the amount
shown in Figure 22. of power (from 1 to 5 kW) provided as electrical assistance to the compressor, as
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 19 of 25
4.2.1. Load Step Transient

The load step transient study was repeated five times for 1600 and 1100 engine speeds by limiting
the amount of power (from 1 to 5 kW) provided as electrical assistance to the compressor, as shown in
Appl.
Figure 22.Sci. 2017, 7, 350 19 of 25
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 19 of 25
Figure 22. Limits

Figure andand
22. Limits level of of
level power
powerprovided
provided to
to the compressor
compressorduring
during tip-in
tip-in transient:
transient: (a) 1600
(a) 1600 rpm; rpm;
(b) 1100
(b) 1100 rpm.rpm.
Figure 22. Limits and level of power provided to the compressor during tip-in transient: (a) 1600 rpm;
It is clear that the maximum power limit set for the 1100 rpm case exceeds the model
Itrequirement,
is clear that
(b) 1100 the maximum
rpm.
based on the current powerPIDlimit setfor
tuning, forachieving
the 1100 the
rpm case possible
fastest exceeds response.
the model requirement,
based on the current PID tuning, for achieving the fastest possible response.
The results in Figure 23 reveal that an electrical assistance of 1 kW can reduce the transient
It is clear that the maximum power limit set for the 1100 rpm case exceeds the model
The
responseresults
timeinofFigure 23 by
the engine reveal that an
70% while electrical
higher assistance
levels of power canof 1 kW
lead can reduce
to a reduction the transient
of more than
requirement, based on the current PID tuning, for achieving the fastest possible response.
response
85%.time of theinengine
As shown Figureby 23a,70%
powerwhile higher
levels levels
of more thanof3power
kW have can lead to
almost a reduction
a negligible of on
effect morethe than
The results in Figure 23 reveal that an electrical assistance of 1 kW can reduce the transient
response
85%. response
As shown timein of the engine.
Figure 23a, It is obvious
power levels by
oflooking
more at Figure
than 3 kW23b thatalmost
have the improvement
a negligible in response
effect on the
time of the engine by 70% while higher levels of power can lead to a reduction of more than
time
response is due to the rapid increase of the turbocharger’s shaft speed. The fact that the initial shaft speed
85%.time of theinengine.
As shown It ispower
Figure 23a, obvious by of
levels looking at Figure
more than 23b that
3 kW have almostthea improvement
negligible effectin onresponse
the
is due
time is higher, as arapid
to time
the result of the smaller turbine, also contributes to a fast transient
thatchange. Moreover,
response of the increase
engine. Itof is the turbocharger’s
obvious by looking atshaft speed.
Figure 23b thatThethefact the initial
improvement shaft speed
in response
Figure 23c shows that the electrical assistance provided to the turbocharger pushes the operation of
is higher,
time isasdue a result of theincrease
to the rapid smaller turbine,
of the also contributes
turbocharger’s to The
shaft speed. a fast
facttransient change.
that the initial Moreover,
shaft speed
the compressor towards the right side of the mass flow/pressure ratio map, which leads to a more
is higher, as a result of the smaller turbine, also contributes to a fast transient
Figure 23c shows that the electrical assistance provided to the turbocharger pushes the operation of change. Moreover,
efficient operation of the compressor.
Figure 23c shows
the compressor towards that the
the electrical
right side assistance provided
of the mass to the turbocharger
flow/pressure ratio map,pushes
whichthe operation
leads to aofmore
the operation
efficient compressoroftowards the right side of the mass flow/pressure ratio map, which leads to a more
the compressor.
efficient operation of the compressor.
Figure 23. Cont.

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 20 of 25
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 20 of 25
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 20 of 25
Figure 23. Load tip-in results at 1600 rpm engine speed: (a) BMEP response time; (b) turbocharger
Figure 23. Load tip-in results at 1600 rpm engine speed: (a) BMEP response time; (b) turbocharger
speed response time; (c)results
compressor performance.
speedFigure 23. Load
response time;tip-in at 1600
(c) compressor rpm engine speed: (a) BMEP response time; (b) turbocharger
performance.
speed response time; (c) compressor performance.
On the other hand, the transient improvement at very low engine speeds is of higher magnitude,
On the
Onother
as shown hand,
theinother
Figure the
24a,b.
hand, transient
the improvement
This happens
transient due to the
improvement at very
very low
verylow
low engine speeds
pre-turbine
engine speeds ofishigher
of higher
pressures
is magnitude,
occurring at
magnitude,
1100
as shown rpm.
as shown Moreover,
in Figure as
24a,b.
in Figure illustrated
24a,b. This in Figure
Thishappens
happens due24c, the
due to the electrical
the very
verylowassistance provided
lowpre-turbine
pre-turbine to the
pressures
pressures turbocharger
occurring
occurring at at
pushes
1100 rpm. theMoreover,
1100 rpm. operation
Moreover, of illustrated
as the compressor
as illustrated towards
ininFigure
Figure theelectrical
24c, the
24c, the surge line
electrical of the map.
assistance
assistanceprovided
provided to the
to turbocharger
the turbocharger
pushes
pushes the operation
the operation of the
of the compressortowards
compressor towardsthethe surge
surge line
lineofofthe
themap.
map.
Figure 24. Load tip-in results at 1100 rpm engine speed; the two peaks highlighted in the red circle
Figureare24.
a result
Figure Load oftip-in
24. Load thetip-in
mass flowatrate
results
results at fluctuation
1100 rpm
1100 rpmenginewhenspeed;
engine the throttle
speed; thetwo
the valve
two opens:
peaks
peaks (a) BMEPinresponse
highlighted
highlighted in red
the time;circle
the circle
red
are a (b)
are turbocharger
result of the
a result thespeed
of mass flow
mass response
rate
flow rate time; (c) compressor
fluctuation
fluctuation when theperformance.
when throttlevalve
throttle valveopens:
opens:(a) (a) BMEP
BMEP response
response time;time;
(b) turbocharger
(b) turbocharger speed speed response
response time;
time; (c)(c)compressor
compressor performance.
performance.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 21 of 25
Open-LoopAppl.
Study (No
Sci. 2017, PID Controllers)
7, 350 21 of 25
The open-loop
Open-Loop
Appl. study(No
Study
Sci. 2017, 7, 350 wasPIDperformed
Controllers) for investigating the hardware capabilities without 21 of 25 any
effects from the tuning of the PID controllers. Figure 25 reveals the importance
The open-loop study was performed for investigating the hardware capabilities without any of the initial level of
Open-Loop
effects Study
from the (No
tuningPID
of Controllers)
power, as well as the average power provided to the compressor. Cases with the maximum amount of
the PID controllers. Figure 25 reveals the importance of the initial level of
power,
power provided as well as the
during
The open-loop the average
studyfirst power
wassection
performedprovided
benefit to the compressor.
from the fastest
for investigating Cases with capabilities
response
the hardware theand
maximum
highest amount
BMEP
without any levels.
of power provided during the first section benefit from the fastest response and highest BMEP levels.
On the effects
other from the
hand, tuning25b
Figure of the PID controllers.
shows that the Figuredistribution
power 25 reveals theis importance
equally of the initial
important
On the other hand, Figure 25b shows that the power distribution is equally important as the average
level
as the of
average
power,
power provided as well as the average
to the compressor power provided
for aforfast to
transientthe compressor.
response Cases
time. with the maximum amount
power provided to the compressor a fast transient response time.
of power provided during the first section benefit from the fastest response and highest BMEP levels.
On the other hand, Figure 25b shows that the power distribution is equally important as the average
power provided to the compressor for a fast transient response time.
Figure 25. Open-loop load tip-in results at 1600 rpm engine speed: (a) BMEP vs. time; (b) average
Figure 25. Open-loop load tip-in results at 1600 rpm engine speed: (a) BMEP vs. time; (b) average
power vs. time to torque; colour and symbol categorization indicates the amount of power provided
power vs. during
time to thetorque; colour and symbol categorization indicates the amount of power provided
first section.
during the first section.
Figure
4.2.2. 25. Gear
Fixed Open-loop
Vehicleload tip-in
Speed results at 1600 rpm engine speed: (a) BMEP vs. time; (b) average
Transient
power vs. time to torque; colour and symbol categorization indicates the amount of power provided
4.2.2. Fixed during
Gear TheVehicle
results inSpeed
FigureTransient
the first section.
26 illustrate the required time for increasing the vehicle’s speed from
1100 to 3000 rpm. As is expected, an aggressive tip-in leads to a fast vehicle speed transient. The pre-
The results
turbinein Figurehas
pressure 26almost
illustrate the required
a negligible effect on time for increasing
the required the vehicle’s
time. The comparison speed
between thefrom
e- 1100 to
4.2.2. Fixed Gear Vehicle Speed Transient
turbo and the baseline engine for the 2–16 BMEP shows the improvement
3000 rpm. As is expected, an aggressive tip-in leads to a fast vehicle speed transient. The pre-turbine in transient response for
the
Theelectrically-assisted
resultsain Figuremodel. On the other
26 effect
illustrate hand, the comparison for the 2–4theBMEP tip-in shows
speedno
pressure has almost negligible onthe therequired
required time for increasing
time. The comparison vehicle’s
between frome-turbo
the
1100difference
to 3000 rpm.at allAs
dueistoexpected,
operatingan at aggressive
the non-boostedtip-inarea
leadsof to
theaengine. Figurespeed
fast vehicle 26b demonstrates
transient. The thepre-
and the baseline
amount engine
of energy for the 2–16 BMEPbyshows theduring
improvement inperiod
transient response is e-for the
turbine pressure has provided or harvested
almost a negligible effectthe
on motor
the required the transient
time. The comparison of interest.
betweenItthe
electrically-assisted
clear that model.
during the On
first the
phase other
of the hand,
tip-in, the the comparison
motor provides a for
high the
amount
turbo and the baseline engine for the 2–16 BMEP shows the improvement in transient response for
2–4
of BMEP
power tip-in
(limited to shows no
difference 5atkW)
all to thetocompressor
due operating for
at meeting
the the BMEP demands.
non-boosted area of Once
the the targeted
engine. Figure boost
26b pressure is
demonstrates the
the electrically-assisted model. On the other hand, the comparison for the 2–4 BMEP tip-in shows no
achieved, the e-turbo starts harvesting energy for most of the cases. The overall average energy
amountdifference
of energy provided
at all or harvested
due to operating by the motor
at the non-boosted areaduring the transient
of the engine. Figure 26bperiod of interest.
demonstrates the It is
demand is negative (energy generation) for most of the cases, except the most aggressive one, as
amount
clear that during of energy provided or harvested by the
the motor during the transient period of of interest. It is
shown in Figure 26b, where the BMEP is increasing for the whole duration of the transient as (limited
the first phase of the tip-in, motor provides a high amount power
to 5 kW)clear
to that
the during
presented the first
compressor
in Figure phase
for
26c. of the tip-in,
meeting
The the
the BMEP
Brake-Specific motor
Fuel provides aOnce
demands.
Consumption high amount
(BSFC) the of power
targeted
of the engine (limited
isboost
slightly to
pressure is
5 kW) to the compressor
deteriorated when higher for meeting pressures
pre-turbine the BMEP demands.
than the Once
baseline the targeted
model are boost
applied, as pressure
shown in is
Figure 26d.
demanddemand
is negative (energy generation) for most of the cases, except the most aggressive one, as shown
is negative (energy generation) for most of the cases, except the most aggressive one, as
in Figure 26b, in
shown where
Figurethe BMEP
26b, whereisthe
increasing
BMEP is for the whole
increasing duration
for the of the transient
whole duration as presented
of the transient as in
Figure 26c. The Brake-Specific
presented FuelBrake-Specific
in Figure 26c. The Consumption Fuel(BSFC) of the engine
Consumption (BSFC) is
ofslightly deteriorated
the engine is slightly when
deteriorated when
higher pre-turbine higherthan
pressures pre-turbine pressures
the baseline thanare
model theapplied,
baseline model are applied,
as shown in Figureas 26d.
shown in
Figure 26d.
Figure 26. Cont.

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 22 of 25
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 22 of 25
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 22 of 25
Figure
Figure 26. 26. Fixed
Fixed gear gear vehicle
vehicle speed
speed transientresults;
transient results; %
%values
valuesrepresent pre-turbine
represent pressure
pre-turbine increase
pressure increase
comparedcompared
Figure to26.thetobaseline
Fixed the baseline
gear vehicleengine:
(a)(a)
speed
engine: enginespeed
transient
engine speed vs.
results; vs. time;
time;(b)
% values (b)motor-generator
represent pre-turbine
motor-generator power vs. engine
pressure
power increase
vs. engine
speed; (c) BMEP vs. time; engine:
(d) Brake-Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) vs. engine speed.
speed;compared
(c) BMEPtovs. thetime;
baseline (a) engine
(d) Brake-Specific speed
Fuel vs. time; (b)
Consumption motor-generator
(BSFC) vs. enginepower
speed.vs. engine
speed; (c) BMEP vs. time; (d) Brake-Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) vs. engine speed.
4.2.3. Energy Balance Study
4.2.3. 4.2.3.
Energy Balance
Energy Study
Balance Study
The energy balance study was performed for the NEDC, WLTC, US06 cycles, as well as real
driving
The energyconditions
The energybalance cycles
study
balance shown
study was inperformed
was the Methodology
performed for
for theSection.
the NEDC,WLTC,
NEDC, WLTC,US06 US06 cycles,
cycles, as well
as well as real
as real
driving Figure
conditions
driving 27 reveals
cycles
conditions that
shown
cycles all
shown of the
in in
the driving
the cycles
Methodology tested
Methodology Section. provide
Section. a negative average power, which
indicates energy harvesting. Energy is provided to the compressor during transient load and speed
Figure 27 reveals
Figure 27 revealsthatthat
all all
of ofthethedriving
drivingcycles
cycles tested providea anegative
tested provide negative average
average power,
power, whichwhich
conditions. The motor-generator is almost inactive when running at low to medium load steady-state
indicates
indicates energy
energy harvesting.
harvesting. Energyisisprovided
Energy provided toto the
the compressor
compressor during
during transient
transientloadload
and and
speedspeed
conditions. Finally, at extra-urban driving conditions, the generators can harvest a high amount of
conditions.
conditions. The The motor-generator
motor-generator is almost
is energy inactive
almostharvested when
inactiveiswhen running at low to medium load steady-state
energy. The average amount of highlyrunning
dependentat on
lowthetodriving
medium load steady-state
behaviour. The
conditions. Finally, at extra-urban driving conditions, the generators can harvest a high amount of
conditions. Finally,
combined drivingat conditions
extra-urban anddriving
the US06conditions,
cycle, which the generators
represents can harvest
aggressive a high amount
driving conditions,
energy. The average amount of energy harvested is highly dependent on the driving behaviour. The
demonstrated
of energy. The average the maximum
amount amounts
of energy of energy gain (6.6
harvested and 5.9 dependent
is highly kWh, respectively).
on theThe NEDC behaviour.
driving and
combined
WLTC driving
cycles conditions
that represent andmildthedriving
US06 cycle, whichprovided
behaviour represents aggressive
energy gains driving
between conditions,
0.4 and
The combined
demonstrated
driving conditions and the US06 cycle, which represents aggressive driving conditions,
the maximum amounts of energy gain (6.6 and 5.9 kWh, respectively). The NEDC and
0.9 kW.
demonstrated the maximum
WLTC cycles that represent amountsmild of energybehaviour
driving gain (6.6 provided
and 5.9 kWh,
energyrespectively).
gains between The0.4NEDC
and and
WLTC0.9cycles
kW. that represent mild driving behaviour provided energy gains between 0.4 and 0.9 kW.
Figure 27. Average power provided/harvested by the motor-generator; negative values indicate
energy harvesting.
Figure 27. Average

The fuel powerofprovided/harvested
consumption by the
the model in transient motor-generator;
mode negative
cannot be highly values
trusted, as indicate
it may be
Figure 27. Average
energy
power provided/harvested by the motor-generator; negative values indicate
harvesting.
affected by the tuning of the different PID controllers used for the baseline and the electrically-
energy harvesting.
assisted models, as shown in Figure 28.
The fuel consumption of the model in transient mode cannot be highly trusted, as it may be
The fuelby
affected the tuning ofofthe
consumption thedifferent
model PID controllers
in transient usedcannot
mode for the be
baseline
highly and the electrically-
trusted, as it may be
assisted models, as shown in Figure 28.
affected by the tuning of the different PID controllers used for the baseline and the electrically-assisted
models, as shown in Figure 28.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 23 of 25
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 23 of 25
Figure 28. Fuel flow mass flow rate comparison between e-turbo and baseline model for the WLTC
Figure 28. Fuel flow mass flow rate comparison between e-turbo and baseline model for the WLTC
cycle; highlighted
cycle; highlighted area
area indicates
indicates the
the disturbance
disturbance of
of PID
PID tuning
tuning on
on the
the accuracy
accuracy of
of the
the results.
results.
The obtained results for the transient cycles show that with the implementation of the
The obtained results for the transient cycles show that with the implementation of the
e-turbocharger, the fuel economy of the engine is deteriorated by up to 1.8% (Table 7) due to the
e-turbocharger, the fuel economy of the engine is deteriorated by up to 1.8% (Table 7) due to the
increased pre-turbine pressures. However, this fuel consumption increase is compensated by the
increased pre-turbine pressures. However, this fuel consumption increase is compensated by the
generated power of the e-turbocharger. The combined driving cycle demonstrates the maximum net
generated power of the e-turbocharger. The combined driving cycle demonstrates the maximum net
gain of 5.5 kWh, followed by the US06 cycle with 3.8 kWh. The WLTC is the only cycle that provides
gain of 5.5 kWh, followed by the US06 cycle with 3.8 kWh. The WLTC is the only cycle that provides a
a marginally negative energy gain when considering the increased fuel consumption.
marginally negative energy gain when considering the increased fuel consumption.
Table 7. Fuel consumption difference between baseline and e-turbo models for various cycles; energy
Table 7. Fuel consumption difference between baseline and e-turbo models for various cycles; energy
gain = =average
gain averagepowerpower
valuesvalues
− heat −lossheat lossto (Q)
(Q) due due fuel
increased to consumption,
increased fuel consumption,
Q (kJ) = Calorific
Q (kJ) = Calorific value of fuel (CV) (kJ/kg) × fuel (kg), CV of gasoline = 47,300 kJ/kg; * considering
value of fuel (CV) (kJ/kg) × fuel (kg), CV of gasoline = 47,300 kJ/kg; * considering the increased the
increased fuel consumption.
fuel consumption.
Cycle Difference (g/h) Difference (%) Energy Gain * (kWh)
Cycle
NEDC Difference
−3.7(g/h) Difference
−0.12 (%) Energy Gain * (kWh)
+0.37
WLTC
NEDC −−66.4
3.7 −1.34
−0.12 −0.03
+0.37
WLTCUS06 −−161.3
66.4 −1.34
−1.80 −0.03
+3.78
US06 driving
Combined −161.3
−81.8 −1.80
−1.26 +3.78
+5.52
Combined driving −81.8 −1.26 +5.52
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
The present paper provides a detailed theoretical analysis on the potential of e-turbocharging to
The present
control load whilepaper provides
providing a detailed
energy recovery theoretical analysisthe
for increasing on the potential
overall system of efficiency
e-turbocharging
and if
to control load while providing energy recovery for increasing
possible replacing wastegate boost control. The initial results show that at medium the overall system efficiency
to high and if
loads,
possible replacing
significant amountswastegate
of enthalpy, boost
up control.
to 5 kW,The initial
are lost resultsthe
through show
WGthatvalveat of
medium
a 2.0 L to high loads,
turbocharged
significant amounts of enthalpy, up to 5 kW, are lost through the WG valve
spark-ignition engine at medium to high loads. A significant amount of this enthalpy loss can be of a 2.0 L turbocharged
spark-ignition
recovered by the engine at mediumoftoa high
implementation loads. A significant
motor-generator amount
directly linked of this
to the shaftenthalpy loss can be
of the turbocharger.
recovered by thereveals
The study implementation of a motor-generator
that replacing the wastegate is directly linked towhen
only achievable the shaft of the
a 30% turbocharger.
larger turbine is
The study reveals that replacing the wastegate is only achievable when
used for non-violating the pre-turbine pressure limit of the engine. However, a large turbine a 30% larger turbine is
leads to
used for non-violating
very poor performancethe pre-turbine
and pressureneeds
energy provision limit ofat the
the engine.
low loads However, a largeAturbine
and speeds. leads
10% smaller
to very poor performance and energy provision needs at the low loads and
turbine when combined with increased pre-turbine pressures was found to provide efficiency gains speeds. A 10% smaller
turbine when
and energy combinedconditions
harvesting with increased
acrosspre-turbine
the whole pressures
area of thewas foundload/speed
engine’s to provide map.
efficiency gains
However,
and energy harvesting
this energy harvestingand conditions
efficiencyacross
gainthe comewhole
witharea
a 5%ofpenalty
the engine’s
on theload/speed
maximum power map. However,
output of
this energy harvesting and efficiency gain come with a 5% penalty on the
the engine. Increased power outputs are still achievable by reducing the pre-turbine pressure maximum power output of
the engine. Increased power outputs are still achievable
(opening the WG) and providing extra energy to the compressor. by reducing the pre-turbine pressure (opening
the WG)
The and providing
transient responseextratime
energy to electrically-assisted
of the the compressor. engine showed an improvement between
70% and 90% depended on the engine speed and the power provided to the compressor (~1 to 5 kW).
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 24 of 25
The transient response time of the electrically-assisted engine showed an improvement between
70% and 90% depended on the engine speed and the power provided to the compressor (~1 to
5 kW). Testing the system under various driving cycles showed that the average amount of energy
generated exceeds by up to 1 kW on average (6.6 kWh) the energy required by the motor during the
transient events. The e-turbocharged engine demonstrated a fuel deterioration of up to 1.8% during the
transient due to the increased pre-turbine pressures. However, this was compensated by the additional
generated power. The maximum net energy gain of 5.5 kWh when considering the fuel consumption
increase was for the combined driving cycle followed by the US06 cycle with a net gain of 3.8 kWh.
Finally, it needs to be mentioned again that none of the results presented in this study take into
account any electrical losses, such as alternator, converter and battery losses, which will obviously
reduce the net amount of harvested energy. Future work will include investigations on gasoline and
multi-turbo systems with a comprehensive turbine/compressor matching and the electrification of VGT
turbocharging systems. Finally, the simulation studies can be supported by experimental investigations
with actual hardware testing and e-turbocharger emulation studies (using an externally-boosted engine
transient facility located at the University of Bath) for a comprehensive in-cylinder combustion analysis.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge Ford Motor Company and Jaguar Land Rover for
their funding support for this research work.
Author Contributions: Pavlos Dimitriou, Richard Burke and Harald Stoffels conceived of and designed
the experiments. Pavlos Dimitriou performed the experiments, analysed the data and wrote the paper.
Qingning Zhang and Colin Copeland contributed with their experience on electrically-assisted turbochargers and
simulation tools.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The founding sponsors have agreed to publish
the findings of this work.
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turbocharger. SAE Tech. Pap. 2013. [CrossRef]
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© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Electric Turbocharging for Energy Regeneration

Article in Applied Sciences · April 2017

Pavlos Dimitriou Richard Burke

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Academic Editor: Jose Ramon Serrano

Keywords: turbocharger; e-turbo; boosting; electrically-assisted; turbo-compound; energy

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350; doi:10.3390/app7040350 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Parameter Unit Value

Figure 5. Instantaneous pressure at exhaust port of Cylinder 1, 2000 rpm medium-load.

3.1.1. Phase 1: WG Enthalpy Loss Study

Case Turbine Size Multiplier Compressor Size Multiplier

3.1.2. Phase 2: Suppressing WG and Using e-Turbo to Control Boosting

3.1.3. Phase 3: Reinstating WG to Control Exhaust Manifold Pressure

3.2. Transient Simulations

• Load step transient

3.2.1. Load Step Transient Simulations

Process Parameter Model with PIDs (Control Variables) Open-Loop Model

3.2.2. Fixed Gear Vehicle Speed Transient Simulations

Figure 9. Schematic of total inertia applied to the engine.

The study was performed

Figure 11.Figure 11. Driving

4. Results and Discussion

Figure 12. Figure

4.1.2. Phase 2: Suppressing WG and Using e-Turbo to

Figure 14. Phase 2: Motor-generator avera

Turbine Size: WG Area6. Balance

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350

Smaller Turbine: Increased Pre-Turbine Pressure Study

Figure 13. Engine’s performance results for various turbines si

The results in Figure 14 show that with this configurat

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 18 of 25

FigureFigure 20. Absolute

4.2.1. Load Step Transient

Model with PID Controllers

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 350 19 of 25

Figure 22. Limits

Figure 23. Cont.

Figure 26. Cont.

Figure 27. Average

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