BIO 102 PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY (II) NOTES

Topic I: Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of the set points of the internal environment of an organism.
This condition was first noticed/observed by the physiologist Claude Bernard; the term homeostasis
(constant) was coined by Walter Cannon. However, the internal environment is constant but fluctuates
within a set range called set point. Thus, the best descriptive term is dynamic equilibrium.
The mechanisms by which organisms carry on homeostasis are called the feedback systems. They are
Negative Feedback System and Positive feedback system.
Negative feedback systems –is the most significant principle governing homeostasis.
In negative feedback, a change in the internal environment initiates a response that reverses the original
change. For instance, though the outside environment/surrounding temperature changes, the internal
environment temperature only fluctuates in its set point (36oC – 37oC). When the outside temperature
rises, the body keeps the internal temperature at the set point through vasodilatation, sweating. When it
falls outside, vasoconstriction, piloerection and shivering counteract the external change.

Positive feedback systems – furthers a change in the internal environment to a point of climax before its
reverted. For instance, positive feedback occurs in childbirth. Early contractions of labor begin to force
the baby’s head against the cervix (base of the Uterus), causing the cervix to dilate (open). Stretches or
neurons within the cervix signal the hypothalamus to release of oxytocin, hormones that stimulate further
contractions of the uterus. The process is ended by the expulsion of the baby and its placenta into the
world.
Positive feedback is also involved during sexual intercourse.

Topic II: Tissue and Organization of the animal Body

Cells - tissues - Organs -Organ System

The study of tissues is referred to as histology. Animal tissues are composed of extracellular (outside cell)
components, like those produced by the cells of cartilage (chondrocytes) and bone (osteocytes).
The four categories of animal tissues are: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, nerve tissue.

Epithelial Tissue
Cells of epithelial tissues (or just 'epithelia') form continuous sheets called membranes. Epithelial
membranes cover the body and line all the body cavities.

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues

1. Cellularity
2. Specialised Contacts: serve as effective barriers because of their cells are packed closely together
and connected to one another by tight junctions. They resist the movement of substances across it
(ex. skin), and some allow movement of specific molecules across it (ex. small intestine lining).
3. Polarity
4. Basement Membrane
5. Avascularity: no blood vessels penetrate epithelial tissues; it is nourished by diffusion from
capillaries within the connective tissue ling beneath it.
6. Regeneration: epithelial cells are continuously lost and replace by cell division.
Epithelia tissues form glands. During development, some epithelial tissues fold inward, and their cells
change shape and function and form glands – clusters of cells specialize to secrete.

1
There are two classes of glands: exocrine and endocrine glands. Exocrine have ducts through which they
channel their secretions eg. Sweat gland. Endocrine glands are ductless; their secretions (hormones) is
discharged directly into the extracellular fluid nearby,eg. Thyroid gland.

Classification of Epithelial Tissues

Epithelial tissues are classified into to broad categories: glandular epithelia and lining/covering epithelia.
Lining/covering epithelial tissues are classified according to shape of their cells and number of cell layers
present.

Simple squamous epithelium: thin, flattened cell that’s one-layer thick, which allows movement of
substances in areas where diffusion and filtration occur. It lines the alveoli, forms capillary walls and lines
blood vessels.

Simple cuboidal epithelium: cube – cube-shaped cell with one layer thick that functions in absorption and
secretion. It lines the kidney tubules and plays a secretory role in the salivary glands, thyroid gland,
pancreas and liver.

Simple columnar epithelium: an elongated cell with one layer thick; its nuclei are lined up. It functions in
absorption and secretion (secretes mucus). It lines the esophagus, stomach, intestine and uterus.

Pseudostratified epithelium: an elongated cell with one layer thick, and with nuclei at different levels. It
often has beating cilia and may secrete mucus. It functions in trapping and transporting particles out of the
respiratory surfaces and it also moves sex cells. It lines the respiratory tracts and the tubes of the
reproductive system (like oviduct, vas deferens).

Stratified squamous epithelium: thin, flattened cell with many layers thick. It has protective function and
may secrete mucus. It is found in the upper layers of the skin, lines the mouth, anal canal and vagina.

Connective Tissues
They have diverse structures and functions. There are several of them: dermis of the skin, tendons,
ligaments, cartilage, bone, fat, and blood. Except for blood and lymph, most connective tissue is
interwoven with fibrous strands of an extracellular protein called collagen secreted by the cells.
Connective tissue underlies all epithelia; they like polarity; unlike epithelia, they have relatively few cells
with more matrix; these cells are loosely arranged; and all connective tissues are derived from the
mesenchyme. Connective tissues are classified as loose, dense and specialised connective tissues.
Tendons and ligaments attach muscles to bones and bones to bones, respectively. Fat cells, collectively
called adipose tissues are specifically modified to act as storage sites for triglycerides-molecules used for
long-term energy storage (90% fat cells).

Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue is a specialized tissue that can contract when stimulated and then relaxes passively. Muscle
tissue derives its elasticity from the arrangement of two protein filaments: actins (thin) and myosin
(thick). There are three types of muscle tissues: skeletal (striated), cardiac and smooth. Skeletal muscle,
associated with movement of the body, is under voluntary control, while the cardiac muscle, found in the
heart works under involuntary control. Smooth muscle found in walls of digestive tract, uterus, the
bladder and the large blood vessels works under involuntary control.

Nerve Tissue
Nerve tissue is a specialize tissue that transmits electrical signals. It makes up the brain, the spinal cord,
and nerves. Nerve tissue is composed of two cells: neurons and glial cells. Neurons are specialized to

2
generate electrical signals and to conduct them to other cells, while glial cells protect neurons and
regulate the composition of the extracellular fluid, allowing neurons to function optimally.

Topic III: CIRCULATION

Circulation is the transport of blood rich in dissolved nutrients and O2 to body cells, where the nutrients
can be released and wastes absorbed by diffusion.

There are two major types of circulatory systems: open and closed
Open Circulation – involves an open space within the body called hemocoel, into which vessels empty
and from which they pick up blood. Within the hemocoel, tissues are directly bathed in blood. Eg. Insects,
spiders, snails
Closed Circulation – the blood is confined to the heart and a continuous series of vessels. This allows for
more rapid blood flow and more efficient transport than what occurs in open circulation. Eg. Earthworms
and all vertebrates

All circulatory systems have 3 major components:

Blood –fluid serving as medium of transport
Heart – a pump that keeps the blood circulating
Vessels – a system channels that conduct the blood throughout the body

Vertebrates have the most developed circulatory system.

Functions:
 Transports O2 from the lungs to the tissues and CO2 from the tissues to the lungs
 Distributes nutrients from the digestive system to all body cells
 Transports wastes and toxic substances to the liver for detoxification and to all body cells
 Distributes hormones from the organs that secrete them to the tissues on which they act
 Regulates body temperature, partly achieved by adjustments in blood flow
 Prevents blood loss by means of the clotting mechanism
 Protects the body from bacteria and viruses by circulating antibodies & WBC’s

The Vertebrate Heart

It consists of muscular chambers capable of strong contractions that circulate blood through the body.
Fishes have two-chambered heart while birds & mammals have four-chambered heart.
Mammalian and bird’s hearts consist of two separate pumps, each with two chambers. In each pump, an
atrium receives and briefly stores the blood, passing it to a ventricle that propels it through the body. One
pump is for pulmonary circulation which involves blood flow from the right atrium to the right ventricle.
The other pump is for systemic circulation, which involves oxygenated blood flow from the left atrium to
the left ventricle (most muscular chamber) and through the aorta to the rest of the body.

Cardiac Cycle
The alternating contraction and relaxation of the heart chambers is called the cardiac cycle. The two atria
contract in synchrony, discharging their content into the two ventricles, which in less than a second,
contract simultaneously, forcing blood into arteries leaving the heart. Both chambers then relax briefly
before the cycle is repeated. Systole is the period of ventricular contraction, while the diastole is the
relaxation of all the chambers followed by contraction of the atria.
Systolic pressure is 130mmHg and over 80mmHg is diastolic pressure.

3
Valves of the Heart
Valves maintain directionality of blood flow; they prevent backward flow of blood once the blood enters
another chamber or the arteries.
Atrioventricular valves – separate the atria from the ventricles.
Tricuspid valve (3 – pointed) – separates the right atrium from the right ventricle
Bicuspid valve (2 – pointed) – lies between the left atrium and left ventricle
Semilunar valves (half moon) – these two (2) allow blood to enter the pulmonary artery and the aorta
when the ventricles contract but prevent it from returning as the ventricle relax
HEART CONTRACTION
The contraction of the heart is initiated and coordinated by a pacemaker called the sinoatrial node (SA
node), a mass of specialized muscle cells located in the right atrium that produce spontaneous electrical
signals at a regular rate.
Electrical impulse from the SA node is channeled through the Atrioventricular node (AV node), a second
mass of specialized muscle cell located in the right atrium. Signals from the AV node cause the ventricles
to contract in unision.
Fibrillation – is the failure of the SA node to coordinate muscle contraction, causing uncoordinated,
irregular contractions to impair the heart’s function.

THE BLOOD
The blood is the medium is which dissolved nutrients, gases, hormones and wastes are transported
through the body. Blood has two components:
 Liquid port called plasma (55 – 60%)
 Cellular components (RBCs & platelets), suspended in the plasma, is about (40 – 45%)
An average person has 5 – 6L of blood, making up about 8% of his or her total body weight.
THE PLASMA
The plasma is the liquid portion of the blood, made-up of 90% water in which a number of substances are
dissolved. The substances include proteins, hormones, nutrients (glucose, vitamins, amino acids, lipids),
gases (C02, O2), salts (Na, Ca, K, Mg), and wastes such as urea.
Plasma proteins account for bulk of the dissolved substances. There are three major types of plasma
proteins:
Albumins – help maintain the blood’s osmotic pressure which controls the flow of water across cell
membranes
Globulins – transport nutrients and also play a role in the immune system.
Fibrinogen – essential in blood clotting
CELLULAR COMPNENT
RED BLOOD CELLS/ERYTHROCYTES/RED CORPUSCLES
The Red Blood Cells or erythrocytes/red corpuscles are specialized in transporting O2 – blood from the
lungs to the tissues. The red color of Red Blood Cell is cause by hemoglobin (Hb), an iron-containing
protein. Hb binds loosely to O2, picking up O2 in the capillaries of the lungs, where the concentration is
high, and releasing it where the concentration is low, in other body tissues. Afterwards, some hemoglobin
picks up CO2 from the tissues for transport back to the lungs.
Red Blood Cells make up 99% of the cells in the blood. When they lose nuclei during development, they
lose the ability to divide and to synthesize materials. This causes them to have a short lifespan (120 days).
Every second, over 200 million RBCs die and are replaced by new one in the bone marrow; dead or
damaged RBCs are removed from circulation, by the liver and spleen, and broken down to release their
iron. The salvage iron is carried to make more Hb and is packaged into ne RBC.
Erythropoietin – a hormone produce by the kidney that stimulates RBC production.
Erythropoiesis – production of RBC
WHITE BLOOD CELLS/WHITE CORPUSCLES/LEUkOCYTES
These cells are specialized to defend the body against invasion by foreign agents. They make up less than
1% of the total cellular component of the blood.

4
There are five types:
 Monocytes: travel through capillaries to wounds where bacteria have gained entry. After leaving
the capillaries, monocytes differentiate into macrophages (big eaters), amoeba-like cells that
engulf foreign particles through phagocytosis.
 Neutrophils: they and macrophage feed on bacteria and other foreign cells including cancerous
cells. They often die in the process, and their dead bodies accumulate and contribute to the white
substance -- called pus --seen at infection sites.
 Lymphocytes: produce antibodies that help provide immunity against disease. Cells that give rise
to lymphocytes migrate from bone marrow to lymphatic tissues in the thymus, spleen and lymph
nodes.
 Eosinophil: Eosinophil production is stimulated by parasitic infections. Eosinophils converge on
parasitic invaders, releasing substances that kill the parasite.
 Basophils: least abundant WBCs, release substances that inhibit blood clotting as well as
chemicals, such as histamine that participates in allergic reactions and respons to tissue damage
and microbial infection.
PLATELETS
Platelets are not complete cells, but fragments of large cells called magakayocytes.
Megakaryocytes remain in the bone marrow, pinching off membrane-enclosed pieces of their cytoplasm,
celled platelets. Platelets then enter the blood and function in blood clotting. Like RBCs, platelets lack
nuclei, and their life span is even shorter: 10 – 12 days.
BLOOD CLOTTING
Clot formation is a complex process. It starts when platelets and other factors in the plasma attach
themselves to the surface of the injured or ruptured blood vessels. This causes platelets to adhere to the
surface, thus initiating a complex sequence of events among circulating plasma proteins, which culminate
in the production of the enzyme thrombin. It converts fibrinogen to fibrin.
FIBRINOGEN thrombin FIBRIN
Fibrin molecules adhere to one another; end to end and side to side, forming a fibrous matrix. The matrix
immobilizes the fluid portion of the blood, causing it to solidify. Within half an hour, the platelets
contract, pulling the mesh tighter and forcing liquid out. This action crates a scab and also constricts the
wound, pulling the damaged surfaces closer together in a way that promotes healing.

BLOOD VESSELS
There are three types of blood vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries.
Arteries:
Arteries are thick-walled vessels adopted for carrying blood away from the heart to body tissues. After
blood leaves the heart, it first enters the aorta (largest artery) which braches into vessels of smaller
diameter called arterioles. Arterioles play a major role in determining how blood is distributed within the
body.
Capillaries:
These are the tiniest blood vessels and are microscopic. Because of their walls, that allows exchange of
nutrients and wastes between the blood and body cells. The pressure within capillaries causes a
continuous leakage of fluid from blood plasma into the spaces surrounding the capillaries and nutrients,
hormones gases waste, etc.
Veins:
Veins carry blood back to the heart. Blood from the capillaries carrying CO2 and other wastes, drains into
large vessels called venules that also empty into still larger veins. The walls of veins are much thinner and
more expandable than those of arteries. Blc veins have low pressure, contractions of skeletal muscles
during exercise and breathing assist in the return of blood to the heart. Veins also help in restoring blood
pressure should it fall.

5
Topic IV: THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

This system consists of network of lymphatic capillaries and larger vessels that empty into the circulatory
system, small lymph nodes and few additional organs-spleen and thymus gland, etc.
Though not part of the circulatory system, the lymphatic system is somewhat related to the circulatory
system.
Functions
Removes excess fluid and dissolved substances that leak form the capillaries and returns them to the
blood.
Transports fats from the intestine to the bloodstream.
Defends the body by exposing bacteria and viruses to WBCs

Topic V: RESPIRATIONS

The term respiration refers to the exchange of gases between an organism and its environment.
Gaseous Exchange Occurs in the Following Stages:
 Air or H2O containing O2 is moved across a respiratory surface by bulk flow, facilitated by
muscular breathing movements.
 O2 and CO2 are exchange through respiratory surface by diffusion.
 Gasses are transported between the respiratory system and the tissues by bulk flow of blood as
it’s pumped through-out the body by the heart.
 Gases are exchange between the tissues and the circulatory system by diffusion along their
concentration gradient.
Condition for Diffusion:
 Moist surface
 Sufficiently large surface are
Types of Respiration:
 Internal respiration
 External respiration
Respiratory Organs of different kinds of organisms:
 Gills – respiratory structures found in many aquatic animals like fish, amphibians. Gills have
dense where gaseous exchange occurs.
 Book lung – a series of moist, page-like membranes within a chamber of the exoskeleton
profusion of capillaries just beneath their delicate outer membrane. These bring blood close to the
surface, of arachnids (spider) that serve as respiratory organ.
 Trachea – is an elaborately branching tubes used by insects to convey air directly to body cells.
Trachea usually communicates with the outside through openings called spiracles, located on
each side of the abdomen.
 Lungs – chambers containing moist, delicate respiratory surfaces that are protected within the
body. Most terrestrial vertebrates respire through lungs.
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The human respiratory system and other lung-breathing vertebrates’ respiratory system can be
apportioned into two parts: the conducting portion, and the gas-exchange portion.
 Conducting portion
This carries air to the lung. The passageway is as follows: nose/ mouth nasal cavity/ buccal
cavity pharynx esophagus Larynx trachea bronchi bronchioles
The opening of the larynx is guarded by the epiglottis – a flap of tissue supported by cartilage.
During breathing, the epiglottis tilts downward and covers the larynx, directing substances into
the esophagus. Within the larynx are the vocal cords, bands of elastic tissue controlled by

6
 muscles. Muscular contraction cause the vocal cords to partially close the opening of the larynx,
so that exhaled air causes them to vibrate, giving rise to the tone of speech. The larynx is nick-
named the “Adam’s apple”.
 Gas –Exchange Portion
Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli (tiny air sacs in the lungs). Each lung has about 1.5 – 2.5
million alveoli. The thin-walled alveoli provide an enormous surface area for diffusion. The lungs
usually remain moist because they are coated by a thin layer called pleural membrane. Gases
dissolve in this water-membrane and diffuse through the alveolar and capillary membranes.
Oxygen and CO2 Transport
O2: oxygen binds to hemoglobin (Hb) thus making the blood dark-maroon –red, but blue in the veins.
CO: it fools Hb and binds to it like O2. This cause bluish lips and nail beds.
CO2: reacts with water to form bicarbonate ion (HCO3), which is carried in the blood plasma.
About 20% of CO2 is returned to the lungs bound to Hb that has released its O2 to the tissues.
The remaining is carried in the plasma. The production of HCO-3 and the binding of CO2 to haemoglobin
both reduce the concentration of dissolved CO2 in the blood and increase the gradient for CO2 to flow
from the body cells into the blood.
Inhalation and Exhalation
Outside the lungs, the thoracic cavity is airtight, bounded by cervical muscles and connective tissue on
top and the dome-shape muscular diaphragm (breathing sheet) at the bottom. The rib cage protects the
lungs. Lining the chest and surrounding the lungs is a double layer of membranes called pleural
membranes. These contribute to the airtight seal between the lungs and the chest wall.
Breathing occurs in two stages: inhalation an exhalation. Inhalation is the process whereby air is actively
drawn into the lungs. When this happens, diaphragm contracts, ribs contract upward, and chest cavity
expands along with the lungs.
Exhalation is the process whereby air is passively expelled from the lungs. Relaxed diaphragm domes
upward, and the ribs fall downward and inward. The chest cavity is decreased in size and air is expelled
from the lungs.
After exhalation, the lungs still contains air, which prevents the thin alveoli from collapsing and fills the
space within the conducting portion of the respiratory system.
N.B.: 500ml is inhaled during normal breathing, but only 350ml reach the alveoli for gas exchange

Breathing Rate
Breathing rate is controlled by the respiratory center of the brain, located in the brainstem just above the
spinal cord. Breathing occurs rhythmically and automatically without conscious thought. But unlike the
heart, muscles used in breathing are not self-activating; each contraction in stimulated by impulses from
nerve cells in the respiratory system.
Diagram of the human respiratory system:

Topic VI: NUTRITION & DIGESTION

Nutrition- is the process of acquiring and processing nutrients into usable form. In animals, these nutrients
are supplied by the diet. Nutrients fall into five major groups: lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, minerals,
minerals, and vitamins.
Cells rely on a continuous supply of energy to maintain their incredulous complexity and their wide range
of activities. Two types of nutrients provide the most energy in animal diet:
Carbohydrates and fats:
Calorie- amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of H20 by 10C. The calorie content
of foods is measured in kilocalories (100 calories). The average human body at rest burns roughly 70
calories per hour, but this value is influenced b body size, muscle mass, age, sex and genetic factors.

Minerals

7
Minerals are elements that play crucial roles in animal nutrient ion. Since on organism can manufacture
minerals they be obtained thru the diet, either from food or dissolved in drinking water. Minerals, such as
calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus are major constituents of bones and teeth. Na, ca and k are essential
for muscle contraction and the conduction of nerve impulses. Iron is a control component of each Hb
molecule in blood, and iodine of found in hormones produced by the thyroid gland. Zn and Mg are
required for the function of some enzymes: copper is needed for the synthesis of Hb, and chromium is
used in the metabolism of sugar and fat.

Vitamins
Vitamins are a diverse group of organic cpds that animals require in small amounts. In other words, the
body cannot synthesize vitamins; they must be obtained from food.
Human vitamins fall into two groups: water – soluble and fat –soluble. Water –soluble vitamins include
vitamins C and the 8 cpds that make up the B – vitamins complex. Most water –soluble vitamins work in
conjunction with enzymes to promote chemical reactions that supply energy or synthesize biological
molecules.
The fat- soluble vitamins A, D, E and K have even more varied role. Vitamins K helps regulate blood
clotting ;vitamins A is used to produce visual pigment in that retina of the eye; vitamins D is required for
normal bone formation, and a deficiency of it leads to rickets.

Assignment: write on carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.

DIGESTION
Digestion –The processes that physically grind up and chemically breaks down food.
The digestive systems of animals take food and then digest its complex molecules into simpler molecules
that can be absorbed. Materials that cannot be broken down or used are then expelled from the body.
All digestive systems must accomplish certain tasks:
Ingestion: food brought into the digestive tract thru an opening, usually the mouth.
Mechanical Breakdown: food is physically Brocken down into smaller pieces. This accomplished by
gizzards or teeth as well as by the churning action of the digestive cavity itself.
This process provides increased surface area, allowing digestive enzymes to attach the more effectively.
Chemical breakdown: particles of food are exposed to enzymes and other digestive fluids that breakdown
large molecules into small ones.
Absorption (assimilation): small unite of molecules are transported out of the digestive cavity and into
cells.
Elimination: in digestible materials are expelled from the body.
Types of digestion
I) Intracellular Digestion: a form in which lysosomes act upon the food in the food vacuole. E.g.
Sponges.
ii) Extracellular Digestion: food is broken down by enzymes acting outside the cells. It occurs in digestive
sac called gastrointestinal cavity. E.g. Hydra
iii) Tubular Digestion: it takes place in tubes. A tubular digestive tract allows the animals to eat frequently
since incoming food does not interfere with outgoing wastes.
Specialized regions within the tubes process the food in an orderly fashion: grinding, enzymatic action,
and absorption of nutrients. They usually use extracellular digestion to break down their food. E.g.
Earthworms, Mollusks, Arthropods and Echinoderms.
Specialized tubular digestive tracts allow different types of animals to eat a wide range of foods and to
extract the maximum amount of nutrients from them.
Carnivores – feed on other animals. E.g. Wolves, Cats, Owl
Herbivores – feed on only plants. E.g. Deer, Horses, Cows
Omnivores – feed on all types of food. E.g. Humans, Bears, Raccoons.

Digestion in Ruminants (Diagrams)

8
Food is chewed, swallowed, regurgitated and re- chewed as cud
Rumen: microbes digest carbohydrates, including cellulose
Reticulum: plant material is formed into masses called cub
Omasum: narrow passage into the abomasums
Abomasums: protein digestion occurs here
Small Intestine: most nutrient absorption occurs
Large Intestine: remaining water absorbed

Human Digestion
The digestive tract (alimentary canal) is about 9cm long and consists of six parts:
Mouth
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
SI
LI

Accessory Digestive Organs

Teeth
3pairs of salivary glands
Liver and bile ducts
Pancreas
Mouth
The mouth receives food and begins digestion by mechanically reducting the size of solid particles and
mixing them with saliva. The lips, cheeks, tongue and palate surround the mouth. The tongue is a
muscular organ that mixes food particles with saliva during chewing, and moves food toward the pharynx
during swallowing. The papillae are rough projections on the surface of the tongue that provide friction,
which helps handle food. These papillae also contain taste buds. The palate forms the roof of the oral
cavity and consists of a hard anterior part and a soft posterior part. During swallowing, muscular
contraction of the palate prevents food from the entering the nasal cavity.

Salivary Glands
The secret saliva, which dissolves food and helps cleanse the mouth and teeth. Within a salivary gland are
two types of secretory cells- serous cells and mucous cells.

Fxn’s
Serous cell secrete watery fluid that contains the digestive enzyme amylase, which breaks down starch
and glycogen
Saliva contains bacteria – killing enzyme and antibodies that fight against infection
Mucus cell secrete thick liquid called mucus, which binds food particles and lubricates during
swallowing.
Three pairs of major salivary glands – the parotid, submandibular and sublingual glands. The parotid
glands are the largest and located somewhat inferior to each ear.

Mechanism of Swallowing
With the help of the muscular tongue, the food is manipulated into a mass and pressed backward into the
pharynx. Through the larynx, the pharynx also connects the nose and mouth with the trachea, which
conducts air to the lungs. This arrangement occasionally causes problems, especially during swallowing.
However, to curtail this, before swallowing, the epiglottis (flap tissue blocking the respiratory passage) is
elevated to allow air to flow thru the pharynx in to the larynx. During swallowing, the larynx moves up
and the epiglottis folds down, preventing food from entering the larynx but into the esophagus.

9
Esophagus
Is a straight, collapsible tube about 25cm long, which propels food from the pharynx to the stomach?
Secretions of glands lining the esophagus moisten and lubricate the esophagus. Wave – like movement
called peristalsis usually propels food into the stomach. The esophageal sphincter prevents regurgitation
of the stomach’s contents into the esophagus.
Stomach
The stomach is a J – shaped, pouch – like organ which hangs inferior to the diaphragm in the upper left
portion of the abdominal cavity. It is capable of holding from 2 – 4L (gallon) of food and liquid.

The performs the following fxn’s

It receives food from the esophagus
It mixes the food with gastric juice
It initiates protein digestion
It carries on limited amount of absorption and moves food into the SI
Food in the stomach is gradually converted to a thick, acidic liquid called chime, which consists of
partially digested food and digestive secretions. Peristaltic wave then propel the chime toward the small
intestine. A hormone secreted by the duodenal membrane that neutralizes the acid in chime and provides
a favorable ev’t for digestive enzymes in the intestine is called secret in.
Gastric Secretion
The products of the mucous cells, chief cells, and parietal cells form gastric juice
Pepsinogen: produced by the chief cells of the gastric glands, pepsinogen is the inactive form of pepsin.
Pepsin: formed from pepsinogen in the presence of HCI, pepsin digests dietary proteins.
Gastin: a hormone that stimulates the secretion of HCI, by specialized stomach cells
HCI: secreted by pariental cells of the gastric cells; it provides the acidic env’t needed for the conversion
of pepsinogen into pepsin.
Mucus: secreted by goblet cells and mucous glands; provides a viscous, alkaline protective layer on the
inside of the stomach wall.
Intrinsic factor: produced by parietal cells; aids in vitamin B12 absorption.
Pancreas
The pancreas is a glandular organ in the abdominal cavity, which is both exocrine and endocrine. It
consists of two types of cell: one type produces insulin, which is involved in blood sugar regulation and
the other produces a digestive secretion called pancreatic juice released in to the SI.
Pancreatic amylase – carbohydrate – digesting enzyme
Pancreatic lipase – fat – digesting enzyme
Nuclease – break down nucleic acid
Trypsin, chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase – protein – digesting enzymes
Liver
The liver is perhaps the most versatile organ in the human body. It is located in the upper right quadrant
of the abdominal cavity, just inferior to the diaphragm. The liver is divided into two parts: right lobe and
left lobe. Each lobe is divided into many hepatic lobules (liver’s function units). The hepatic sinsoi8ds are
vascular channels separating plate- like groups of hepatic cells from each other. The hepatic portal vein is
the vessel that conveys newly absorbed nutrients from the digestive tract to nourish the hepatic cells.
Kupffer cells are large phagocytic cells lining the inside of the hepatic sinusoids, which sift the liver of
bacteria or other foreign substances.

Fxn’s
Stores fats and carbohydrates for energy
Regulates blood glucose levels
Detoxifies harmful substances entering the body
Secretes bile which emulsifies fats

10
Metabolizes proteins by a process called deamination
Removes damaged RBC’s and foreign substances from the bile by phagocytosis
Bladder
The gall bladder is a pear – shaped sac located in a depression on the liver’s inferior surface. It connects
to the cystic duct, which, in turn, joins the common hepatic duct.
Stores bile between meals
Reabsorbs water to concentrate bile
Released bile in to the SI
Small Intestine
The SI is a tubular organ that extends from the pyloric sphincter to the beginning of the large intestine.
The SI forms the longest part of the alimentary canal.
The SI has three regions: the duodenum, the jejumum, and the ileum. The duodenum is the first part that
is 25cm and 5cm in diameter. It forms the most fixed portion of the SI. The jejumum and ileum are the
proximal two – fifths of the SI that are mobile and lie free in the peritoneal cavity. The mesentery, a
double – layered fold of peritoneal membrane suspends the jejumum and ileum from the posterior
abdominal wall.

The SI carries out the following task:

Receives secretions from the pancreas and liver
Completes digestion of the nutrients in chime
Absorbs the products of digestion
Transports the residues to the large intestine

Intestinal Enzymes
Peptidase – breaks down peptides into amino acids
Sucrase – breaks down sucrose
Maltase – breaks down maltose
Lactase – breaks down lactose
Lipase – breaks down lipids
Enterokinase – converts trypsinogen to trysin
Absorption in the SI
Throughout its length, the inner wall of the SI has finger – like projections of mucous membranes called
intestinal villi. The villi greatly increase the surface area of the intestinal mucosa, making the SI the most
important absorbing organ of the alimentary canal. The SI absorbs digestive products, water and
electrolytes and sends them thru the capillaries to the hepatic portal vein. This vein conveys digested and
absorbed materials from the wall of the SI to the liver.
Large Intestine
It is the final segment of the alimentary canal. It is about 1. 5 cm long and it begins in the lower right side
of the abdominal cavity. The LI consists of the ceum, colon rectum and anal canal.
The cecum is the first part of the LI; it is a dilated, pouch – like structure that hangs slightly below the
ileocecal opening. Hanging downward is a narrow tube called vermiform appendix, which has no
digestive function. It contains lymphatic tissue.
The colon is divided into four parts: the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colons. The
ascending colon beings at the ceum and travels to a point just inferior to the liver. There, it turns sharply
to left and forms the transverse colon. As the transverse colon approaches the spleen, it turns downwards
and becomes the descending colon. At the brim of the pelvis, the descending colon makes an S – shaped
curve called the sigmoid colon.
The rectum lies next to the sacrum and generally follows its curvature. It ends about 5cm below the tip of
the coccyx, where it becomes the anal canal. The anal canal is the final 2.5 -4.0cm of the LI. At its distal
end the canal opens to the outside as the anus.
Fxn’s

11
Absorbs water and electrolytes from chime remaining in the alimentary canal
Mucus in its lining protects the intestinal wall against the abrasive action of the materials passing thru it
Forms and stores feces.

Diagram of the human digestive system

The Urinary System

This system serves many crucial functions relating to homeostasis, the maintenance of the chemical
composition of the blood and extracellular fluid.
All urinary systems perform the following tasks:
Blood or other fluid that bathes cells is filtered, removing water and small dissolved molecules
Nutrients are selectively reabsorbed from the filtrate
Remaining water and dissolved wastes are excreted from the body

Excretion in Invertebrates
Flatworms:
Protonephridia, the first excretory organs to evolve in animals are found to regulate water balance in flat
worms. Hollow flame cells (single – celled bulbs) direct excess water and dissolved wastes into a network
of tubes of the protonephridia. The beating cilia of the flame cells help circulate the fluid to which cellular
waste products also leave by diffusion.

Earth worms:
Earth worms, mollusks and several invertebrates have simple kidney – like structures called nephridia
(sing nephridium). The coelomic fluid in earthworm collects both wastes and nutrients from the blood and
tissues and is conducted through a funnel–shaped opening called nephrostome. Urine is formed in the
nephrostome and stored in an enlarged bladder–like portion of the nephriduim and is then excreted
through the excretory pore.

The vertebrate Urinary System

The mammalian urinary system helps maintain homeostasis in several ways:
Regulates blood levels or ions such as Na, K, Cl, and Ca
Regulates the water content of the blood
Maintains proper blood PH
Retains important nutrients such as glucose and amino acid in the blood
Secretes hormones, such as erythropoietin, which stimulates RBC’s production
Eliminates cellular waste products such as urea

Urine Formation
In cells, amino acids are broken down into simpler molecules, releasing ammonia (NH3 carried to the
liver)
In the liver NH3 is combined with CO2to form urea, less toxic substance (Urea carried to the kidney)
In the kidney, urea and other water – soluble wastes are converted in to urine
By excreting waste in the form of urea, mammals avoid damage from the toxicity of ammonia. However,
problem; they excrete the by- product of protein digestion in the form of uric acid. Uric acid is not very
soluble and can excrete in crystalline form with very little loss of water.

Structure and Function of the Urinary System

Kidney

12
The kidneys are the major organs of excretion. They are the organs in which plasma is collected. From
this fluid, water and important nutrients are reabsorbed in to the blood, while toxic substances, cellular
waste products, excess vitamins, salts, hormones and water are left behind to be excreted as urine.

Human’s kidneys are paired organs located on either side of the spinal column and extending slightly
above the waist, each kidney is 5 inches long, 3 inches wide and 1 inch thick, and resembles a kidney
bean in both shape and color. Blood carrying dissolved cellular wastes enters each kidney thru the renal
artery and exits thru renal vein, after it has been filtered.
Urethra
It is a narrow, muscular tube that conveys urine form the kidney to the urinary bladder.
Urinary Bladder
It is a hollow, muscular chamber that collects and stores urine transported from the kidney. Urine is
retained in the bladder by two sphincter muscles located at the base of the bladder, just above the junction
of the urethra. The internal sphincter is the one nearest the bladder that opens during reflex, junction of
the urethra. The internal sphincter is the one nearest the bladder that opens during reflex, while the lower
external sphincter, under voluntary control,
Allows the brain to suppress the reflex unless the bladder is overly full.
Urethra
It a single narrow tube thru which urine exists the body. It is short (1.5 inches) in females and longer
(8inches)
Nephrons
Nephrons are the functional units of the kidneys. Each kidney has a solid outer layer called renal cortex,
where urine is formed. The renal cortex overlies the inner layer called renal medulla. Each kidney has a
subdivided inner chamber, called the renal pelvis which collects urine and funnels it in to the urethra.
The nephrons have 3 major parts:
Glomerulu, a dense knot of capillaries where fluid from the blood is filtered in to the
Bowman’s capsule, which is a cuplike structure surrounding the glomerulum, which leads to a lone
twisted tubule. The tubule is subdivided into the proximal tubule, the loop of henle and the distal tubule.
Collecting ducts within the medulla of the kidney collect fluid from many nephrons and conduct it into
the renal pelvis.

Functions of the Nephrons

Filtration – water and dissolved substances are forced out of the glomerular capillaries into the volume
increases, regulation of blood PH and salt balance is disrupted and toxic wastes are retained in the blood.
Tubular Secretion – it occurs primarily in the distal tubule. During tubular sectetion, additional wastes are
actively secreted from extracellular fluid into the blood. The filtrate includes 75% salts, amino acids,
sugars and vitamins.
Concentration – concentration of urine takes place in the loop of henle. The loop maintains a salt
concentration gradient in the extracellular fluid that surrounds it, with the highest concentration of urine at
the bottom of the loop of henle.

Antnidiurectic Homone (ADH)

The amount of water reabsorbed into the blood is homeostatically controlled by antidiurectic hormone.
Also called vasopressin. Adh is produces by cells in the hypothalamus and is released by the posterior
pituitary gland. Vasopressin increases the permeability of the distal tubule and the collecting duct to
water, allowing more water to be reabsorbed from urine.
Renal hormones
Two hormones are secreted by the kidneys to regulate blood pressure and blood’s oxygen –carrying
capacity.

13
When blood pressure falls the kidneys release rennin into the bloodstream. Rennin acts an enzyme,
catalyzing the formation of a second hormone called angiotensin. Angiotesin causes arterioles to
constrict, thus elevating blood pressure.
Diagrams: urinary system cross –section of the kidney & nephron.

(VI) The immune system defenses against disease

Microscopic parasites: organisms that live and reproduce on or within other life forms, causing much
harm in the process. These include viruses, bacteria, fungi, and that are collectively called microbes.

The body has evolved three major lines of protection against diseases:
Nonspecific external barriers –prevent most disease –causing microbes from entering the body. They
include structures and secretion such as skin, hair, cilla and tears, and line body cavities such as the
digestive and urogenital tracts.
Nonspecific internal barriers- these are activated if the barriers are breached. These include phagocyte
cells that engulf foreign particles and destroy damaged body cells.
Immune response- is the final line of defense in which immune cells selectively destroy a particular toxin
or microbe and “remember” the invader if it reappears in the future.
Nonspecific external defenses
These include the skin and mucus membranes.
Skin
Most microbes that come in contact with the skin do not obtain the water and nutrients they need to
survive. They are usually shed before they can’t do any harm. Finally, the skin and its secretion block
entry and provide an inhospitable envy’s for microbial growth.
Mucus
Mucus and cillary action defend the mucous membranes against microbes. Mucus and tears contain
lysozymes –antibacterial enzymes that destroy bacterial cell wall. Mucus also physically traps microbes
that enter they body thru the nose or mouth. Cilia lining the respiratory tract sweep up the mucus and
microbes until all are coughed or sneezed out of the body, or swallowed. Entering the stomach, microbes
encounter extreme acidity and protein –digesting enzymes, both of which kill many microbes.

Nonspecific internal defenses

Nonspecific internal defenses fall 3 main categories:
Phagocyte cells-engulf and directly destroy microbes. They also include nk cells that destroy cells of the
body that have been infected by viruses.
Inflammatory response-is provoked by an injury associated with tissue damage and relatively massive
invasion of microbes. The is recruits both phagocyte cells and NK cells.
Fever-is an elevated body temperature which slows down microbial reproduction and enhances the body’s
own fighting abilities. Fever is produced by the body if a population of microbes succeeds in establishing
a major infection.
Natural killer cells
NK cells are another class of WBC’s that strike the body’s own cells that have become ad cancerous or
have been invaded by viruses. Rather than engulfing their victims as do macrophages and neutrophils, NK
cells secrete enzymes that attack the infected or cancerous cells, opening up holes in their membranes.
The inflammatory response
The IR can be initiated by cells damaged by infectious microbes or a wound. These cells release
substances that, in turn, cause mast cells (connective cells) to release chemical called histamine into the
wound. Histamine relaxes the smooth muscle surrounding arterioles, thus causing increased blood flow
and making capillary walls leaky. Ir, which causes mucous membranes to become leaky and injured

14
tissues to become warm, red and swollen, has several fxn’s: it attracts phagocytic cells to the injured area,
promoted blood clotting, and causes pain that stimulates protective behavious.
The immune response
Lymphocytes –Specialized WBC’s that are activated when a virus penetrates the nonspecific defenses.
Lymphocytes are distributed thru out the body in the body in the blood and lymph and many are clustered
ni organs like the thymus, lymph nodes & spleen.

The lymphocytes that produce the immune response, the chemical antibodies they generate to target
infectious microbes, and the organs in which the lymphocytes are produced and reside, constitute the
immune system.

The key cellular players in the immune response are two types of lymphocytes: B-cells and T-cells. T-
cells are released into the bloodstream and travel to the thymus, where they complete their differentiation.
In contrast, B- cells differentiate in the bone marrow.
Antigens & Antibodies
Antigen – are specific foreign molecules (microbes/toxins) whose presence in the body triggers B-cells to
produce antibodies

Antibodies – are proteins produced by B cells that recognize and bind to the specific antigens.
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
MHC refers to proteins, normally located on the surfaces of body cells, that identify the cells as “self”
because one’s MHC proteins are different from those of everyone else, they act as foreign antigens in
other people’s bpodies. This is why organ transplants are rejected. Physicians must find a donor whose
MHC proteins are as similar as possible to the recipient. If this is not done, the recipient’s immune system
recognizes MHC proteins on the donor’s cells as foreign and thus destroys the transplanted tissue.
Cells of the immune response
Once a body has been invaded, the immune cells launch two types of attack: humeral immunity and cell-
mediated immunity.
Humeral immunity
Humeral immunity is provided by B cells and the circulating antibodies they secrete into the bloodstream,
which attack invaders before they can enter body cells.
Humeral immunity can destroy foreign chemicals or microbes in several ways:
Circulating antibodies can bind to a foreign molecule and render it inactivate
Antibodies may coat the surface of an invading cell
Each anybody may bind two microbes and cause them to clump together
Antibody- antigen complex on the surface of an invading cell may trigger a series of reactions with a
group of blood proteins called the complement system.
Cell- Mediated Immunity
Three types of T cells contribute to cell mediated immunity: helper T cell, cytotoxic T cell, and memory
T- Cell.
Helper T cells- offspring of T-cells that bind antigens on the surface of infected or cancerous cells and
produce cytokines (chemicals) that stimulate T- cell division and differentiation
Cytotoxic T- cells –are offspring of T cells that destroy targeted cells such cancerous cells by releasing
proteins that disrupt the infected cell’s membrane.
Memory T-cells – are offspring of T-cells that protect the body against future infection by the same
antigen.
Antibiotics
Antibiotics are drugs that retard the growth and multiplication of many invaders like bacteria, fungi, and
protests (not viruses). Although antibiotics do not usually destroy every single microbe, they give the
body’s nonspecific internal defenses and immune response enough time to finish the job. However, one
weakness of antibiotic is that occasional mutant microbe becomes resistant to the effect of antibiotic.

15
Assignment
Write short notes on the ff:
(I) vaccination (II) Allergic rxn (III) AIDS (IV) cancer
Group presentation: skeletal system, muscular system, sense & perception, lymphatic system and nervous
system

(VII) The endocrine system: chemical control of the animal body

To ensure that the chemical message reaches only appreciatetargets, cells have receptors specified protein
molecules that bind only to specific chemical messengers.
There are three general classes of messenger molecules:
Local hormones-diffuse thru extracellular fluid to nearby cells bearing receptors, E.g. Prostaglandins
Endocrine hormones – secretion into the bloodstream to near or distant cells bearing receptors. Eg. Insulin
Neurotransmitters – chemicals released across the synaptic cleft (narrow gap) between neuron and its
target. Eg. Acetcholine
*Hormone –
Endocrine Hormones
Three classes of vertebrate endocrine hormones:
Peptide hormones – made from chains of amino acids
Amino acid – based hormones – synthesized from single amino acids
Steroid hormones – resemble cholesterol, from which most steroid hormones are synthesized
Hormonal Action
Endocrine cells release hormone
Hormone enters bloodstream
Hormone is distributed thru-out the body
Neural tissue: no binding; no hormonal effects
Skeletal tissue: binding occurs; hormonal effects appear
Hypothalamus
If the endocrine system is the body’s postal service, then the hypothalamus is the main post office, and the
pituitary gland is the administrative headquarters.
The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that contains clusters of specializenerve cells called
Neurosecretory cells.
The pituitary consists of two distinct parts: anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary. The hypothalamus
controls the release of hormones form both parts of the pituitary.
**diagram of the hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary gland
Neurosecrtoty cells o the hypothalamus produce at least nine (9) peptide hormones that regulate the
release of hormones from the anterior pituitary. These peptides are called releasing or inhibiting
hormones.
The anterior pituitary produces several peptide hormones, four of which regulate hormone production in
other endocrine glands:
Follicle – stimulating hormones (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH): stimulate the production of sperm
and testosterone in males, and of eggs, estrogen, & progesterone in females.
Thyroid –stimulating hormone (TSH): stimulates the thyroid gland to release its homes.
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH): stimulates the adrenal cortex to release the hormone cortisol.
The hormones do not act upon other endocrine glands.
Prolactin: stimulates the mammary gland to produce milk during pregnancy
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): stimulates the synthesis of the skin pigment called melanin.
Growth hormone – regulates the body’s growth by acting on nearly all body cells. Growth hormone is
called somatotrapin.
** Define: dwarfism, gigantism, acromegaly, splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, myxedema

16
Posterior Pituitary Gland
It contains the ending of two types of neurosecretory cells whose cell bodies are located in the
hypothalamus. These neroscretory cell endings are enmeshed in a capillary bed into which they release
hormones to be carried into the bloodstream. Two peptide hormones are synthesized in the hypothalamus
and released from the posterior pituitary: antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin.
ADH: prevent urination by making the collecting duct of the nephro reabsorb water from urine and retain
tin the kidney.
Oxytocin: stimulates the release of milk from the sackile milk glands into the nipples.
Causes contractions of the muscles of the uterus during childbirth, helping expel the fetus from the womb.
In several animals, it stimulates the contraction of muscles that surround the tubes that conduct sperm
from the testes to the penis, causing ejaculation.
Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands
Lying at the front of the vertical region, just below the larynx, the thyroid gland produces two major
hormones: thyroxin and calcitonin.
Thyroxin: iodine-containing modified amino acid that raises the metabolic rate of most body cells.
Calcitonia: a peptide essential in calcium metabolism
Under secretion of the thyroid hormone early in life causes cretinism, a condition characterized by
retardation in both mental and physical development.
An iodine-deficient diet can reduce the production of thyroxin and trigger a feedback mechanism that
restores normal hormone levels by dramatically increasing the number of thyroxin-secreting cells. This
leads to excessive growth of the thyroid (enlarged gland may bulge from the next), causing a condition
called goiter.
The four small disks of the parathyroid gland are embedded in the back of the thyroid gland. The
parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone, which along with calcitonin controls the concentration of
calcium in the blood and other body fluids.
The Pancreas
The pancreases are both an exocrine and endocrine gland. The exocrine portion synthesizes digestive
secretions that are released into the pancreatic duct and then into the small intestine. The endocrine
portion consists of clusters of cells called islets cells, which produce peptide hormones. One type of islets
cells produces the hormone insuli; another produces the hormone glucagon.
Insulin and glucagon work in opposition to regulate carbohydrate and fat metabolism. Insulin reduces the
blood glucose level; glucagon increases it. When blood glucose raises, insulin causes body cells to take up
glucose and eithermetabolize it for energy or convert it to fat or glycogen. When blood glucose drops,
glucagon activates an enzyme in the liver that breaks down glycogen. Glucagon also promotes lipid
metabolism.
Sex Organs
These are only produce sperm and eggs, but also secrete steroid hormones.
Testes: secretes steroid hormones, collectively called androgens. The most important of these is
testosterone which stimulates sperm cell production.
Ovaries: secrete two types of steroid hormones: estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen stimulates growth of
mammary glands and maturation of the egg cells. Progesterone prepares the reproductive tract to receive
and nourish the zygote.
The Adrenal Glands
Like the pituitary gland and pancreas, the adrenal glands are two glands in one: the adrenal medulla &
adrenal cortex.
Adrenal medulla: located in the center of each gland, the adrenal medulla produces two hormones:
epinephrine (smaller quantities) and nor epinephrine (adrenaline and noradrenalin) in response to stress.
These hormones, activated by the sympathetic nervous system, prepare the body for emergencies.
Adrenal cortex: this is from the outer layer of the adrenal gland and it secretes three of steroid hormones
collectively called glucocorticoides.

17
Cortical: released by the cortex when the body is under stress for reasons such as trauma, infection,
exposure to temperatureextremities,or final exams. It inhibits the immune response during these
conductions.
Aldosterone: secreted by the adrenal cortex to regulate the sodium content of the bloodstream.
Testosterone is produced by the adrenal cortex in both males andfemales. Tumors of the cortex lead to
excessive release of testosterone, causing masculinization of women.Eg: Bearded ladies.
The pineal gland (biological clock)
The pineal gland is located between the two hemispheres of the brain, just about and behind the
hypothalamus the gland produces melatonin, a hormone secreted in a daily rhythm, and is regulated by
the eyes. Though the function melatonin is yet unclear, it is believed that melatonin influences the sleep-
wake cycles.
Thymus
The thymus is located in the thoracic cavity behind the sternum (breastbone). In addition to producing
WBC’s, the thymus produces thymosimn, a hormone that stimulates the development of T- cells that play
essential role in the immune response. The thymus is extremely large in infants but, under the influence of
sex hormones, begins decreasing in size after puberty.
Atrial Natriuretic peptide (ANP)
ANP is released by cells in the atria when blood volume increases, causing extra distension of the heart.
And reduces blood volum by decreasing the release of both ADH and aldosterone.
Digestive Tract
The stomach and SI produce a variety of peptide hormones that help regulate digestion. These hormones
include Gerstein, secreting and cholecystokinin.
Fat Cells
Fat cells called adipose cell secrete a hormones celled leptin, which is believed to inform the body on how
much fat his been stroed and how much to eat. Leptin also stimulate the immune system and is required
for the development of 20 sex characteristics.
Group presentation: skeletal system, muscular system, senses & perception & Nervous system

VIII) ANIMAL RERODUCTION

Animal reproduce either sexually or asexual.
Sexual reproduction –require production of haploid gamester thrumeiosis in a process called fertilization:
requires opposite sexes.
Fertilization-union of sperm and egg cells
Asexual reproduction-involves only a single animal that produces offspring thru repeated mitoses of cells
in some parts of its body.
Types of Asexual Reproduction
Budding –a bud (miniature version of the animal) grows directly on the body of the adult, drawing
nourishment5 from its parents. When the bud has grown large enough, it breaks off and become
independent individuals.Eg: sponges, hydra.
Regeneration-ability of an animal to grow lost body parts. However, the regenerative abilities of some
animals such as sea stars are not reproductive strategies, blc in most cases no new individuals are formed.
Fission- a process wherein the parent divides into two or more parts, each part developing into a complete
animal. Eg:Annelids &flatworms
Parthenogenesis –a process whereby haploid cell divides mitotically and develop into adult without being
fertilized. In some species, the haploid develops into diploid cells. Eg:some amphibians& fish

Sexual reproduction
Eggs-large non motile cells produced by females: serve as the female gametes.
Sperm- small, motile cell serving as the male gametes
Hermaphrodites – single individuals that produce both sperm and eggs.

18
Zygote - fertilized egg.

Types of fertilization
External fertilization- union of sperm and egg cells taking place outside the bodies of the parents.
Spawning- parents release sperm & eggs into the water, thru which the sperm swin to reach an egg. Blc
sperm and eggs are short –lived, spawning animals much synchronize their reproductive behaviours, both
temporally (same time) and spatially (some place).
Pheromone- a chemcal signal produced by certain organism that alters the behaviour or physiologicalstate
of another menber of the same species.Eg: mussel & sea star
Amplexus- a characteristic mating pose exhibited by frogs and toads. In amplexus, the smallermale
clutches the female and stimulates her to release eggs, which the male fertilization by erleasing a cloud of
sperm above them.
Internal fertilization- a process whereby sperm is taken into the body of the female, where the egg
fertilized. Internal fertilization is an important adaptation for terrestrial life for the ff.
sperm mush be bathed in fluid until they reach the egs
on land, this liquid passage is best achieved inside the female’s body
Even in aquatic envy’sinternal fertilization increases the like hood of successful fertilization, blc sperm
and eggs are confined in a small together in a s mall space rather than relying on encounter within a large
volume of water.
Copulation- the behavior by which the male deposited directly into the female’s reproductive treat.
Internal fertilization usually occurs owing to copulation.spermatophores- containers in which male of the
same species package their sperm.

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Human has separate sexes, and reproduces sexually, with internal fertilization. Gonads are paired organs
that produce sex cells. Testes are the male gonads, while the ovaries are the female gonads Gamester –are
sex cells (sperm & eggs)

Function of the human reproductive system

produce and nurture sex cells (sperm)
transport them to sites of fertilization
secrete hormones that develop and maintain 20 sex characteristics
regulate reproductive physiohy

Male Reproductive system

produce and maintain male sex cells (sperm)
transport them & supporting fluids to thr outside
secrete male sex hormones

organs of the male reproductive systen

Testes (sing. Testis)

The testes are the 10 sex organs in which sperm cells and male sex hormones form. The testes are ovoid
structures about 5 cm in length and 3 cm in diameter. Both testes are within the cavity of the saclike
scrotum, which encloses and protects the testes. The scrotum maintains normal temperature (40C) for
sperm viability.

Structure of the testes

19
Somniferous tubules- highly coild, convoluted tubules found in the testes. These are the sperm factories
of the male’s reproductive system.

Interstitial cells (sertoli cells)-specialized cells lining in the space blw the seminiferous tubutes,
responsible to produce and maintain male sex hormones, as well as regulating spermatogenesis.

Male Internal Accessory Organs

epididymis (epididymides)- is a fightingcoiled, threadlike tube about 6 cm long, and it connects to ducts
with a testis. This structure stores sperm undergoing maturation and conveys sperm cells to vas deferens.
Vas deferens (vas deferential /vasa differentia)-is a muscular tube (45 cm) passing upward along the
medial side of the testis into the abdominal cavity, ending behind the bladder. It conveys sperm to the
ejaculatory duct, and thereafter to the outside.
Seminal vesicle- convoluted sac- like structure (5cm) that attaches to the vas deferens near the base of the
bladder. It secretes alkaline fluid containing nutrients and prostalandinet help neutralize the acidity of the
vagina.
Prostate gland- a chestnut- shaped structure (4cm wide&3cm thick) that surrounds the proximal portion of
the urethra. It secretes an alkaline fluid that helps neutralize vagian’s acidity and enhances sperm motility.
Bulbourentral glands (cowper’s glands) – are two glands, each about 1cm in diameter and are inferior to
the prostate gland. Each secretes fluid that lubricates end of penis.
Semen – the fluid the male urethra coveys to the outside during ejaculation. It comprises sperm cells &
secretions from the testes, seminal vesicle, prostate gland and bulbourethral gland. Semen is slightly
alkaline (pH 7.5) and its contents include nutrients and prostaglandins. Secretions from accessory glands
activate the sperm to swim until it enters the female reproductive tract.
Male external reproductive organs
Scrotum – a pouch of skin & subcutaneous tissue that hangs from the lower abdominal region posterior to
the penis. It encloses & protects the testis, providing a suitable temperature (40C) for sperm viability.
Penis –a cylindrical organ that conveys urine semen to the outside of the body. During erection, it enlarge
& stiffens to be inserted into the vagina during sexual intercourse. The shaft I s the body of pens, and it
has 3 columns of erectile tissue-a pair of dorsally located corpora cavernosa and a single ventral corpus
spongiosum. The glans penis the cone-spaped tip of the penis. The skin of the glans forms a loose fold
called the prepuce.
Diagram of a cell:
Acrosome – contains acid that helps the sperm penetrate the egg.
Mitochondrion – energy house for the cell.
Nucleus – control-center of the cell
Flagellum – assist the sperm in its swimming movement
Organs of the female reproductive system
Fxn’s
Produce & maintain in females sex cells (egg/ova)
Transport these cells to the site of fertilization
Provide a favourable env’t for a developing offspring
Move the offspring to the outside
Produce female sex hormones
Ovaries
The ovaries are 10C sex organs (gonads) of the female that produce the female sex called hormones. The
two ovaries are solid, ovoid structure, each (3.5cm long & 2cm wide & 1cm thick).
Female internal accessory organs
Uterine tubes/fallopian tubes/oviducts – open near the ovaries. Near each ovary, the oviduct expands to
form a funnel-shape infundibulum which encircles the ovary medially. The fimbriae are fingerlike
projections at the tip of the oviducts that sweep eggs into the uterine tubes thru ciliary action.
The oviduct is the site of fertilization.

20
Uterus (Womb) – it is hollow, muscular organ shape somewhat like an inverted pear. It is the site of
implantation, as it receives the embryo after fertilization & sustains its development.
The body is the upper two-thirds of the uterus which has a dome-shape top. The lower third (1/3) of the
uterus is called the cervix, tubular part extending downward into the upper portion of the vagina. The
cervix surrounds an opening called the cervical orifice, thru which the uterus opens to the vagina.
The thick uterine wall has 3 layers:
Endomtrium – inner mucosa layer that contains abundant tubular gland. During the female menstrual
cycle, its linings are sloughed off.
Myometrium – middle layer consisting of bundle of smooth muscle fibers. It changes during the female
menstruation & pregnancy.
Perimetrium – outer serosal layer covering the body of the uterus & part of the cervix.
Vagina
The vagina is fibro-muscular tube(9cm), extending from the uterus to the outside. It coveys uterine
secretions to the outside of the body; receive erect penis during sexual intercourse, and provides an open
channel for offspring during birth. A thin membrane of connective tissue, and provides an epithelium
called the hymen partially closes the vaginal orifice.
Female External Reproductive Systems
Labia Majora (labium majus, sing) – enclose and protect the other external reproductive organs. They are
similar to the scrotum, and are composed of rounded folds of adipose tissue and thing layer of smooth
muscle, covered by skin.
Labia Minora (Single. Labium Minus) – are flatted, longitudinal folds blw the labia majora. They are
richly supplied with blood vessels and have a pinkish appearance. Thy protect openings of vagina and
urethra.
Clitoris – it is a small projection at the anterior end of the vulva blw the labia minora. It is similar to the
penis in structure, and at its anterior end, a small mass of erectile tissue forms the glans richly

21