COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COATED

HSS TOOL AND NON COATED HSS

TOOL
 ABSTRACT

• In this paper discussed chromium and zinc coated HSS tool with compared
to non coated HSS tool in this study.
• Chromium-plating of tool's cutting part decrease friction force during
cutting, facilitates chips' escape, significantly reduces temperature of
cutting and, as a result, improves durability of tool(from 2 to 10 and more
times).
• Main features of chromium and zinc coated which ensure an increase of
tool's quality, are high hardness, combined with sufficient plasticity,
• which provides high resistance of coating to fatigue, deformation and
abrasion forms of wear, as well as low coefficient of friction, which ensures
coating's ability to resist a formation of out growth of processed material
on tool's body.

.
 Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
 Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

Coated and uncoated carbides are widely used in the metal-working industry and
provide the best alternative for most machining operations. When machining using
carbides under typical cutting conditions, the gradual wear of the flank and rake
faces is the main process by which a cutting tool fails. It carried out tool wear
investigations on some cutting tool materials. Plotted tool life curves using the
flank wear criterion and obtained that the tool life of carbides decreased quickly at
higher speed. The flank wear in carbide tools initially occurs due to abrasion and as
the wear process progresses, the temperature increases causing diffusion to take
place. Actually, the fact that abrasive wear may occur in metal cutting is not
surprising since there are many hard abrasive particles present in metals, especially
in steel. The use of coolant to increase tool life is an issue with many differing
views. In contrast, others have found that coolant promotes tool wear in machining.
The inherent brittleness of carbides renders them susceptible to severe damage by
cracking if sudden loads of thermal gradients are applied to their edge. The better
performance of carbides was obtained under dry cutting.

BACKGROUND

Metal cutting process forms the basis of the engineering industry and is involved
either directly or indirectly in the manufacture of nearly every product of our
modern civilization. The cutting tool is one of the important elements in realizing
the full potential out of any metal cutting operation. Over the years the demands of
economic competition have motivated a lot of research in the field of metal cutting
leading to the evolution of new tool materials of remarkable performance and vast
potential for an impressive increase in productivity. Changes in work piece
materials, manufacturing processes and even government regulations catalyze
parallel advances in metal cutting tooling technology. As manufacturers
continually seek and apply new manufacturing materials that are lighter and
stronger and therefore more fuel efficient it follows that cutting tools must be so
developed that can machine new materials at the highest possible productivity. The
most important elements in the design of cutting tools is the material construction
and there judicious selection. The properties that a tool material must process are
as follows
 Capacity to retain form stability at elevated temperatures during high cutting
speeds.
 Cost and ease of fabrication
 High resistance to brittle fracture
 Resistance to diffusion
 Resistance to thermal and mechanical shock

Developmental activities in the area of cutting tool materials are guided by the
knowledge of the extreme conditions of stress and temperature produced at the
tool-work piece interface. Tool wear occurs by one or more complex mechanisms
which includes abrasive wear, chipping at the cutting edge, thermal cracking etc.
Since most of these processes are greatly accelerated by increased temperatures,
the more obvious requirements for tool materials are improvements in physical,
mechanical and chemical properties at elevated temperature.

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

Tool materials have improved rapidly during the last sixty years and in many
instances, the development of new tool materials has necessitated a change in the
design trend of machine tools to make full use of the potentialities of tool materials
for high productivity. Progress from carbon tool steels, high speed steels and cast
alloys to carbides and ceramics has facilitated the application of higher speeds at
each stage of development. With the advent of carbides and ceramics radical
changes have taken place in the design of tool holders and cutters and the concept
of the throw away tipped tool where the insert is held mechanically and is
discarded after use represents a major advance in the metal removing technology
of modern times. Till 1900 machining was performed by plain carbon tool steel,
shortly after 1900 high speed steel was introduced which has undergone many
modifications giving rise to several types of HSS. The next notable improvement
came with the introduction of cobalt bonded sintered tungsten carbide. However
shortage of tungsten has led to the development of many non-tungsten cutting tool
materials. Ceramic tools exhibit very high hardness and wear resistance facilitating
the use of higher cutting speeds. UCON a new tool material consisting of
columbium, tungsten, titanium permits 60% increase in the cutting speed when
compared with tungsten carbide. Cubic Boron Nitride with hardness next to
diamond which is claimed to give speed 5 to 8 times that of carbide can be used to
cut hardened materials. Polycrystalline diamond bonded to tungsten carbide
substrate has been successfully employed for machining non-ferrous materials.
But no single tool material has all the desired properties to withstand wide range of
stresses, temperatures, abrasion and thermal shock to which a cutting tool is
subjected during metal cutting. Each cutting tool has a unique combination of
properties that are important to its performance. Hence by fine tuning
combinations of tool material compositions, coatings and geometries tool makers
enable users to make more parts faster and at reduced cost.
Traditional tool materials such as HSS continue to undergo substantial
improvement in there properties through suitable modifications in their
composition by optimizing the processing technique as well as incorporating
various surface treatments. As a result of these technological advances HSS are
still in use having surviving competition from carbides and ceramics. Carbide
because of the ability to retain its strength and hardness at very high temperatures,
to withstand cutting speeds 6 or more than 6 times higher than tools of HSS and
the economical price has become a logical choice of many cutting industries.
However with the incorporation of suitable surface treatments, its service life as
well as its properties can be enhanced even more.

SURFACE TREATMENTS

Advances in manufacturing technologies (increased cutting speeds, dry machining,

etc.) triggered the fast commercial growth of various surface treatments for cutting
tools; on the other hand these surface coating technologies enabled these advances
in manufacturing technologies. No single treatment will solve every problem and
their use should be restricted to those operations where extra expense of the
treatment can be justified by a substantial performance gain. The processes of
surface treatments more formally surface engineering tailor the surfaces of
engineering materials to:
• Control friction and wear
• Improve corrosion resistance
• Change physical property
• Vary appearance
• Reduce cost
Ultimately the functions on service lines of the materials can be improved.
Common surface treatments can be divided into two major categories:
a. Treatments that cover surfaces
b. Treatments that alter surfaces
Treatments covering surfaces:
 Organic coatings such as paints, cements, laminates, fused powders,
lubricants, or floor toppings on the surfaces of materials
 Inorganic coating such as electroplating, autocatalytic platings (electroless
platings), conversion coatings, thermal sprayings, hot dippings, furnace
fusing, or coat thin films on the surfaces of the materials (PVD and CVD)
Treatments altering surfaces

 High energy treatments such as ion implantation, laser glazing/fusion, and

electron beam treatment.
 Diffusion treatments include boronizing, and other high temperature reaction
processes, e.g., TiC, VC.
 Hardenings such as flame, induction, laser or electron beam Heavy diffusion
treatments include carburizing, nitriding, and carbonitriding
Special treatments such as cryogenic, magnetic and sonic treatment Cryogenic
treatment is an inexpensive one time permanent treatment affecting the entire
section or bulk of the component unlike coatings. The treatment is an add on
process over conventional heat treatment in which the samples are cooled down to
prescribed cryogenic temperature for a long time and then heated back to room
temperature. It is believed that life of cutting tool get substantially extended due to
cryogenic treatment. However, researchers have been skeptical about the process
because it imparts no apparent visible change. Moreover mechanism is also
unpredictable and research articles are also not sufficient to support the treatment.
So in general cryogenic treatment is still in the dormant level.

Over the past few years there has been an increase in interest in the
application of cryogenic temperature to different materials. Some literature says
that the cryogenic treatment can improve the life span would depend a lot on the
cutting conditions. Hence various research works are being carried out to study the
effects of this treatment on the performance of various cutting tools so that it could
be added to the regular heat treatment cycle for the components the production
sector manufacture. However for evaluating the performance of the cutting tools it
is very necessary to study the effect of cutting parameters (cutting speed, depth of
cut and feed) on the tool wear. This necessitates planning experiments in advance
so that maximum benefit can be derived from data obtained from organized sets of
experiment. Designs of experiment (DOE) are one such approach that has proved
to be a powerful technique in getting a quantitative relationship among the
variables (in the form equations). One important benefit of DOE is that this not
only evaluates the significant effect of each of the individual factors (parameters)
but also determines the interaction effects among all the factors. When an
interaction is large the corresponding main effect cease to have much meaning.
Hence, it is very important to determine the interaction effects of various process
variables to fully evaluate the performance of the tools.
 OBJECTIVE

 To make a comparative study on the performance and wear test of chromium

and zinc coated HSS samples with uncoated tools.
 To study the effect of different cutting parameters on the tool life of coating
tool (HSS and carbides) and development of tool life equations employing
design of experiment (DOE) technique.
 To study the mechanical properties changes.
 Chapter-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
 Chapter-2

LITERATURE SURVEY

Everal attempts have been made to improve the performance of the cutting tool
through different types of coatings by increasing abrasiveness and the hardness.
These coatings offer not only high hardness and excellent refractoriness but also
generally lower coefficient of friction, good oxidation resistance and chemical
stability by Venkatesh (1983, 1984). Supriya Sahu (2012) stated when cutting
ferrous and hard to machine materials such as steels, cast iron and super alloys,
softening temperature and the chemical stability of the tool material limits the
cutting speed. Therefore, it is necessary for tool materials to possess good high-
temperature mechanical properties and sufficient inertness.

The machining of hard and chemically reactive materials at higher speeds is

improved by depositing single and multi layer coatings on conventional tool
materials to combine the beneficial properties of ceramics and traditional tool
materials. The effect of coatings layer can be summarized as follow (Abdul
Kareem Jaleel and Kareem Abdulla Hadi 2012). Armarego et al (2002) observed
that cemented carbide can be used for hot application due to their heat resistance
and all types of PVD and CVD processes can be used to deposit coatings. The
combined substrate-coating properties determine the important properties such as
wear, abrasion resistance and adhesion strength of a coating. A hard wear resistant
coating can not perform well unless complimented by a hard and tough substrate.
Thus, a hard coating deposited on a soft substrate leads to poor properties reported
by Smith (1989). PVD and CVD coatings offer today a powerful alternative to
improve further the cutting performance of the cutting materials. Under dry
machining with high cutting speeds and high-feed rates, the coating is worn away
rapidly which results wear of the carbide substrate by Lim et al (1999). A question
of recent interest is to review whether the resistance of cermet cutting tools to wear
has improved by the use of appropriate hard coatings. Research in this area is
concentrated on new composite gradient coating, multi component and multilayer
coating and adding new elements to coating combination like silicon or vanadium
to Ti-Al-N as reported by Dobrzanski and Go ombek (2005).

Khrais and Lin (2007) investigated the tribological influences of PVD-

applied TiAlN coatings on the wear of cemented carbide inserts and the
microstructure wear behaviours of the coated tools under dry and wet turning of
hardened steels. The study reveals that when the material hardness rises above 40
HRC the material machinability decreases due to shortened tool life either in wet
or dry conditions. Reginaldo Coelhoa et al (2007) analyzed the tool wear on
turning hardened AISI 4340 with PCBN tools with TiAlN, TiAlN-nanocoating and
AlCrN coating. It was observed that the lowest tool wear happened with TiAlN-
nanocoating followed by TiAlN, AlCrN and uncoated PCBN .The cutting forces
variation followed the same pattern except at the beginning of cutting operation the
uncoated one showing higher cutting force. Further indicated that TiAlN-
nanocoating performed better in terms of tool wear and surface roughness due to a
combination of high hardness in the cutting temperature range and the presence of
an oxidizing layer. The wear of the cutting tool was the critical issue in metal
cutting as well as in turning of metal, consequently caused the tool failure as
reported by Woodrow (2005). Khrais and Lin (2007) identified micro-wear
mechanisms include edge chipping, micro abrasion, micro-fatigue, micro-thermal,
and micro-attrition through Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) micrographs.
These micro-structural variations of coatings provide structure-physical alterations
as the measures for wear alert of TiAlN coated tool inserts under high speed
machining of steels. Micro-abrasion and micro fatigue behaviors were the
dominant kinds of wear mechanisms in higher cutting speeds under dry cutting.
Blau (1997) observed that the desired surface quality, dimensional accuracy and
economics of machining are influenced by tool wear. A study of the nature of wear
of a tool helps in better utilization of the cutting tools. An understanding of failure
mechanisms directs new research into the development of more durable materials.
Metal cutting studies so far have revealed different types of tool wear which are
associated with multifarious mechanisms. The type of wear depends on the
character of contact. The type of contact between the tool and the work material in
the process of metal cutting depends upon the cutting conditions, and the properties
of the tool and the work material. The problem of tool wear is a complicated one,
pointed out by Loladze (1976).
 Chapter-3
MATERIALS AND
METHODS
 Chapter-3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

SELECTION OF MATERIAL

HSS TOOL (High sped cutting tool)

HIGH-SPEED TOOL STEELS and their requirements are defined by The

American Society for Testing and Materials in Specification A600-79 as follows:
High-speed tool steels are so named primarily because of their ability to machine
materials at high cutting speeds. They are complex iron-base alloys of carbon,
chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, or tungsten, or combinations thereof, and in
some cases substantial amounts of cobalt. The carbon and alloy contents are
balanced at levels to give high attainable hardening response, high wear resistance,
high resistance to the softening effect of heat, and good toughness for effective use
in industrial cutting operations.
Commercial practice has developed two groups of cutting materials:

The recognized standard high-speed tool steel, which serves almost all applications
under mild to severe metal-cutting conditions A smaller group of intermediate
steels, which are satisfactory for limited applications under mild to moderate
metal-cutting conditions the minimum requirements that must be met to be classed
as a standard high-speed tool steel, and those for an intermediate high-speed tool
steel, are listed in Table I. To be acceptable for either group, an alloy must meet all
of the requirements shown for that group. A chronology of some of the significant
developments in high-speed tool steels. The research work in 1903 on a 14%
tungsten alloy led to the development of the first high-speed tool steel, which is
now designated.

HISTORY

Although development of modern high speed steel began in the second half of the
19th century, there is documented evidence of steels produced earlier with similar
content. These include hardened steels in China in 13th century BC, wootz steel
manufactured in India around 350 BC and production of Damascus and Japanese
layered steel blades in years 540 AD and 900 AD. High speed properties of those
steels would be mostly coincidental (as no machining technology that involved
quantification of speeds and feeds existed at the time) and would be the result of
local iron ores containing natural traces of tungsten or other favorable alloying
components. In 1868 the English metallurgist Robert Forester Mushet developed
Mushet steel, considered to be the forerunner of modern high speed steels. It
consisted of 2% carbon (C), 2.5% manganese (Mn), and 7% tungsten (W).

The major advantage of this steel was that it hardened when air cooled from
a temperature at which most steels had to be quenched for hardening. Over the next
30 years the most significant change was the replacement of manganese (Mn) with
chromium (Cr). In 1899 and 1900, Frederick Winslow Taylor and Maunsel White,
working with a team of assistants at the Bethlehem Steel Company at Bethlehem,
Pennsylvania, US, performed a series of experiments with the heat treating of
existing high-quality tool steels, such as Mushet steel, heating them to much higher
temperatures than were typically considered desirable in the industry. Their
experiments were characterised by a scientific empiricism in that many different
combinations were made and tested, with no regard for conventional wisdom or al
chemic recipes, and with detailed records kept of each batch. The end result was a
heat treatment process that transformed existing alloys into a new kind of steel that
could retain its hardness at higher temperatures, allowing much higher speeds and
rate of cutting when machining.

The Taylor-White process was patented and created a revolution in the

machining industries. Heavier machine tools with higher rigidity were needed to
use the new steel to its full advantage, prompting redesigns and replacement of
installed plant. The patent was hotly contested and eventually nullified. The first
alloy that was formally classified as high-speed steel is known by the AISI
designation T1, which was introduced in 1910. It was patented by Crucible Steel
Co. at the beginning of the 20th century. Although molybdenum-rich high-speed
steels such as AISI M1 have been used since the 1930s, material shortages and
high costs caused by World War II spurred development of less expensive alloys
substituting molybdenum for tungsten. The advances in molybdenum-based high
speed steel during this period put them on par with and in certain cases better than
tungsten-based high speed steels. This started with the use of M2 steel instead of
T1 steel

TYPES

High speed steels are alloys that gain their properties from either tungsten or
molybdenum, often with a combination of the two. They belong to the Fe–C–X
multi component alloy system where X represents chromium, tungsten,
molybdenum, vanadium, or cobalt. Generally, the X component is present in
excess of 7%, along with more than 0.60% carbon. The alloying element
percentages do not alone bestow the hardness-retaining properties; they also
require appropriate high-temperature heat treatment to become true HSS; see
History above. In the unified numbering system (UNS), tungsten-type grades (e.g.
T1, T15) are assigned numbers in the T120xx series, while molybdenum (e.g. M2,
M48) and intermediate types are T113xx. ASTM standards recognize 7 tungsten
types and 17 molybdenum types. The addition of about 10% of tungsten and
molybdenum in total maximises efficiently the hardness and toughness of high
speed steels and maintains those properties at the high temperatures generated
when cutting metals.

1. MOLYBDENUM HIGH SPEED STEELS (HSS)

Adding molybdenum, tungsten and chromium steel creates several alloys

commonly called “HSS”, measuring 63-65 Rockwell hardness.
M1: M1 lacks some of the red-hardness properties of M2, but is less susceptible to
shock and will flex more.
M2: M2 is the “standard” and most widely used industrial HSS. It has small and
evenly distributed carbides giving high wear resistance, though its decarburization
sensitivity is a little bit high. After heat treatment, its hardness is the same as T1,
but its bending strength can reach 4700 MPa, and its toughness and thermo-
plasticity are higher than T1 by 50%. It is usually used to manufacture a variety of
tools, such as drill bits, taps and reamers.
M7: M7 is used for making heavier construction drills where flexibility and
extended drill life are equally important.
M50: M50 does not have the red-hardness of other grades of tungsten HSS, but is
very good for drills where breakage is a problem due to flexing the drill. Generally
favored for hardware stores and contractor use. It is also used in high-temperature
ball bearings.
2. COBALT HIGH SPEED STEELS (HSS)

The addition of cobalt increases heat resistance, and can give a Rockwell hardness
up to 67. M35 M35 is similar to M2, but with 5% cobalt added. M35 is also known
as Cobalt Steel, HSSE or HSS-E. It will cut faster and last longer than M2. M42
M42 is a molybdenum-series high-speed steel alloy with an additional 8% or 10%
cobalt. It is widely used in metal manufacturing industries because of its superior
red-hardness as compared to more conventional high-speed steels, allowing for
shorter cycle times in production environments due to higher cutting speeds or
from the increase in time between tool changes. M42 is also less prone to chipping
when used for interrupted cuts and costs less when compared to the same tool
made of carbide. Tools made from cobalt-bearing high speed steels can often be
identified by the letters HSS-Co.

APPLICATIONS

The main use of high-speed steels continues to be in the manufacture of various

cutting tools: drills, taps, milling cutters, tool bits, gear cutters, saw blades, planer
and jointer blades, router bits, etc., although usage for punches and dies is
increasing. High speed steels also found a market in fine hand tools where their
relatively good toughness at high hardness, coupled with high abrasion resistance,
made them suitable for low speed applications requiring a durable keen (sharp)
edge, such as files, chisels, hand plane blades, and damascus kitchen knives and
pocket knives. High speed steel tools are the most popular for use in woodturning,
as the speed of movement of the work past the edge is relatively high for handheld
tools, and HSS holds its edge far longer than high carbon steel tools can.
PROPERTIES OF HIGH. SPEED TOOL

Steels High-speed tool steels, regardless of whether they are an AISI M-type or T-
type, have a rather striking similarity in their physical makeup:

 They all possess a high-alloy content

 They usually contain sufficient carbon to permit hardening to 64 HRC
 They harden so deeply that almost any section encountered commercially
will have a uniform hardness from center to surface
 They are all hardened at high temperatures, and their rate of transformation
is such that small sections can be cooled in still air and be near maximum
hardness hardened high-speed tool steel.
By partially dissolving during heat treatment, these carbides provide the matrix of
the steel with the necessary alloy and carbon content for hardenability, hot
hardness, and resistance to tempering. While all high-speed tool steels have many
similar mechanical and physical characteristics, the properties may vary widely
due to changes in chemical composition. Basically, the most important property of
a high-speed tool steel is its cutting ability. Cutting ability depends on a
combination of properties, the four most important of these being:
HARDNESS

Resistance to penetration by diamond-hard indenter, measured at room temperature

hot hardness the ability to retain high hardness at elevated temperatures

WEAR RESISTANCE

Resistance to abrasion, often measured by grindability, metal-to metal, or various

other types of tests to indicate a relative rating
TOUGHNESS

Ability to absorb (impact) energy the relative importance of these properties varies
with every application. High machining speeds require a composition with a high
initial hardness and a maximum resistance to softening at high temperatures.
Certain materials may abrade the cutting edge of the tool excessively; hence, the
wear resistance of the tool material may well be more important than its resistance
to high cutting temperatures. Hardness is necessary for cutting harder materials and
generally gives increased tool life, but it must be balanced against the toughness
required for the application. The desired combination of properties in a high-speed
tool steel may be obtained, first, by selection of the proper grade and,

PROBLEMS STATEMENT

There are many factors that affect the performance of cutting tool especially when
dry machining. Nowadays, there are many type of cutting tools invented by
manufacture engineers to overcome the problem. As an example the coated and
uncoated carbide cutting tools. This two cutting tools have their advantages and
disadvantages. We try to investigate the best cutting tool whether coated or
uncoated carbide cutting tool for dry machining Aluminum Alloy. Surface
roughness is often a good predictor of the performance of a mechanical
component, since irregularities in the surface may form nucleation sites for cracks
or corrosion. Although roughness is usually undesirable, it is difficult and
expensive to control in manufacturing. Decreasing the roughness of a surface will
usually increase exponentially its manufacturing costs. This often results in a trade-
off between the manufacturing cost of a component and its performance in
application.
TYPE OF COATING MATERIALS

1. Nickel
2. Chromium
3. Yttrium oxide
4. black oxide
5. zinc

TYPE OF COATING PROCESS

1. Pvd coating

2. Cvd coating

SELECTION COATING MATERIALS

1. CHROMIUM

Chromium is a chemical element with symbol Cr and atomic number 24. It is the
first element in Group 6. It is a steely-grey, lustrous, hard and brittle metal which
takes a high polish, resists tarnishing, and has a high melting point. The name of
the element is derived from the color because many of its compounds are intensely
colored. Chromium oxide was used by the Chinese in the Qin dynasty over 2,000
years ago to coat metal weapons found with the Terracotta Army.
 PROPERTIES VALUE
Density 7.19 g.cm-3 at 20°C

Melting point 1907 °C

Boiling point 2672 °C

Atomic number 24

Chromium was discovered as an element after it came to the attention of the

Western world in the red crystalline mineral crocoite (lead (II) chromate),
discovered in 1761 and initially used as a pigment. Louis Nicolas Vauquelin first
isolated chromium metal from this mineral in 1797. Since Vauquelin's first
production of metallic chromium, small amounts of native (free) chromium metal
have been discovered in rare minerals, but these are not used commercially.
Instead, nearly all chromium is commercially extracted from the single
commercially viable ore chromite, which is iron chromium oxide (FeCr2O4).
Chromite is also now the chief source of chromium for chromium pigments

SELECTION OF COATINGS PROCESS

 PVD
CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL DEPOSITION METHODS
1. THERMAL EVAPORATION METHOD
This method is the one of the most well known physical deposition methods. This
is simple method and one can evaporate a large variety of materials on various
substrates. In this method, deposition material is created in a vapour form by
heating bulk material in vacuum with resistive heater. The vapour atoms are
transported through vacuum to get deposited on desired substrate. Almost all
materials are vaporizing from a solid or liquid phase as neutral atoms
or molecules. This vapour deposition is done only at pressure less than 5-10 torr.
Due to this the mean free path between collisions becomes large enough so that the
vapour beam arrives at substrate un scattered. A low vacuum has an effect that the
gas molecules strike the substrate, which results in contamination of film that is
being deposited. Fig shows the experimental set up of thermal evaporation. The
evaporation of the desired material is done in vacuum system, which consists of a
diffusion pump backed by a rotary pump. The desired evaporant material is
supplied by a continuous source which is then heated to a sufficiently high
temperature to produce desired vapour pressure. As per the shape (wire, foil or
ingot) of the evaporant material evaporation temperature varies from 1000 to
20000C.
 Experimental Set Up Of Thermal Evaporation
To obtain the uniform desired thickness, the substrate has to be rotated in such a
way that each point on the substrate should receive almost the same amount of
vapour material during the deposition. In order to obtain the stoichiometric
compound film by this method, the evaporation rates from the two sources should
have carefully controlled.
The advantages of this deposition method are it is simple and cheap with less
substrate surface damage. Excellent purity and desired thickness of the films can
be achieved. The disadvantages of this method are the deposited films have poor
density and adhesion. It is limited to low melting point metals. Therefore, dielectric
materials cannot be evaporated by this method
 2. ELECTRON BEAM EVAPORATION METHOD
In this method, an electron gun is used for evaporation. It consists of a heated
filament for electron emission. The filament is normally shielded to prevent any
sputtering by vapour species and gaseous ions. An electron beam is accelerated
through potential of 5 to 10 KV and focused on the material. The electrons lose
their kinetic energy mostly as heat. The temperature of the evaporant material can
be raised by electron bombardment instead of resistive heating. The temperature at
the focused spot could be rise up to 3000 0C. At this high temperature, extremely
high rates of evaporation achieved even for high melting point materials.
Fig shows the experimental set up of electron beam evaporation method.
 Experimental Set Up Of Electron Beam Evaporation Method
Electron guns are of two types. In both the types of electron guns, the path of the
electron beam is straight line and electrostatic or electromagnetic focusing is used
to focus the electron beam The advantages of this deposition method are the
material utilization efficiency is high as compared to other deposition methods.
This process offers structural and morphological control of films. Due to very high
deposition rate, electron beam evaporation method has potential applications in
aerospace industries, hard coatings for cutting and tool industries, and
semiconductor industries. The disadvantages of this method are the filament
degradation in the electron gun results in non uniform evaporation rate and it
cannot be used to coat the inner surface of complex geometries.

3. MOLECULAR BEAM EPITAXY (MBE) METHOD

It is one of the several methods of depositing single crystals and invented in the
late 1960s. The deposition of single crystal films by the condensation of one or
more beams of atoms and molecules from Knudsen sources under ultra high
voltage (UHV) condition is called molecular beam epitaxy. The term ‘beam’
means the evaporated atoms do not interact with each other or with other vacuum
chamber gases until they reach the substrate or wafer. Epitaxial growth takes place
due to the interaction of molecular or atomic beams on a surface of a heated
crystalline substrate.
Fig shows the experimental set up of molecular beam evaporation. The Knudsen
effusion source consists of a metallic chamber, containing the evaporant with a
small orifice. The orifice dimension is smaller than the mean fee path of the vapour
in chamber. Flow of the molecules from source is by effusion. The effusion
molecular beam has a large mean free path compared to source substrate distance.
The flux of beam is precisely determined by the partial pressures of the vapour
species within the chamber, their molecular weight, and source temperature and
orifice dimension. The beam is directed on the substrate by orifice slits and
shutters.
Molecular beam epitaxy takes place in high vacuum or ultra high vacuum
(10−8Pa). The most important aspect of MBE is the deposition rate less than 3000
nm per hour that allows the films to grow epitaxially. These deposition rates
require proportionally better vacuum to achieve the same impurity levels as other
deposition techniques. The absence of carrier gases as well as the ultra high
vacuum environment results in the highest achievable purity of the grown films.
During operation, reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED) is often
used for monitoring the growth of the crystal layers. A computer controls shutters
in front of each furnace, allowing precise control of the thickness of each layer,
down to a single layer of atoms. Intricate structures of layers of different materials
may be fabricated this way. Such control has allowed the development of
structures where the electrons can be confined in space, giving quantum wells or
even quantum dots. Such layers are now a critical part of many modern
semiconductor devices, including semiconductor lasers and LEDs.
In systems where the substrate needs to be cooled, the ultra high vacuum
environment within the growth chamber is maintained by a system of cryopumps,
and cryopanels, chilled using liquid nitrogen or cold nitrogen gas to a temperature
close to 77 Kelvin. Molecular beam epitaxy is also used for the deposition of some
types of organic semiconductors. In this case, molecules, rather than atoms, are
evaporated and deposited onto the substrate or wafer.
 Experimental Set Up Of Molecular Beam Evaporation
Other variations include gas source MBE, which resembles CVD. MBE has many
key characteristics which make it an industry and research standard thin film
growth system. There are three types of MBE such as Solid Source MBE (SS-
MBE), Plasma Assisted MBE (PA-MBE) and Reactive MBE (R-MBE).
MBE is a very versatile technique, allowing a wide variety of semiconductor alloys
to be grown, under non equilibrium conditions, through the combined evaporation
of its constituent elemental sources. Abrupt doping profiles (δ doping) can be
synthesized. The slow growth rates provide for great control over the epitaxial
layer thickness. Therefore, it is widely used in the manufacture of semiconductor
devices, including transistors for cellular phones and Wi-Fi. MBE has excellent
thickness uniformity, minimal foreign contamination as a result of the UHF
conditions, yielding high purity crystals, real time in situ characterization during
growth and high quality multiwafer growth for high volume production. MBE is
less hazardous as it does not employ any dangerous chemical pre cursors.
Disadvantages of Molecular beam epitaxy are substrate rotation is required for
uniformity in thickness and conformity. MBE has individual effusion cells for each
element. Large effusion cells and efficient heat dissipation make multiwafer scale
up more difficult.
4. ACTIVATED REACTIVE EVAPORATION (ARE) METHOD

The evaporation of a metal occurs in the presence of a reactive gas and plasma to
deposit compounds with increased adhesion and increased deposition rates. The
deposition technique has been mainly used to deposit highly adherent films of
oxides and carbides. Fig shows the experimental set up of activated reactive
evaporation. In this evaporation process, metal is heated and melted by a high
acceleration voltage e-beam. Metal has a thin plasma sheath on top of it.

Experimental Set Up Of Activated Reactive Evaporation

Low energy secondary electrons from the plasma sheath are pulled into the
reactive zone by an interspaced electrode placed above the pool. The electrode is
biased to allow positive dc or ac potential (20 to 100 V). Low energy electrons
have a high ionization cross section, thus ionizing or activating the metals and gas
atoms. In addition, collisions between ions and neutral atoms result in charge
exchange processes yielding energetic neutrals and positive ions. It is believed that
these energetic neutral atoms activate the reaction, thus increasing the reaction
between the reactants. Plasma enhances the reaction between the reactants, cause
ionization of both the coating metal and gas atoms in the vapour phase. It is
generated by when using e-beam as evaporation source, an interspaced positively
biased electrode. When using resistance heated source, low energy electrons
injected to the vapour phase from a thermionically heated filament. Activated
reactive evaporation technique is divided in two main types.

Biased ARE
The substrate is biased normally negative to attract the positive ions and positively
biased electrode between source and substrate is used to create the plasma.
Enhanced ARE
The plasma in ARE is enhanced by accelerating electrons emitted from tungsten
filament under electric field perpendicular to the vapor beam. The ionization can
be further enhanced using a magnetic field. This has the advantages that deposition
can be done at a lower pressure.
Advantages of ARE technique are extremely high deposition rates, variety of
coating compositions, precise control of stoichiometry, better adhesion and denser
microstructure than direct evaporation. Disadvantages of ARE are high substrate
temperature, addition of an extra electrode, slightly complicated compared to
evaporation, and substrate must generally be rotated for uniform coating.
 5. ION PLATING METHOD
Ion plating is a PVD process that uses electron beam evaporation. The material
used in this type of coating is ionized and vaporized through the aid of an electric
arc and then forced toward the target at high speed. This process is commonly
performed within a vacuum chamber or an inert gas setting. It is also known as
physical vapour deposition. Fig. 5 shows the experimental set up of ion plating
Materials that are to be subjected to ion plating are usually treated prior to plating
in order to thoroughly clean them and eliminate foreign materials. This is also
performed in the environment where plating is to be accomplished, a process called
sputtering. Plating and sputtering can be two identical processes, but with the
former, the target is typically bombarded with other materials ions, like argon gas,
that can strip off all foreign particles rather than promoting a bond.
When the target is prepared and treated for coating application, the process of ion
plating commences. The coating material undergoes vaporization with the help of
electric arc current that makes use of the high flow of current and low voltage. This
is done in order to ionize all atoms that repel each other because of similar electric
charges, as well as to vaporize the material used for coating. The vapour produced
is propelled onto the target and delivered in opposite weak electrical charge to be a
magnet for the ionized coating. This process makes ion vaporization possible and
in turn results in the adhesion of coating to the surface.
 Experimental Set Up Of Ion Plating

Ion plating application techniques can be altered in several ways. One way is the
introduction of other types of vaporized ions and various gases within the closed
setting.
It is also possible to mix vaporized ions of one material with another in order to
form different compounds that adhere to the surface target. Combining different
materials also allows a broad variety of coatings.
Coatings applied through ion plating are usually even and ultra thin, making them
ideal for materials with uneven or irregular shapes. Most importantly, coatings
applied by ion plating possess impressive hardness, high durability and corrosion
resistance capabilities.
 6. PULSED LASER DEPOSITION (PLD) METHOD

Pulsed laser deposition is a physical vapour deposition technique. In PLD, a high

power pulsed laser beam is focused inside a vacuum chamber to strike a target of
the material that is to be deposited. This material is vaporized from the target
which deposits it as a thin film on a substrate. This process can occur in ultra high
vacuum or in the presence of a background gas, such as oxygen which is
commonly used when depositing oxides to fully oxygenate the deposited films.
Fig shows the experimental set up of pulsed laser deposition.

While the basic setup is simple relative to many other deposition techniques, the
physical phenomena of laser target interaction and film growth are quite complex.
When the laser pulse is absorbed by the target energy is first converted to
electronic excitation and then into thermal, chemical and mechanical energy
resulting in evaporation, ablation, plasma formation and even exfoliation. The
ejected species expand into the surrounding vacuum in the form of a plume
containing many energetic species including atoms, molecules, electrons, ions,
clusters, particulates and molten globules, before depositing on the typically hot
substrateIn pulsed laser deposition, the solid is irradiated by high power laser
pulses in a background pressure of few Torr to 10-6 Torr.
Due to absorption of the laser power, surface layers of the solid can vaporize and is
collected on the substrate to form a thin film. Except laser wavelength transparent
material this method is useful for deposition of various composite materials

PVD WORK

Precursor gases (often diluted in carrier gases) are delivered into the reaction
chamber at approximately ambient temperatures. As they pass over or come into
contact with a heated substrate, they react or decompose forming a solid phase
which and are deposited onto the substrate. The substrate temperature is critical
and can influence what reactions will take place.

COATING CHARACTERISTICS

PVD coatings are typically:

 Fine grained
 Impervious
 High purity
 Harder than similar materials produced using conventional ceramic
fabrication processes
PVD coatings are usually only a few microns thick and are generally deposited at
fairly slow rates, usually of the order of a few hundred microns per hour.

PVD APPARATUS

A PVD apparatus will consist of several basic components:

 Gas delivery system – For the supply of precursors to the reactor chamber
 Reactor chamber – Chamber within which deposition takes place Substrate
loading mechanism A system for introducing and removing substrates,
mandrels etc
 Energy source – Provide the energy/heat that is required to get the
precursors to react/decompose.
 Vacuum system – A system for removal of all other gaseous species other
than those required for the reaction/deposition.
 Exhaust system – System for removal of volatile by-products from the
reaction chamber.
 Exhaust treatment systems – In some instances, exhaust gases may not be
suitable for release into the atmosphere and may require treatment or
conversion to safe/harmless compounds.

Process control equipment Gauges, controls etc to monitor process parameters such
as pressure, temperature and time. Alarms and safety devices would also be
included in this category.

Energy Sources

There are several suitable sources of heat for PVD processes. These include:
  Resistive Heating e.g. tube furnaces
 Radiant Heating e.g. halogen lamps
 Radio Frequency Heating e.g. induction heating
 Lasers other energy sources may include UV-visible light or lasers as a
source of photo energy.

Materials That Can be Produced by PVD Processes

PVD is an extremely versatile process that can be used to process almost any
metallic or ceramic compound. Some of these include:

 Elements
 Metals and alloys
 Carbides
 Nitrides
 Borides
 Oxides
 Inter metallic compounds
 Chapter-4
EXPERIMENTAL TESTING
 Chapter-4

EXPERIMENTAL TESTING

1. PERFORMANCE TEST

Selection of tool

Preparation of Work piece

High speed steel single point cutting tool is coated with chromium and Zinc
separately by CVD coating process. HSS tool (Fig. 1) of 10 centimeter length with
good surface finish is required for further machining process. The preparation of
work piece involves the following steps:

1. Facing Operation

The cut piece of tool was held in lathe machine and facing operation was
performed to have smooth face as shown in Fig.
 Fig. Facing operation

E. Machining Operation and Measurement

After the preparation of tool material next step is to perform the turning operation
on the work piece with the selected set of values of feed, speed and depth of cut.
The experimental setup during the turning process

TURNING OPERATION
The faced work piece is turned in lathe machine and appeoximately 1mm thickness
is reduced. The main purpose of turning operation is to make the outer surface of
work piece smooth.
2. TOOL WEAR

Cutting tools are subjected to an extremely severe rubbing process. They are in
metal-to-metal contact, between the chip and work piece, under conditions of
very high stress at high temperature. The situation is further aggravated due to
the existence of extreme stress and temperature gradients near the surface of the
tool. During cutting, cutting tools remove the material from the component to
achieve the required shape, dimension and finish. However, wears are occurring
during the cutting action, and it will result in the failure of the cutting tool.
When the tool wear reach certain extent, the tool or edge change has to be
replaced to guarantee the ordinary cutting action.

TOOL WEAR METHODOLOGY

Under high temperature, high pressure, high sliding velocity and mechanical or
thermal shock in cutting area, cutting tool has normally complex wear
appearance, which consists of some basic wear types such as crater wear, flank
wear, thermal crack, brittle crack, fatigue crack, insert breakage, plastic
deformation and build-up edge. The dominating basic wear types vary with the
change of cutting conditions.
 Fig. Types of Tool Wear

Crater wear In continuous cutting, for example in turning operation, crater

wear normally forms on rake face. It conforms to the shape of the chip underside
and reaches the maximum depth at a distance away from the cutting edge where
highest temperature occurs. At high cutting speed, crater wear is often the factor
that determines the life of the cutting tool, because the tool edge is weakened by
the severe cratering and eventually fractures. Crater wear is improved by
selecting suitable cutting parameters and using coated tool or ultra-hard material
tool. Flank wear Flank wear is caused by the friction between the newly
machined work piece surface and the tool flank face. It is responsible for a poor
surface finish, a decrease in the dimension accuracy of the tool and an increase
in cutting force, temperature and vibration. Hence the width of the flank wear
land “VB” is usually taken as a measure of the amount of wear and a threshold
value of the width is defined as tool reshape criterion.

WEAR MECHANISM
In order to find out suitable way to slow down the wear process, many research
works are carried out to analyze the wear mechanism in metal cutting. It is found
that tool wear is not formed by a unique tool wear mechanism but a combination
of several tool wear mechanisms. Tool wear mechanisms in metal cutting
include abrasive wear, adhesive wear, delamination wear, solution wear,
diffusion wear, oxidation wear, electrochemical wear, etc. Among them,
abrasive wear, adhesive wear, diffusion wear and oxidation wear are very
important.

Abrasive wear Abrasive wear is mainly caused by the impurities within the
work piece material, such as carbon, nitride and oxide compounds, as well as the
built-up fragments. This is a mechanical wear, and it is the main cause of the
tool wear at low cutting speed.

Adhesive wear The simple mechanism of friction and wear proposed by

Bowden and Tabor is based on the concept of the formation of welded junctions
and subsequent destruction of these. Due to the high pressure and temperature,
welding occurs between the fresh surface of the chip and rake face because of
the chip flowing on the rake face results in chemically clean surface. Severe
wear is characterized by considerable welding and tearing of the softer rubbing
surface at high wear rate, and the formation of relatively large wear particles.
Adhesion wear occurs mainly at low machining temperatures on tool rake face,
such built up edge (BUE).Under mild wear conditions, the surface finish of the
sliding surfaces improves.

Diffusion wear wear is a process of atomic transfer at contacting asperities. A

number of workers have considered that the mechanism of tool wear must
involve chemical action and diffusion. They have demonstrated welding and
preferred chemical attack of (W) tungsten carbide in (W-Ti) tungsten-titanium
carbides. There are several ways in which the wear may be dependent on the
diffusion mechanism.
Gross softening of the tool: Diffusion of carbon in a relatively deep surface
layer of the tool may cause softening and subsequent plastic flow of the tool.
This flow may produce major changes in the tool geometry, which result in high
forces and a sudden complete failure of the tool.

Diffusion of major tool constituents into the work (Chemical element loss):
The tool matrix or a major strengthening constituent may be dissolved into the
work and chip surfaces as they pass the tool. In cast alloy, carbide or ceramic
tools, this may be the prime wear phenomenon. With HSS tools, iron diffusion is
possible, but it seems unlikely to be the predominant wear process. Diamond
tool – cutting iron and steel is the typical example of diffusion wear.

Diffusion of a work-material component into the tool: A constituent of the

work material diffusing into the tool may alter the physical properties of a
surface layer of the tool. For example, the diffusion of lead into the tool may
produce a thin brittle surface layer, this thin layer can be removed by fracture or
chipping.

Oxidation wear High temperatures and the presence of air mean oxidation for
most metals. A slight oxidation of tool face is helpful to reduce the tool wear. It
reduces adhesion, diffusion and current by isolating the tool and the workpiece.
But at high temperature soft oxide layers, for example WO3, TiO2, are formed
rapidly, and then taken away by the chip and the workpiece. This results in a
rapid tool material loss, which is oxidation wear.
Chemical wear Corrosive wear (due to chemical attack of a surface)

Fatigue wear Fatigue wear is often a thermo-mechanical combination.

Temperature fluctuations and the loading and unloading of cutting forces can
lead to cutting edge cracking and breaking. Intermittent cutting action leads to
continual generation of heat and cooling as well as shocks of cutting edge
engagement.

PREDICTION OF TOOL WEAR

Prediction of tool wear is complex because of the complexity of machining

system. Tool wear in cutting process is produced by the contact and relative
sliding between the cutting tool and the work piece and between the cutting tool
and the chip under the extreme conditions of cutting area; temperature at the
cutting edge can exceed 530°C and pressure is greater than 13.79 N/mm2. Any
element changing contact conditions in cutting area affects tool wear. Figure 3.3
shows influencing elements of the tool wear. These elements come from the
whole machining system comprising work piece, tool, interface and machine
tool.

Work piece It includes the work piece material and its physical properties
(mechanical and thermal properties, microstructure, hardness, etc), which
determine cutting force and energy for the applied cutting conditions.

Tool The tool material, tool coatings and tool geometric design (edge preparation,
rake angle, etc) need to be appropriately chosen for different operations (roughing,
semiroughing, or finishing). The optimal performance of a cutting tool requires a
right combination of the above tool parameters and cutting conditions (cutting
speed, feed rate, depth of cut)

Interface It involves the interface conditions. In 80% of the industrial cutting

applications, coolants are used to decrease cutting temperatures and likely
reduce tool wear. Increasingly new technologies, such as the minimum liquid
lubrication, have been developed to reduce the cost of coolant that makes up to
16% of the total machining costs.

Dynamic The dynamic characteristic of the machine tool, affected by the

machine tool structure and all the components taking part in the cutting process,
plays an important role for a successful cutting. Instable cutting processes with
large vibrations (chatters) result in a fluctuating overload on the cutting tool and
often lead to the premature failure of the cutting edge by tool chipping and
excessive tool wear. The problem of tool wear monitoring in machining
operation has been active area of research. This is because tool change
strategies, product quality, tooling costs, and

EFFECT OF TOOL WEAR ON TECHNOLOGICAL PERFORMANCE

 Decrease the dimension accuracy;

 Increase the surface roughness;

 Increase the cutting force;

 Increase the temperature;

 Likely cause vibration;

 Lower the production efficiency, component quality;

APPLICATION
 Chapter-5

APPLICATION

 USING INDUSTRIAL COMPONENTS

CONCLUSION
 Chapter-6

CONCLUSION

 In this paper discussed chromium and zinc coated HSS tool with compared

to uncoated HSS tool in this study.

 From the heat generation point of view un coated tool

 can be considered as a good material for tool coating while zinc and

chromium coated tool is compared

 Similarly machining with zinc and chromium coated tool produced good

surface finish compared to uncoated tool. Uncoated surface produced

comparatively rough surface. So from surface roughness point of view zinc

and chromium can be considered as a good material as cutting tool coating.

REFERENCE
 Chapter-7

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