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DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF CAM SHAFT USING NICKEL, ZINC

AND CHORIMUM COATING

ABSTRACT

The paper describes the performance of camshaft surface NICKEL, ZINC AND
CHORIMUM coated by PVD techniques. We review the physical vapor
deposition (PVD) techniques and equipment that are in common use in the high-
volume production of coatings that find application in the optical, display,
decorative and tribological. Specific PVD processes and coating materials have
been developed and optimized for each application. Performance evaluation was
based on the surface hardness wear resistance in the conditions of prevalence of
adhesion and on camshaft wear (durability) in the conditions of maruthi 800 model
piston. It is shown that adhesive wear resistance depends both on the composition
of the PVD coating and on that of the camshaft material to be coated. The nickel
coating of the camshaft is tested surface hardness and wear resistance.
CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Cam is a mechanical member for transmitting a desired motion to a follower


by direct contact. The driver is called cam and driven is called follower. Cam
mechanism is a case of a higher pair with line contact. Camshaft is the Brain of the
engine must include cam lobes, bearing journals, and a thrust face to prevent fore
and after motion of the camshaft

In addition camshaft can include a gear to drive the distributor and an


eccentric to drive a fuel pump. Camshaft is controlling the valve train operation.
Camshaft is along with the crankshaft it determines firing order.

Camshaft is along with the suction and exhaust systems it determines the
useful rpm range of the engine. Camshaft is used in the engine for transfer’s
motion to inlet & exhaust valve. If transfer of motion is not proper then the stokes
will not work in proper way. Also it effects on performance of engine.

To make work of camshaft in precise way. It is required in order to design a


good mechanism linkage, the dynamic behavior of the components must be
considered; this includes the gross kinematic motion and self-induced vibration
motion.

Dynamic models were created to obtain insight into dynamic behavior of the
system prior to manufacturing. These models were mathematical tools used to
simulate and predict the behavior of physical systems. They contain systems
properties which are masses, stiffness constants, and damping coefficients.

The automotive sector has reached a very high production capacity in the
last decades. Depending on this increasing capacity, its stable growth is anticipated
in the world economy. The economic value of the work capacity in the automotive
sector is very large and this shows that the automotive sector is the 6th economic
sector worldwide. The sector has an interrelationship with more than 300 different
fields.

So, if there is any malfunction in the main or side industries, the whole
functions of the produced cars are influenced. On the other hand, the failure
analysis is a special field of study for materials and mechanical engineers. On one
side, the materials engineer is intended to develop his/her observational and
reasoning skills for the understanding of interrelationship between observable
features and properties or performance. On the other side, the mechanical engineer
studies on the possible failure locations and types and amount of the existent stress
levels.

Many studies have been carried out on the automotive failure analysis is that
the mostly failed parts are from engine and its components among the automotive
failures. This is followed by the drive train failures. Among the studies on the
engine component failures, the prediction of fatigue failure in a camshaft using the
crack-modeling method
INTRODUCTION OF THE CAM

CAM:

A projection on a rotating part in machinery, designed to make sliding contact with


another part while rotating and to impart reciprocal or variable motion to it. Cams
are used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion

CAMSHAFT:

A shaft with one or more cams attached to it, e.g. working of valves in an internal
combustion engine is controlled by camshaft. Cam shaft is called the “brain” of the
engine.

CAM TERMINOLOGY
Base Circle:

The smallest circle centered on the cam rotation axis, and tangent to the cam
surface. The size of the base circle is dictated by spatial restrictions of the
application.
Trace point:

A theoretical point on the follower, corresponding to the point of a fictitious knife-


edge follower. It is used to generate the pitch curve. In the case of a roller follower,
the trace point is at the center of the roller

Home Position:

The orientation of the cam that corresponds to 0 on a displacement curve.


Reference Circle (or prime circle):

A circle centered at the cam axis whose radius is equal to the distance to the trace
point. It is the smallest circle from the cam center through the pitch curve

Pressure Angle:

The angle between the direction of motion of the follower and the direction of
the cam contact force is called pressure angle. Pressure angle should not exceed 30

Pitch curve:

The path generated by the trace point at the follower is rotated about a stationary
cam.
WORKING CURVE

The working surface of a cam in contact with the follower. For the knife-edge
follower of the plate cam, the pitch curve and the working curves coincide. In a
close or grooved cam there is an inner profile and an outer working curve.

CAM SHAPE

PLATE CAM OR DISC CAM:


The follower moves in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the camshaft.
A translating or a swing arm follower must be constrained to maintain contact with
the cam profile.

GROOVED CAM or closed cam:

This is a plate cam with the follower riding in a groove in the face of the cam.

Grooved cam
CYLINDRICAL CAM OR BARREL CAM

The roller follower operates in a groove cut on the periphery of a cylinder. The
follower may translate or oscillate. If the cylindrical surface is replaced by a
conical one, a conical cam

End cam

This cam has a rotating portion of a cylinder. The follower translates or oscillates,
whereas the cam usually rotates. The end cam is rarely used because of the cost
and the difficulty in cutting its contour.

Cylindrical cam and End cam

MOTION OF THE CAM

When the cam turns through one motion cycle, the follower executes a series of
events consisting of rises, dwells and returns. Rise is the motion of the follower
away from the cam center, dwell is the motion during which the follower is at rest;
and return is the motion of the follower toward the cam center.
Lift:

 Lobe lift is the distance the lifter moves in one direction


 Lobe lift is the difference in measurement between the nose of the lobe and
the base circle of the lobe
 Valve lift is what most people are taking about when they refer to lift and is
simply lobe lift multiplied by the rocker arm ratio
MATERIALS USED IN CAMSHAFT:

Camshaft material is the most important detail in stopping premature wear of


performance camshafts.

There are various materials that camshafts are manufactured from:-

CAST IRONS

1. HARDENABLE IRON:

This is Grade 17 cast iron with an addition of 1% chrome to create 5 to 7% free


carbide.

After casting, the material is flame/or induction hardened, to give a Rockwell


hardness of 52 to 56 on the C Scale. It is not the most suitable material for
performance camshafts in overhead cam (OHC) engines.

2. SPHEROIDAL GRAPHITE CAST IRON KNOWN AS SG IRON:

Material giving similar characteristics to hard enables. Its failing as a camshaft


material is hardness in its cast form, which tends to scuff bearings in adverse
conditions. The material will heat treat to 52 to 58 Rockwell. This material was
used by Fiat in the 1980’s

3. CHILLED CHROME CAST IRON:

Chilled iron is Grade 17 cast iron with 1% chrome. When the camshaft is cast in
the foundry, machined steel moulds the shape of the cam lobe are incorporated in
the mould. When the iron is poured, it hardens off very quickly (known as
chilling), causing the cam lobe material to form a matrix of carbide (this material
will cut glass) on the cam lobe. This material is exceedingly scuff-resistant and is
the only material for producing quantity OHC performance camshafts.

CONCLUSION OF CAST CAMSHAFTS:

When purchasing a camshaft, enquire which material the camshafts are produced
from. A chilled iron camshaft may be more expensive, but its resistance to wear in
all conditions, far exceeds any other type of cast iron.

STEEL CAMSHAFTS

1. CARBON STEEL – EN8 (BS970 080M40) /EN99(BS970 070M55):

Used mainly in the 1930 to 1945 period and is currently used for induction
hardened camshafts in conjunction with roller cam followers, due to the through-
hardening characteristics of the material.

2. ALLOYED STEELS – EN351 AISI 8620 and EN34:

Used by British Leyland in the A Series and B Series engine and best when run
against a chilled cam follower.

3. NITRIDING STEEL – EN40B:

The best steel for camshafts. When nitride it gives a surface hardness and finish
similar to chilled iron. We used this when replacing chilled iron camshafts in
competition engines. This material is used on several of the current F1 engines.

DESIGN PROCEDURE:

Profile Design according to requirement:


Design a cam for operating the exhaust valve of an oil engine. It is required to give
equal uniform acceleration and retardation during opening and closing of the valve
each of which corresponds to 69° of cam rotation. The valve must remain in the
fully open position for 20° of cam rotation.

The lift of the valve is 37.5 mm and the least radius of the cam is 40 mm. The
follower is provided with a roller of radius of 20 mm and its line of stroke passes
through the axis of the cam.

METHODS OF MANUFACTURING:

1. CASTING:

Chilled cast iron is primarily used for production of cam shaft. The development
of automobile industry and engine power brings up more advance requirement for
properties of camshaft. In casting process, there are more chances of casting
defects such as shrinkage defect, porosity, crack, insufficient pouring. However for
higher loads in roller contact, cast camshafts with induction hardened cam lobes
can be used.

2. FORGING:

Forged or manufactured from a steel bar camshafts are also used for certain high
loaded diesel engines. These are produced on computer-controlled forging systems
with integrated heat treatment or machined from steel bar.

3. MACHINING: Machining is necessary for giving final dimension to the cam.

A. While using Casted or Forged CAM only Final Machining is require to achieve
final size within the required tolerances. In this process casted or forged CAM are
in the required shape but their size is maintained by machining and finishing
operation.

B. While Using Metal Billet (metal rod), the profile of cam is obtained by
removing excess material which from metal billet. In this process only machining
is required to manufacture CAM.

A detailed description of the processes for mass manufacturing is as follows:

1.TURNING & DRILLING: The raw forging is put in this machine and center
drilling and turning on one side is done here.
2. TURNING: Here the turning of the 6 journals takes place. There are 4 tools
used for this turning – Rough, Neutral, Left and Right tool. Also, Grooving and
Parting operation is performed on the left side of the shaft.

3. DRILLING: This machine drills the diameter 4.5 dowel hole which is used as
reference for further operations.

4. GRINDING JOURNALS: Here grinding and finish grinding of the 6 journals


takes place. Carborundum wheels are used for grinding.
5. GRINDING ON FACE:

An angular grinding wheel is used for the face grinding operation. At this stage,
inspection is done after every 10 components using gauges.

6. DRILL DOVEL HOLE:

Grinding of the Cam is done here. The dowel hole is taken as the reference.

7. LAPPING:

To give super finish in microns, lapping is done using lapping paper on the Cams.

8. SLITTING: This machine makes a slit in the right side of the shaft to fit in the
engine. The cutter used is a Saw cutter and pneumatic debarring is done here.

9. AIR & WATER CLEANING: This is the Washing Machine where water and
air jets are used to clean the component of dust, oil, chips etc.

10. INSPECTION: This is a Measuring Machine used to check for tolerances -


Runouts and Diameters of journals ( all 6 and center 4). The machine then declares
the component as OK, NG, or BAD.
CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERTURE
REVIEW OF LITERTURE

[A.S.Dhavale], [V.R.Muttagi] studied Modeling and Fracture Analysis of


camshaft to design good mechanism linkages the dynamic behavior of the
components must be considered, this includes the mathematical behavior of
physical model. . In this case, introduction of two mass, single degree of freedom
and multiple degree of freedom dynamic models of cam follower systems are
studied. The failure is occurred as sudden fracture at very close to journal location,
where there is a stress concentration. The main reason of the fracture is determined
as a casting defect and the camshaft of vehicles manufactured from that particular
series of camshaft should be replaced. Also, nondestructive testing procedures of
the component supplier should also be improved as the defect can easily be
detectable by standard nondestructive techniques.

[R.Mahesh],[Mali1],[D.Prabhakar] presented Design Optimization of Cam &


Follower Mechanism of an Internal Combustion Engine for Improving the Engine
Efficiency. In this work an attempt is made to change the flat face of follower to a
curved face follower, so that the required point contact can be achieved. As line
contact between existing cam and follower mechanism results in high frictional
losses which results in low mechanical efficiency. It is observed that the frequency
of vibration in the existing and modified cam and follower mechanism remains
almost same. This indicates change of the flat face of roller follower to a curved
face roller follower mechanism results in low frictional losses due point contact
which results in improved in mechanical efficiency of internal combustion engine
by 65% to 70%.
Abdullah Cahit Karaoglanli, Kazuhiro Ogawa, Ahmet Türk and Ismail Ozdemir,
Thermal Shock and Cycling Behavior of Thermal Barrier Coatings (TBCs) Used in
Gas Turbines‖ has presented Gas turbine engines work as a power generating
facility and are used in aviation industry to provide thrust by converting
combustion products into kinetic energy. Basic concerns regarding the
improvements in modern gas turbine engines are higher efficiency and
performance. Increase in power and efficiency of gas turbine engines can be
achieved through increase in turbine inlet temperatures.

The materials used should have perfect mechanical strength and corrosion
resistance and thus be able to work under aggressive environments and high
temperatures. The temperatures that turbine blades are exposed to can be close to
the melting point of the super alloys. Internal cooling by cooling channels and
insulation by thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) is used in order to lower the
temperature of turbine blades and prevent the failure of super alloy substratesL.
Wang, X.H. Zhong, Y.X. Zhao, S.Y. Tao, W. Zhang, Y. Wang, X.G. Sun, Design
and optimization of coating structure for the thermal barrier coatings fabricated by
atmospheric plasma spraying via finite element method‖ has presented fabricating
the thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) with excellent performance is to find an
optimized coating structure with high thermal insulation effect and low residual
stress. This paper discusses the design and optimization of a suitable coating
structure for the TBCs prepared by atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) using the
finite element Method. The design and optimization processes comply with the
rules step by step, as the structure develops from a simple to a complex one..
Freiburg, D. Biermann, A. Peukera, P. Kersting, H. -J. Maier, K. Möhwald,
P. Knödler, M. Otten, Development and Analysis of Microstructures for the
Transplantation of Thermally Sprayed Coatings‖ has presented thermally sprayed
coatings and tribological surfaces are a point of interest in many industrial sectors.
They are used for better wear resistance of light weight materials or for oil
retention on surfaces. Lightweight materials are often used in the automotive
industry as a weight-saving solution in the production of engine blocks.
It is necessary to coat the cylinder liners to ensure wear resistance. In most
cases, the coating is sprayed directly onto the surface. Previous research has shown
that it is possible to transfer these coatings inversely onto other surfaces. This was
achieved with plasma sprayed coatings which were transplanted onto pressure-
casted surfaces.
Mr. Atul A. Sagade, Prof. N.N. Shinde, Prof. Dr. P.S. Patil, Effect of
receiver temperature on performance evaluation of silver coated selective surface
compound parabolic reflector with top glass cover has presented the experimental
results of the prototype compound parabolic trough made of G.I and silver coated
selective surface. The performance of collector has been evaluated with three kinds
of receiver coated with two kinds of receiver coatings black copper and black zinc
and top cover.
This line focusing parabolic trough yields Instantaneous efficiency of 60
%with top cover. A simple relationship between the parameters has been worked
out with the regression analysis. [Latitude: 16.42° N, Longitude: 74.13°W
Andrew Roberts, Richard Brooks, Philip Shipway, Internal combustion
engine cold-start efficiency: A review of the problem, causes and potential
solutions has presents vehicle emissions continues to become more stringent in an
effort to minimize the impact of internal combustion engines on the environment.
One area of significant concern in this respect is that of the cold-start; the thermal
efficiency of the internal combustion engine is significantly lower at cold start than
when the vehicle reaches steady state temperatures owing to sub optimal lubricant
and component temperatures.

The drive for thermal efficiency (of both the internal combustion engine and
of the vehicle as a whole) has led to a variety of solutions being trialed to assess
their merits and effects on other vehicle systems during this warm-up phase (and
implemented where appropriate). The approaches have a common theme of
attempting to reduce energy losses so that systems and components reach their
intended operating temperature range as soon as possible after engine start. In the
case of the engine, this is primarily focused on the lubricant system. Lubricant
viscosity is highly sensitive to temperature and the increased viscosity at low
temperatures results in higher frictional and pumping losses than would-be
observed at the target operating temperature.
CHAPTER II

MATERIAL AND METHOD

INTRODUCTION OF COATINGS

Protective coatings

Protective coatings are used in oil and gas storage, transmission and distribution
network to prevent steel structures against corrosion. Steel structures like trains,
ships, automobiles, airplanes, underground buried gas pipelines, fuel storage tanks
etc require the use of protective coatings. The importance of a coating can be
judged from the fact that it can hardly be ignored in any corrosion protective
scheme. Protective coatings are unique specialty products which represent the most
widely used method of corrosion control.

They are used to give long term protection under different corrosive
conditions. The function of a protective coating or lining is to separate two highly
reactive materials; to prevent corrosive environment species from contacting the
reactive underlying steel structure. This is to say that a coating or a lining acts as
a barrier to prevent either chemical compounds or corrosion currents from
contacting the substrate . Corrosion protection of over-ground and under-ground
steel structures with the help of organic coatings are one of the most proven
methods. Other methods include Cathodic Protection (CP), environmental
modification, material selection and design. If the resistivity of electrolyte is
increased and the electron flux is retarded, the rate of corrosion is decreased. By
applying coatings of high resistivity, such as epoxies, vinyls, chlorinated rubbers,
etc. the flow of electric current to the metal surface is impeded. Also the higher the
thickness of a coating, the higher would be its electrical resistance.

A much higher resistance to the current flow would, therefore, be offered.


Thus increasing the electrical resistance of metals by coating offers an
excellent method of corrosion prevention. Another method to prevent corrosion
is by the use of inhibitors. This can be achieved by using inhibitive pigments, like
zinc chromate, red lead and zinc phosphate in coatings. An alternative method is to
use a metal more anodic than iron, such as zinc. This is done by using zinc-rich
coating. The zinc metal prevents the corrosion of iron by releasing electrons into
the iron surface. Thus, coatings are an effective method to control corrosion.

Purposes of a coating

A coating serves many purposes. Some of these are presented as below:-

 Protection of steel structures from the environment by acting as a barrier


between the substrate and the aggressive environment, such as the marine
and industrial environments.
 Control of solvent losses.
 Control of marine fouling; certain constituents in coating control
growth of mildew and marine fouling in seawater.
 Reduction in friction (coating reduces friction between two contacting
surfaces).
 Pleasant appearance; certain types of coatings provide a pleasant
appearance and produce attractive surroundings.
 Change in light intensity; by selection of appropriate coatings the light
intensity in rooms and buildings can be varied as desired.
 Visibility; many combinations of colors because of their visibility
from large distances are used on television and radio towers to warn
air craft.
 Modification of chemical, mechanical, thermal, electronic and optical
properties of materials.
 Application of thin coatings on low-cost substrates results in increased
efficiency and cost savings.

Coating as a means of corrosion control

First attempts to control steel structures corrosion relied on the use of coating
materials and the reasoning that if the substrate could be isolated from contact with
the surrounding earth, no corrosion could occur.

This concept is entirely reasonable and logical. Furthermore, a coating would be


completely effective as a means of stopping corrosion if the coating material:-Is an
effective electrical insulator, Can be applied with no breaks whatsoever and
will remain so during the backfilling process, and Constitutes an initially perfect
film that will remain so with time. Although coatings by themselves may not be the
one perfect answer to corrosion control, they are extremely effective when
properly used. Most operators plan coatings and Cathodic Protection (CP) for all
their steel structures like oil and gas transmission pipelines as a matter of course. A
properly selected and applied coating will provide all the protection necessary on
most of the pipeline surface to which it is applied. On a typical well-coated
pipeline this may be better than 99% and, along with the CP, may give total
protection.

Characteristics of coatings

NACE Standard RP0169-96 Section 5: Coatings, is a comprehensive guide to pipe


coatings, and is required reading for a better understanding of their importance.
This standard lists the following desirable characteristics of coatings:-

SPECIFICATIONS OF A COATING

Specifications may be prepared in light of the recommendations of the coating


manufacturer with relevant modifications as may be dictated by conditions
applicable to the particular project and requirements of the coating system. Areas
to be covered by specifications may include the following:-

 Cleaning the steel surface


 Priming, if required
 The coating materials to be used and (if more than one material) the order in
which they are to be applied
 Total thickness with permissible tolerances
 Specifications applicable to the particular materials to be used, such as
application temperature and thickness, tension (for tapes or wrappers), and
other items of a similar nature
 Handling requirements for coating materials, such as storage provisions
and maintenance of dry and clean conditions Inspection requirements
Procedure for repair of coating defects

BASICS FOR REJECTION OF UNACCEPTABLE COATING

Requirements for handling and transporting the coated pipe Details of coating field
joints when factory coated pipe is used Backfilling requirements Modern coatings
are mainly of barrier type among which organic coatings are being extensively
used in oil and gas storage/transmission and distribution due to ease of application.
They have excellent barrier and fairly quick drying properties besides being cost
effective. The study of water uptake in an organic coating easily provides
knowledge about the interaction between water molecules and polymer.
Classification of a coating may help in understanding its degradation mechanism
and ultimate corrosion underneath coating at an early stage.

CLASSIFICATION OF COATINGS

According to their ability to resist corrosion, coatings can be classified into four
main categories namely barrier coatings, conversion coatings, anodic coatings, and
cathodic coatings. A brief description of these coatings is given as follows:-
Barrier coatings

Barrier coatings are of four types including organic coatings, inorganic coatings,
anodic oxides, and inhibitive coatings.

Organic Coatings
Epoxy, polyurethane, chlorinated rubber and polyvinyl chloride coatings serve as a
barrier to water, oxygen, and ions. They prevent initiation of any cathodic reactions
at the coating-substrate interface. Their barrier properties can be further enhanced
by addition of suitable inhibitors, like chromate, in the primer.

Inorganic Coatings

These include coatings like ceramics and glass. Glass coatings are virtually
impervious to water. Cement coatings are impervious as long as they are not
mechanically damaged.

Anodic Oxides

A layer of Al2O3 is produced on aluminum surfaces by electrolysis. As the oxides


are porous, they are sealed by a solution of potassium dichromate so as to
minimize coating porosity.

Inhibitive Coatings

Inhibitors are added to form surface layers which not only serve as a barrier against
the hostile environment but also prevent substrate corrosion in neutral or alkaline
media.

Conversion coatings

In case of conversion coatings, the surface metal is converted into a compound


having the desired porosity to act as a good base for coatings Phosphate and
chromate coatings are examples of conversion coatings.
Anodic coatings

In case of steel substrates, they are also known as sacrificial coatings. They protect
the substrate at the expense of the metallic coating applied. The zinc coatings
protect the substrate by acting as a sacrificial anode for the steel which is cathodic
to zinc.

Catholic coatings

In such types of coating, the metals which are deposited are electropositive to the
substrate like copper coated steel wherein copper (0.337 Volts) is positive to steel
(-0.440 Volts). Electroplated coatings are generally pore-free and discontinuities
are not observed. Since organic coatings have been the focus of attention during
this research work, a brief review of literature on organic coatings is presented
below:-

Organic Coatings

Corrosion protection by organic coatings is accomplished through either a barrier


function or an inhibitive function. The barrier function is achieved by blocking the
entrance of water, oxygen and ions towards the substrate while the inhibitive
function is achieved by modification of the aqueous environment as it moves
through the coating film. The purpose of an organic coating is to promote,
enhance, and maintain a passive or a protective layer on the reactive metal
substrate. The two main types of coatings that have been studied during the course
of this work have been Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE) coatings for external
protection of pipelines buried under soil and two-pack polyamide epoxy coatings
used as internal lining of fuel storage tanks. Their brief description is as follows:-

FBE coatings systems can be divided into two main categories namely:-
 FBE single, or multiple coating systems these coatings initially consist of
100% solids thermosetting powders. When electro statically spray applied to
a preheated pipe, the FBE powder material melts flows, gels and cross-links,
forming a tough durable coating.
 Dual-layer FBE systems consist of two differently formulated FBE powders
applied consecutively. The second layer usually is tougher, and has better
temperature and/or mechanical resistance. Liquid coatings can also be
applied over FBE to impart mechanical resistance. 3-layer polyethylene
coating system
 It is similar to the non-FBE 3-layer polyethylene except an FBE primer is
used in lieu of the liquid epoxy primer. After FBE application, a co- or ter-
polymer an hydride grafted adhesive is applied to bond the polyethylene to
the FBE, followed by application of the polyethylene by wrapping, powder
spray and cure, or extrusion.
 Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE is considered a superior coating material for
underground oil/gas transmission pipeline protection since it has excellent
adhesion to steel, good chemical resistance, low oxygen permeability, and
good flexibility.
 There are many factors that may affect the long-term performance of a
coating. One of them is its formulation while another may be the surface
preparation of the steel substrate before application of a coating. Improved
adhesion will enhance the FBE/CP performance. Adhesion comes from
mechanical, polar-polar (i.e. hydrogen bonding) and chemical bonding to the
substrate.

The use of two or more layers of FBE coatings provides much greater versatility
to oil/gas pipeline coating-protection-system capability. The primary layer is
typically a coating material designed as part of a corrosion protection system.
That means it has good initial adhesion and maintains adhesion after
exposure to hot water or other environmental factors. For underground
pipeline service, it also must resist cathodic disbondment. The top layer can
provided many different attributes, depending on coating-system requirements.
It can provide protection against mechanical damage - e.g., impact, abrasion, and
gouge. Coated steel pipes are exposed to different types of conditions while
being transported from the coating applicator plant to finally being buried under
ground. These could result into coating damage in the form of holidays,
disbondment and delamination leading to premature failure of the coating
substrate system.
Selection of coating

ZINC COATINGS

Zinc, in commerce also is a chemical element with symbol Znand atomic number
30. It is the first element of group 12 of the periodic table. In some respects zinc is
chemically similar to magnesium: its ionis of similar size and its only
common oxidation state is +2. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earth's
crust and has five stableisotopes. The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc
blende), a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest mineable amounts are found in
Australia, Asia, and the United States. Zinc production includes froth flotation of
the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity (electrowinning).

Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, has been used since at least the
10th century BC in Judea[2] and by the 7th century BC in Ancient
Greece.[3] Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in
India and was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century. The mines
of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to the 6th
century BC.[4] To date, the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, in
Rajasthan, as early as the 9th century AD when a distillation process was
employed to make pure zinc.[5] Alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they
called "philosopher's wool" or "white snow".

The element was probably named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German
word Zinke. German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is credited with
discovering pure metallic zinc in 1746. Work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro
Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800. Corrosion-
resistant zinc plating of iron (hot-dip galvanizing) is the major application for zinc.
Other applications are in batteries, small non-structural castings, and alloys, such
as brass. A variety of zinc compounds are commonly used, such as zinc
carbonateand zinc gluconate (as dietary supplements), zinc chloride (in
deodorants), zinc pyrithione (anti-dandruff shampoos), zinc sulfide (in luminescent
paints), and zinc methyl or zinc diethyl in the organic laboratory.

Zinc is an essential mineral perceived by the public today as being of "exceptional


biologic and public health importance", especially regarding prenatal and postnatal
development.[6] Zinc deficiencyaffects about two billion people in the developing
world and is associated with many diseases.[7] In children it causes growth
retardation, delayed sexual maturation, infection susceptibility,
anddiarrhea.[6] Enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in
biochemistry, such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans.[8] Consumption of excess
zinc can cause ataxia, lethargy ancopper deficiency

Zinc, a natural, healthy, and abundant element was first used in construction in 79
AD; thus, its characteristics as a well-suited corrosion protective coating for iron
and steel products has long been known. The 27th most abundant element in the
Earth’s crust, zinc is naturally present in rocks, soil, air, water, and the biosphere,
as well as in plants, animals, and humans. In fact, zinc is essential to life as all
organisms require it to survive and complete normal physiological functions.Today,
more than 13 million tons of zinc are produced
annually worldwide, 70% from mined ores, and 30%
from recycled sources. More than half of the annual
production is used in zinc coatings to protect steel
from corrosion. Because zinc is an infinitely recyclable
material, the level of recycling increases each year, and
currently 80% of the zinc available for recycling is indeed
reclaimed. However, because of zinc’s excellent field
performance as a corrosion protection coating, it often
remains in service for generations before recycling. Zinc, like all metals, corrodes
when exposed to the
Zinc

Zinc, 30Zn

General properties

Name, symbol zinc, Zn

Appearance silver-gray

Pronunciation /ˈzɪŋk/
ZINGK

Zinc in the periodic table



Zn

Cd
copper ← zinc → gallium

Atomic number (Z) 30

Group, block group 12, d-block

Period period 4

Element category transition metal, alternatively considered a post-


transition metal

Standard atomic 65.38(2)[1]


weight (±) (Ar)

Electron [Ar] 3d10 4s2


configuration

per shell 2, 8, 18, 2

Physical properties

Phase solid

Melting point 692.68 K (419.53 °C, 787.15 °F)


Boiling point 1180 K (907 °C, 1665 °F)

Density near r.t. 7.14 g/cm3

when liquid, at m.p. 6.57 g/cm3

Heat of fusion 7.32 kJ/mol

Heat of vaporization 115 kJ/mol

Molar heat capacity 25.470 J/(mol·K)

vapor pressure

P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k

at T (K) 610 670 750 852 990 1179

Atomic properties

Oxidation states -2, 0, +1, +2 (an amphotericoxide)

Electronegativity Pauling scale: 1.65

Ionization energies 1st: 906.4 kJ/mol


2nd: 1733.3 kJ/mol
3rd: 3833 kJ/mol
(more)

Atomic radius empirical: 134 pm


Covalent radius 122±4 pm

Van der Waals 139 pm


radius

Miscellanea

Crystal structure hexagonal close-packed (hcp)

Speed of 3850 m/s (at r.t.) (rolled)


soundthin rod

Thermal expansion 30.2 µm/(m·K) (at 25 °C)

Thermal 116 W/(m·K)


conductivity

Electrical resistivity 59.0 nΩ·m (at 20 °C)

Magnetic ordering diamagnetic

Young's modulus 108 GPa

Shear modulus 43 GPa

Bulk modulus 70 GPa


Poisson ratio 0.25

Mohs hardness 2.5

Brinell hardness 327–412 MPa

CAS Number 7440-66-6

History

Discovery Indian metallurgists(before 1000 BCE)

First isolation Andreas Sigismund Marggraf(1746)

Recognized as a Rasaratna Samuccaya (800)


unique metal by

Most stable isotopes of zinc

iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP


64
Zn 48.6% >2.3×1018 y (β+β+) 1.096 64
Ni

ε 1.3519 65
Cu
65
Zn syn 243.8 d
γ 1.1155 –
66 66
Zn 27.9% Zn is stable with 36 neutrons
67 67
Zn 4.1% Zn is stable with 37 neutrons
68 68
Zn 18.8% Zn is stable with 38 neutrons
69
Zn syn 56 min β− 0.906 69
Ga
69m
Zn syn 13.76 h β− 0.906 69
Ga
70
Zn 0.6% >1.3×1016 y (β−β−) 0.998 70
Ge
71
Zn syn 2.4 min β− 2.82 71
Ga
71m
Zn syn 3.97 d β− 2.82 71
Ga
72
Zn syn 46.5 h β− 0.458 72
Ga

Decay modes in parentheses are predicted, but have not yet been observed

CHARACTERISTICS

Physical properties

Zinc, also referred to in nonscientific contexts as spelter,[9] is a bluish-white,


lustrous, diamagnetic metal,[10] though most common commercial grades of the
metal have a dull finish.[11] It is somewhat less dense than iron and has a
hexagonal crystal structure, with a distorted form of hexagonal close packing, in
which each atom has six nearest neighbors (at 265.9 pm) in its own plane and six
others at a greater distance of 290.6 pm.[12] The metal is hard and brittle at most
temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 °C.[10][11] Above 210 °C,
the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating.[13] Zinc is a
fairconductor of electricity.[10] For a metal, zinc has relatively low melting
(419.5 °C) and boiling points (907 °C).[14] Its melting point is the lowest of all
the transition metals aside from mercury and cadmium.[14]

Many alloys contain zinc, including brass, an alloy of copper and zinc. Other
metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc
are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesiu
m, cobalt, nickel, tellurium andsodium.[15] Although neither zinc
nor zirconium are ferromagnetic, their alloy ZrZn
2 exhibits ferromagnetism below 35 K.[10]

A bar of zinc generates a characteristic sound when bent, similar to tin cry.

Occurrence
See also: Zinc minerals

Zinc makes up about 75 ppm (0.0075%) of Earth's crust, making it the 24th most
abundant element. Soil contains 5–770 ppm of zinc with an average of
64 ppm. Seawater has only 30 ppb zinc and the atmosphere contains 0.1–
4 µg/m3.[16]

Sphalerite (ZnS)

The element is normally found in association with other base metals such
as copper andlead in ores.[17] Zinc is a chalcophile, meaning the element has a low
affinity for oxides and prefers to bond with sulfides. Chalcophiles formed as the
crust solidified under the reducingconditions of the early Earth's
atmosphere.[18] Sphalerite, which is a form of zinc sulfide, is the most heavily
mined zinc-containing ore because its concentrate contains 60–62% zinc.[17]

Other minerals from which zinc is extracted


include smithsonite (zinc carbonate),hemimorphite (zinc silicate), wurtzite (another
zinc sulfide), and sometimes hydrozincite(basic zinc carbonate).[19] With the
exception of wurtzite, all these other minerals were formed as a result of
weathering processes on the primordial zinc sulfides.[18]

Identified world zinc resources total about 1.9 billion tonnes.[20] Large deposits are
in Australia, Canada and the United States with the largest reserves
in Iran.[18][21][22] At the current rate of consumption, one source has estimated these
reserves could be depleted sometime between 2027 and 2055.[23][24] About 346
million tonnes have been extracted throughout history to 2002, and one estimate
found that about 109 million tonnes of that remains in use.[25]

Compounds and chemistry


Main article: Compounds of zinc

Reactivity
See also: Clemmensen reduction

Zinc has an electron configuration of [Ar]3d104s2 and is a member of the group


12 of the periodic table. It is a moderately reactive metal and strong reducing
agent.[30] The surface of the pure metal tarnishes quickly, eventually forming a
protective passivating layer of the basic zinc carbonate, Zn
5(OH)
6(CO3)
2, by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide.[31]This layer helps prevent further
reaction with air and water.
Zinc burns in air with a bright bluish-green flame, giving off fumes of zinc
oxide.[32] Zinc reacts readily with acids, alkalis and other non-metals.[33] Extremely
pure zinc reacts only slowly at room temperature with acids.[32] Strong acids, such
ashydrochloric or sulfuric acid, can remove the passivating layer and subsequent
reaction with water releases hydrogen gas.[32]

The chemistry of zinc is dominated by the +2 oxidation state. When compounds in


this oxidation state are formed the outershell s electrons are lost, which yields a
bare zinc ion with the electronic configuration [Ar]3d10.[34] In aqueous solution an
octahedral complex, [Zn(H
2O)6]2+
is the predominant species.[35] The volatilization of zinc in combination with zinc
chloride at temperatures above 285 °C indicates the formation of Zn
2Cl
2, a zinc compound with a +1 oxidation state.[32] No compounds of zinc in
oxidation states other than +1 or +2 are known.[36] Calculations indicate that a zinc
compound with the oxidation state of +4 is unlikely to exist.[37]

Zinc chemistry is similar to the chemistry of the late first-row transition


metals nickel and copper, though it has a filled d-shell, so its compounds
are diamagnetic and mostly colorless.[38] The ionic radii of zinc and magnesium
happen to be nearly identical. Because of this some of their salts have the
same crystal structure[39] and in circumstances where ionic radius is a determining
factor zinc and magnesium chemistries have much in common. [32] Otherwise there
is little similarity. Zinc tends to form bonds with a greater degree of covalency and
it forms much more stable complexes with N- and S- donors.[38] Complexes of zinc
are mostly 4- or 6- coordinate although 5-coordinate complexes are known.[32]

Zinc(I) compounds
Zinc(I) compounds are rare, and requires bulky ligands to stabilize the low
oxidation state. Most zinc(I) compounds contains formally the [Zn 2]2+ core, which
is analogous to the [Hg2]2+ dimeric cation present in mercury(I) compounds.
Thediamagnetic nature of the ion confirms its dimeric structure. The first zinc(I)
compound containing the Zn—Zn bond, (η5-C5Me5)2Zn2, is also the
first dimetallocene. The [Zn2]2+ ion rapidly disproportionates into zinc metal and
zinc(II), and has only been obtained as a yellow glass formed by cooling a solution
of metallic zinc in molten ZnCl2.[40]

Zinc (II) compounds

Zinc acetate

Zinc chloride

Binary compounds of zinc are known for most of themetalloids and all
the nonmetals except the noble gases. The oxide ZnO is a white powder that is
nearly insoluble in neutral aqueous solutions, but is amphoteric, dissolving in both
strong basic and acidic solutions. The otherchalcogenides (ZnS, ZnSe, and ZnTe)
have varied applications in electronics and optics. Pnictogenides(Zn
3N2, Zn3P2, Zn3As2 and Zn3Sb2), theperoxide(ZnO2), the hydride
(ZnH2), and the carbide (ZnC2) are also known. Of the four halides, ZnF2 has the
most ionic character, whereas the others(ZnCl2,ZnBr
2,and ZnI2) have relatively low melting points and are considered to have more
covalent character. In weak basic solutions containing Zn2+
ions,thehydroxide Zn(OH)2 forms as a white precipitate. In stronger alkaline
solutions, this hydroxide is dissolved to form zincates([Zn(OH)4]2−
).Thenitrate Zn(NO32,chlorate Zn(ClO3)
2sulfateZnSO4,phosphate Zn3(PO4)2,molybdate ZnMoO4, cyanide Zn(CN)
2,arsenite Zn(AsO2)2,arsenate Zn(AsO4)2·8H2O and the chromate ZnCrO
4 (one of the few colored zinc compounds) are a few examples of other common
inorganic compounds of zinc.[46][47] One of the simplest examples of an organic
compound of zinc is the acetate (Zn(O
2CCH3)2).Organozinc compounds are those that contain zinc–carbon covalent
bonds.Diethylzinc((C2H5)2Zn) is a reagent in synthetic chemistry. It was first
reported in 1848 from the reaction of zinc and ethyl iodide, and was the first
compound known to contain a metal–carbon sigma bond.[48]

History

Ancient use
Late Roman brass bucket – the HemmoorerEimer from Warstade, Germany,
second to third century AD

Various isolated examples of the use of impure zinc in ancient times have been
discovered. Zinc ores were used to make the zinc–copper alloy brass many
centuries prior to the discovery of zinc as a separate element. Judean brass from the
14th to 10th centuries BC contains 23% zinc.[2]

Knowledge of how to produce brass spread to Ancient Greece by the


7th century BC, but few varieties were made.[3] Ornaments made
of alloys containing 80–90% zinc, with lead, iron, antimony, and other metals
making up the remainder, have been found that are 2,500 years old.[17] A possibly
prehistoric statuette containing 87.5% zinc was found in a Dacianarchaeological
site.[49]

The oldest known pills were made of the zinc carbonates hydrozincite and
smithsonite. The pills were used for sore eyes and were found aboard the Roman
ship Relitto del Pozzino, which wrecked in 140 BC.[50][51]

The manufacture of brass was known to the Romans by about 30 BC.[52] They
made brass by heating powdered calamine (zinc silicate or carbonate), charcoal
and copper together in a crucible.[52] The resulting calamine brass was then either
cast or hammered into shape for use in weaponry.[53] Some coins struck by Romans
in the Christian era are made of what is probably calamine brass.[54]

Strabo writing in the 1st century BC (but quoting a now lost work of the 4th
century BC historian Theopompus) mentions "drops of false silver" which when
mixed with copper make brass. This may refer to small quantities of zinc that is a
by-product of smelting sulfide ores.[55] Zinc in such remnants in smelting ovens
was usually discarded as it was thought to be worthless.[56]
The Berne zinc tablet is a votive plaque dating to Roman Gaul made of an alloy
that is mostly zinc.[57]

The Charaka Samhita, thought to have been written between 300 and 500
AD,[58] mentions a metal which, when oxidized, produces pushpanjan, thought to
be zinc oxide.[59] Zinc mines at Zawar, near Udaipur in India, have been active
since theMauryan period. The smelting of metallic zinc here, however, appears to
have begun around the 12th century AD.[60][61]One estimate is that this location
produced an estimated million tonnes of metallic zinc and zinc oxide from the 12th
to 16th centuries.[19] Another estimate gives a total production of 60,000 tonnes of
metallic zinc over this period.[60] The Rasaratna Samuccaya, written in
approximately the 13th century AD, mentions two types of zinc-containing ores:
one used for metal extraction and another used for medicinal purposes.[61]

Early studies and naming

Zinc was distinctly recognized as a metal under the designation of Yasada or


Jasada in the medical Lexicon ascribed to the Hindu king Madanapala and written
about the year 1374.[62] Smelting and extraction of impure zinc by reducing
calamine with wool and other organic substances was accomplished in the 13th
century in India.[10][63] The Chinese did not learn of the technique until the 17th
century.[63]

Various alchemical symbols for the element zinc

Alchemists burned zinc metal in air and collected the resulting zinc oxide on
acondenser. Some alchemists called this zinc oxide lana philosophica, Latin for
"philosopher's wool", because it collected in wooly tufts, whereas others thought it
looked like white snow and named it nix album.[64]

The name of the metal was probably first documented by Paracelsus, a Swiss-born
German alchemist, who referred to the metal as "zincum" or "zinken" in his
bookLiber Mineralium II, in the 16th century.[63][65] The word is probably derived
from the German zinke, and supposedly meant "tooth-like, pointed or jagged"
(metallic zinc crystals have a needle-like appearance).[66] Zink could also imply
"tin-like" because of its relation to German zinn meaning tin.[67] Yet another
possibility is that the word is derived from the Persian word ‫ سنگ‬seng meaning
stone.[68] The metal was also called Indian tin, tutanego, calamine, and spinter.[17]

German metallurgist Andreas Libavius received a quantity of what he called


"calay" of Malabar from a cargo ship captured from the Portuguese in
1596.[69] Libavius described the properties of the sample, which may have been
zinc. Zinc was regularly imported to Europe from the Orient in the 17th and early
18th centuries,[63] but was at times very expensive.[note 1]

Isolation
Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is given credit for first isolating pure zinc

The isolation of metallic zinc was achieved in India by 1300 AD, [70][71][72] much
earlier than in the West. Before it was made in Europe, it was imported from India
around 1600 CE.[73]Postlewayt's Universal Dictionary, a contemporary source
giving technological information in Europe, did not mention zinc before 1751 but
the element was studied before then.[61][74]

Flemish metallurgist and alchemist P. M. de Respour reported that he had extracted


metallic zinc from zinc oxide in 1668.[19] By the start of the 18th century, Étienne
François Geoffroy described how zinc oxide condenses as yellow crystals on bars
of iron placed above zinc ore being smelted.[19] In Britain, John Lane is said to
have carried out experiments to smelt zinc, probably at Landore, prior to his
bankruptcy in 1726.[75]

In 1738 in Great Britain, William Champion patented a process to extract zinc


from calamine in a vertical retort style smelter.[76] His technology was somewhat
similar to that used at Zawar zinc mines in Rajasthan, but there is no evidence that
he visited the Orient.[73]Champion's process was used through 1851.[63]

German chemist Andreas Marggraf normally gets credit for discovering pure
metallic zinc even though Swedish chemist Anton von Swab had distilled zinc
from calamine four years before.[63] In his 1746 experiment, Marggraf heated a
mixture of calamine and charcoal in a closed vessel without copper to obtain a
metal.[56]This procedure became commercially practical by 1752.[77]

Later work

Galvanization was named after Luigi Galvani.

William Champion's brother, John, patented a process in 1758 for calcining zinc
sulfide into an oxide usable in the retort process.[17] Prior to this, only calamine
could be used to produce zinc. In 1798, Johann Christian Ruberg improved on the
smelting process by building the first horizontal retort smelter.[78] Jean-Jacques
Daniel Dony built a different kind of horizontal zinc smelter in Belgium, which
processed even more zinc.[63] Italian doctorLuigi Galvani discovered in 1780 that
connecting the spinal cord of a freshly dissected frog to an iron rail attached by a
brass hook caused the frog's leg to twitch.[79] He incorrectly thought he had
discovered an ability of nerves and muscles to create electricity and called the
effect "animal electricity".[80] The galvanic cell and the process of galvanization
were both named for Luigi Galvani and these discoveries paved the way
for electrical batteries, galvanization and cathodic protection.[80]Galvani's
friend, Alessandro Volta, continued researching this effect and invented theVoltaic
pile in 1800.[79] The basic unit of Volta's pile was a simplified galvanic cell, which
is made of a plate of copper and a plate of zinc connected to each other externally
and separated by an electrolyte. These were stacked in series to make the Voltaic
cell, which in turn produced electricity by directing electrons from the zinc to the
copper and allowing the zinc to corrode.[79] The non-magnetic character of zinc and
its lack of color in solution delayed discovery of its importance to biochemistry
and nutrition.[81] This changed in 1940 when carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme that
scrubs carbon dioxide from blood, was shown to have zinc in its active site.[81] The
digestive enzyme carboxypeptidase became the second known zinc-containing
enzyme in 1955.[81] Production[edit]

Mining and processing

Top zinc output countries 2014[20]

Rank Country Tonnes

1 China 5,000,000

2 Australia 1,500,000

3 Peru 1,300,000

4 India 820,000
5 United States 700,000

6 Mexico 700,000

Main articles: Zinc mining and Zinc smelting

See also: List of countries by zinc production

Percentage of zinc output in 2006 by countries[82]

World production trend

Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use, trailing only iron, aluminium, and
copper with an annual production of about 13 million tonnes.[20] The world's
largest zinc producer is Nyrstar, a merger of the Australian OZ Minerals and the
Belgian Umicore.[83] About 70% of the world's zinc originates from mining,
whereas the remaining 30% comes from recycling secondary zinc.[84]Commercially
pure zinc is known as Special High Grade, often abbreviated SHG, and is 99.995%
pure.[85]

Worldwide, 95% of the zinc is mined from sulfidic ore deposits, in which
sphalerite ZnS is nearly always mixed with the sulfides of copper, lead and
iron.[86] There are zinc mines throughout the world, with the main mining areas
being China, Australia and Peru. China produced 38% of the global zinc output in
2014.[20]

Zinc metal is produced using extractive metallurgy.[87] After grinding the ore, froth
flotation, which selectively separates minerals from gangue by taking advantage of
differences in their hydrophobicity, is used to get an ore concentrate.[87] This
concentrate consists of about 50% zinc with the rest being sulfur (32%), iron
(13%), and SiO
2 (5%).[87] The composition of this is normally zinc sulfide (80% to 85%), iron
sulfide (7.0% to 12%), lead sulfide(3.0% to 5.0%) silica (2.5% to 3.5%),
and cadmium sulfide (0.35% to 0.41%).Roasting converts the zinc sulfide
concentrate produced during processing to zinc oxide:[86] 2 ZnS + 3 O
2 →2ZnO2 SO2 The sulfur dioxide is used for the production of sulfuric acid,
which is necessary for the leaching process. If deposits of zinc carbonate, zinc
silicate or zinc spinel, like the Skorpion Deposit in Namibia are used for zinc
production the roasting can be omitted.[88] For further processing two basic
methods are used: pyrometallurgy or electrowinning. Pyrometallurgy processing
reduces zinc oxide with carbon or carbon monoxide at 950 °C (1,740 °F) into the
metal, which is distilled as zinc vapor.[89] The zinc vapor is collected in a
condenser.[86] The below set of equations demonstrate this process:[86] This allows
it to be separated from the other metallic impurities which are involatile.
2ZnO+C→2Z+ CO2ZnO+CO→Zn+ CO2
In electrowinning, zinc is leached from the ore concentrate by sulfuric acid:[90]

ZnO+ H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2O

Finally, the zinc is reduced by electrolysis.[86]

2 ZnSO4 +2 H2O →2Zn+2 H2SO4 + O2

The sulfuric acid regenerated is recycled to the leaching step.

Zinc present in electric arc furnace dusts due to use of galvanised feedstock is
recovered by a number of processes, predominately the Waelz process (90% as of
2014).[91]

Environmental impact

The production for sulfidic zinc ores produces large amounts of sulfur dioxide
and cadmium vapor. Smelter slag and other residues of process also contain
significant amounts of heavy metals. About 1.1 million tonnes of metallic zinc and
130 thousand tonnes of lead were mined and smelted in the Belgian towns of La
Calamine and Plombières between 1806 and 1882.[92] The dumps of the past
mining operations leach significant amounts of zinc and cadmium, and, as a result,
the sediments of the Geul River contain significant amounts of heavy
metals.[92] About two thousand years ago emissions of zinc from mining and
smelting totaled 10 thousand tonnes a year. After increasing 10-fold from 1850,
zinc emissions peaked at 3.4 million tonnes per year in the 1980s and declined to
2.7 million tonnes in the 1990s, although a 2005 study of the Arctic troposphere
found that the concentrations there did not reflect the decline. Anthropogenic and
natural emissions occur at a ratio of 20 to 1.[93]

Levels of zinc in rivers flowing through industrial or mining areas can be as high
as 20 ppm.[94] Effective sewage treatmentgreatly reduces this; treatment along
the Rhine, for example, has decreased zinc levels to 50 ppb.[94] Concentrations of
zinc as low as 2 ppm adversely affects the amount of oxygen that fish can carry in
their blood.[95]

Historically responsible for high heavy metal levels in the Derwent River,[96] the
zinc works at Lutana is the largest exporter in Tasmania, generating 2.5% of the
state's GDP, and producing over 250 thousand tonnes of zinc per year.[97]

Soils contaminated with zinc through the mining of zinc-containing ores, refining,
or where zinc-containing sludge is used as fertilizer, can contain several grams of
zinc per kilogram of dry soil. Levels of zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interfere
with the ability of plants to absorb other essential metals, such as iron
and manganese. Zinc levels of 2000 ppm to 180,000 ppm (18%) have been
recorded in some soil samples.[94]

Applications

Major applications of zinc include (numbers are given for the US)[98]

1. Galvanizing (55%)
2. Alloys (21%)
3. Brass and bronze (16%)
4. Miscellaneous (8%)

Anti-corrosion and batteries


Hot-dip handrail galvanizedcrystalline surface

The metal is most commonly used as an anti-corrosion agent.[99] Galvanization,


which is the coating of iron or steel to protect the metals against corrosion, is the
most familiar form of using zinc in this way. In 2009 in the United States, 55% or
893 thousand tonnes of the zinc metal was used for galvanization.[98]

Zinc is more reactive than iron or steel and thus will attract almost all local
oxidation until it completely corrodes away.[100] A protective surface layer of
oxideandcarbonate(Zn5(OH)6(CO3)2) forms as the zinc corrodes.[101] This
protection lasts even after the zinc layer is scratched but degrades through time as
the zinc corrodes away.[101] The zinc is applied electrochemically or as molten zinc
by hot-dip galvanizing or spraying. Galvanization is used on chain-link fencing,
guard rails, suspension bridges, lightposts, metal roofs, heat exchangers, and car
bodies.[16]

The relative reactivity of zinc and its ability to attract oxidation to itself makes it an
efficient sacrificial anode in cathodic protection (CP). For example, cathodic
protection of a buried pipeline can be achieved by connecting anodes made from
zinc to the pipe.[101] Zinc acts as the anode (negative terminus) by slowly corroding
away as it passes electric current to the steel pipeline.[101][note 2] Zinc is also used to
cathodically protect metals that are exposed to sea water from corrosion.[102] A zinc
disc attached to a ship's iron rudder will slowly corrode, whereas the rudder stays
unattacked.[100] Other similar uses include a plug of zinc attached to a propeller or
the metal protective guard for the keel of the ship.

With a standard electrode potential (SEP) of −0.76 volts, zinc is used as an anode
material for batteries. (More reactive lithium (SEP −3.04 V) is used for anodes
in lithium batteries ). Powdered zinc is used in this way in alkaline batteries and
sheets of zinc metal form the cases for and act as anodes in zinc–carbon
batteries.[103][104] Zinc is used as the anode or fuel of the zinc-air battery/fuel
cell.[105][106][107] The zinc-cerium redox flow battery also relies on a zinc-based
negative half-cell.[108]

Alloys

A widely used alloy that contains zinc is brass, in which copper is alloyed with
anywhere from 3% to 45% zinc, depending upon the type of brass.[101] Brass is
generally more ductile and stronger than copper and has superior corrosion
resistance.[101] These properties make it useful in communication equipment,
hardware, musical instruments, and water valves.[101]

Cast brass microstructure at magnification 400x

Other widely used alloys that contain zinc include nickel silver, typewriter metal,
soft and aluminium solder, and commercial bronze.[10] Zinc is also used in
contemporary pipe organs as a substitute for the traditional lead/tin alloy in
pipes.[109] Alloys of 85–88% zinc, 4–10% copper, and 2–8% aluminium find
limited use in certain types of machine bearings. Zinc is the primary metal used in
making American one cent coins since 1982.[110] The zinc core is coated with a thin
layer of copper to give the impression of a copper coin. In 1994, 33,200 tonnes
(36,600 short tons) of zinc were used to produce 13.6 billion pennies in the United
States.[111]

Alloys of primarily zinc with small amounts of copper, aluminium, and magnesium
are useful in die casting as well as spin casting, especially in the automotive,
electrical, and hardware industries.[10] These alloys are marketed under the
nameZamak.[112] An example of this is zinc aluminium. The low melting point
together with the low viscosity of the alloy makes the production of small and
intricate shapes possible. The low working temperature leads to rapid cooling of
the cast products and therefore fast assembly is possible.[10][113] Another alloy,
marketed under the brand name Prestal, contains 78% zinc and 22% aluminium
and is reported to be nearly as strong as steel but as malleable as
plastic.[10][114] Thissuperplasticity of the alloy allows it to be molded using die casts
made of ceramics and cement.[10]

Similar alloys with the addition of a small amount of lead can be cold-rolled into
sheets. An alloy of 96% zinc and 4% aluminium is used to make stamping dies for
low production run applications for which ferrous metal dies would be too
expensive.[115] In building facades, roofs or other applications in which zinc is used
as sheet metal and for methods such asdeep drawing, roll forming or bending, zinc
alloys with titanium and copper are used.[116] Unalloyed zinc is too brittle for these
kinds of manufacturing processes.[116]
As a dense, inexpensive, easily worked material, zinc is used as
a lead replacement. In the wake of lead concerns, zinc appears in weights for
various applications ranging from fishing[117] to tire balances and flywheels.[118]

Cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) is a semiconductive alloy that can be divided into
an array of small sensing devices.[119]These devices are similar to an integrated
circuit and can detect the energy of incoming gamma ray photons.[119] When placed
behind an absorbing mask, the CZT sensor array can also be used to determine the
direction of the rays.[119]

Other industrial uses

Zinc oxide is used as a whitepigment in paints.

Roughly one quarter of all zinc output in the United States (2009), is consumed in
the form of zinc compounds;[98] a variety of which are used industrially. Zinc oxide
is widely used as a white pigment in paints, and as a catalyst in the manufacture of
rubber. It is also used as a heat disperser for the rubber and acts to protect its
polymers from ultraviolet radiation (the same UV protection is conferred to
plastics containing zinc oxide).[16] The semiconductor properties of zinc oxide
make it useful in varistors and photocopying products.[120] The zinc zinc-oxide
cycle is a two stepthermochemical process based on zinc and zinc oxide
for hydrogen production.[121]
Zinc chloride is often added to lumber as a fire retardant[122] and can be used as a
wood preservative.[123] It is also used to make other chemicals.[122] Zinc
methyl(Zn(CH3)
2) is used in a number of organic syntheses.[124] Zinc sulfide (ZnS) is used
in luminescent pigments such as on the hands of clocks, X-ray and television
screens, and luminous paints.[125] Crystals of ZnS are used in lasers that operate in
the mid-infrared part of the spectrum.[126] Zinc sulfate is a chemical in dyes and
pigments.[122] Zinc pyrithione is used in antifouling paints.[127]

Zinc powder is sometimes used as a propellant in model rockets.[128] When a


compressed mixture of 70% zinc and 30%sulfur powder is ignited there is a violent
chemical reaction.[128] This produces zinc sulfide, together with large amounts of
hot gas, heat, and light.[128] Zinc sheet metal is used to make zinc bars.[129]Zn, the
most abundant isotope of zinc, is very susceptible to neutron activation,
being transmuted into the highly radioactive 65
Zn, which has a half-life of 244 days and produces intense gamma radiation.
Because of this, Zinc Oxide used in nuclear reactors as an anti-corrosion agent is
depleted of 64
Zn before use, this is called depleted zinc oxide. For the same reason, zinc has
been proposed as a salting material for nuclear weapons (cobalt is another, better-
known salting material).[130] A jacket of isotopically enriched 64
Zn would be irradiated by the intense high-energy neutron flux from an exploding
thermonuclear weapon, forming a large amount of 65
Zn significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon'sfallout.[130] Such a
weapon is not known to have ever been built, tested, or used.[130] 65
Zn is also used as a tracer to study how alloys that contain zinc wear out, or the
path and the role of zinc in organisms.[131]
Zinc dithiocarbamate complexes are used as agricultural fungicides; these
include Zineb, Metiram, Propineb and Ziram.[132]Zinc naphthenate is used as wood
preservative.[133] Zinc, in the form of ZDDP, is also used as an anti-wear additive
for metal parts in engine oil.[134]

Dietary supplement

GNC zinc 50 mg tablets (AU)

Zinc is included in most single tablet over-the-counter daily vitamin


and mineralsupplements.[135] Preparations include zinc oxide, zinc acetate, and zinc
gluconate.[135] It is believed to possess antioxidant properties, which may protect
against accelerated aging of the skin and muscles of the body; studies differ as to
its effectiveness.[136] Zinc also helps speed up the healing process after an
injury.[136] It is also suspected of being beneficial to the body's immune system.
Indeed, zinc deficiency may have effects on virtually all parts of the human
immune system.[137]

Zinc deficiency has been associated with major depressive disorder (MDD), and
zinc supplements may be an effective treatment.[138]
Zinc serves as a simple, inexpensive, and critical tool for treating diarrheal
episodes among children in the developing world. Zinc becomes depleted in the
body during diarrhea, but recent studies suggest that replenishing zinc with a 10- to
14-day course of treatment can reduce the duration and severity of diarrheal
episodes and may also prevent future episodes for up to three months.[139]

Zinc gluconate is one compound used for the delivery of zinc as a dietary
supplement.

The Age-Related Eye Disease Study determined that zinc can be part of an
effective treatment forage-related macular degeneration.[140] Zinc supplementation
is an effective treatment for acrodermatitis enteropathica, a genetic disorder
affecting zinc absorption that was previously fatal to babies born with it.[52]

Gastroenteritis is strongly attenuated by ingestion of zinc, and this effect could be


due to direct antimicrobial action of the zinc ions in the gastrointestinal tract, or to
the absorption of the zinc and re-release from immune cells
(all granulocytessecrete zinc), or both.[141][142] In 2011, researchers at John Jay
College of Criminal Justice reported that dietary zinc supplements can mask the
presence of drugs in urine. Similar claims have been made in web forums on that
topic.[143]

Although not yet tested as a therapy in humans, a growing body of evidence


indicates that zinc may preferentially kill prostate cancer cells. Because zinc
naturally homes to the prostate and because the prostate is accessible with
relatively non-invasive procedures, its potential as a chemotherapeutic agent in this
type of cancer has shown promise.[144] However, other studies have demonstrated
that chronic use of zinc supplements in excess of the recommended dosage may
actually increase the chance of developing prostate cancer, also likely due to the
natural buildup of this heavy metal in the prostate.[145]

Zinc lozenges and the common cold


Main article: Zinc and the common cold

The most positive results for using zinc lozenges have been found in studies in
which zinc acetate was used, apparently because acetate does not bind zinc
ions.[146][147]

Topical use
Further information: Zinc oxide § Medicine

Topical administration of zinc preparations include one used on the skin, often in
the form of zinc oxide. Zinc preparations can protect against sunburn in the
summer and windburn in the winter.[52] Applied thinly to a baby's diaper area
(perineum) with each diaper change, it can protect against diaper rash.[52]

Chelated zinc is used in toothpastes and mouthwashes to prevent bad


breath.[148] Zinc pyrithione is widely applied in shampoos because of its anti-
dandruff function.[149] Zinc ions are effective antimicrobial agents even at low
concentrations.[150]

Organic chemistry
Addition of diphenylzinc to an aldehyde

There are many important organozinc compounds. Organozinc chemistry is the


science of organozinc compounds describing their physical properties, synthesis
and reactions.[151][152][153][154] Among important applications is the Frankland-Duppa
Reaction in which an oxalateester(ROCOCOOR) reacts with an alkyl halide R'X,
zinc andhydrochloric acid to the α-hydroxycarboxylic esters
RR'COHCOOR,[155] the Reformatskii reaction which converts α-halo-esters and
aldehydes to β-hydroxy-esters, the Simmons–Smith reaction in which the
carbenoid (iodomethyl)zinc iodide reacts with alkene(or alkyne) and converts them
to cyclopropane, the Addition reaction of organozinc compounds
to carbonyl compounds. The Barbier reaction (1899) is the zinc equivalent of the
magnesium Grignard reaction and is better of the two. In presence of just about any
water the formation of the organomagnesium halide will fail, whereas the Barbier
reaction can even take place in water. On the downside organozincs are much less
nucleophilic than Grignards, are expensive and difficult to handle. Commercially
available diorganozinc compounds are dimethylzinc, diethylzinc and diphenylzinc.
In one study[156][157] the active organozinc compound is obtained from much
cheaper organobromine precursors:
The Negishi coupling is also an important reaction for the formation of new carbon
carbon bonds between unsaturated carbon atoms in alkenes, arenes and alkynes.
The catalysts are nickel and palladium. A key step in the catalytic cycle is
atransmetalation in which a zinc halide exchanges its organic substituent for
another halogen with the palladium (nickel) metal center. The Fukuyama
coupling is another coupling reaction but this one with a thioester as reactant
forming a ketone.

Zinc has found many applications as catalyst in organic synthesis including


asymmetric synthesis, being cheap and easily available alternative to precious
metal complexes. The results (yield and ee) obtained by using chiral zinc catalysts
are comparable to those achieved by palladium, ruthenium, iridium and others and
therefore more and more zinc becomes metal of choice for this purpose.[158]

COATINGS AND METHODS

TYPE OF COATING MATERIALS

1. Nickel
2. Chromium
3. Yttrium oxide
4. black oxide
5. zinc

TYPE OF COATING

1. Pvd coating

2. Cvd coating

PHYSICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION (PVD)


The basic PVD processes fall into two general categories: sputtering and
evaporation. The application of PVD techniques ranges over a wide variety of
applications from decorative, to high temperature superconducting films. The
thickness of the deposits can vary from angstroms to millimeters. Very high
deposition rates (25µm/sec) have been achieved with the advent of electron beam
heated sources. A very large number of inorganic materials metals, alloys In
physical vapor deposition (PVD) processes, the coating is deposited in vacuum by
condensation from a flux of neutral or ionized atoms of metals. Several PVD
techniques are available for deposition of hard coatings. Among them, cathodic arc
vapor (plasma or arc ion plating) deposition, magnetron sputtering (or sputter ion
plating), and combined magnetron and arc processes are the most widely used
techniques to deposit various hard coatings.

These PVD processes differ with respect to the type of evaporation of the
metallic components and the plasma conditions employed during the deposition
process. The transition of the metallic component (to be deposited) from a solid to
a vapor phase (in which metal atoms are ionized in different ways) may be
performed by heating of an evaporation source (as in cathodic arc) or by sputtering
of a target (as in magnetron sputtering). Cathodic arc and magnetron sputtering
techniques allow evaporation of metals with different melting points such as Ti and
Al from a Ti–Al alloy cathode/target.

The PVD arc evaporation process employs higher energy input than the
PVD sputtering process. In the case of arc evaporation, a small limited cathodic
area is evaporated with a very high energy arc that quickly moves over a spot on
the metal surface to be evaporated. The plasma generated consists of highly
ionized metal vapor. In the case of sputtering, atoms are ejected mechanically from
a target by the impact of ions or energetic neutral atoms.
 The high micro-hardness provides excellent abrasion resistance, and allows
the cutting edge to stay sharper for longer
 The lowered Coefficient of Friction means there is less resistance during the
cut; therefore, less heat is generated heat build-up being another major factor
in cutting edge break down
 The lowered Coefficient of Friction also means the chips generated during
the cutting process are evacuated more efficiently; therefore, the heat that is
generated does not have as much time to transfer from the chip to the tool –
more heat stays in the chip
 The lowered Coefficient of Friction will reduce machining noise and the
load placed on spindle motors
 The lack of chemical affinity between various coatings and work pieces will
reduce material “pick-up,” another leading cause of cutting edge
breakdown. For example, when cutting titanium with a ZrN coated end mill,
the titanium has no chemical affinity towards ZrN; therefore, you will
experience almost no “pick-up.”
 The lowered Coefficient of Friction creates a free-cutting tool – this may
reduce or eliminate burrs and help to improve the surface finish or machined
parts.
Chemical vapour deposition or CVD is a generic name for a group of processes
that involve depositing a solid material from a gaseous phase and is similar in
some respects to physical vapour deposition (PVD).PVD differs in that the
precursors are solid, with the material to be deposited being vaporised from a solid
target and deposited onto the substrate.

CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION


CVD covers processes such as:

 Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Vapour Deposition (APCVD)


 Low Pressure Chemical Vapour Deposition (LPCVD)
 Metal-Organic Chemical Vapour Deposition (MOCVD)
 Plasma Assisted Chemical Vapour Deposition (PACVD) or Plasma
Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition (PECVD)
 Laser Chemical Vapour Deposition (LCVD)
 Photochemical Vapour Deposition (PCVD)
 Chemical Vapour Infiltration (CVI)
 Chemical Beam Epitaxy (CBE)

CVD WORK
Precursor gases (often diluted in carrier gases) are delivered into the reaction
chamber at approximately ambient temperatures. As they pass over or come into
contact with a heated substrate, they react or decompose forming a solid phase
which and are deposited onto the substrate. The substrate temperature is critical
and can influence what reactions will take place.

Coating Characteristics

CVD coatings are typically:

 Fine grained
 Impervious
 High purity
 Harder than similar materials produced using conventional ceramic
fabrication processes
CVD coatings are usually only a few microns thick and are generally deposited at
fairly slow rates, usually of the order of a few hundred microns per hour.

CVD APPARATUS

A CVD apparatus will consist of several basic components:

 Gas delivery system – For the supply of precursors to the reactor chamber
 Reactor chamber – Chamber within which deposition takes place Substrate
loading mechanism A system for introducing and removing substrates,
mandrels etc
 Energy source – Provide the energy/heat that is required to get the
precursors to react/decompose.
 Vacuum system – A system for removal of all other gaseous species other
than those required for the reaction/deposition.
 Exhaust system – System for removal of volatile by-products from the
reaction chamber.
 Exhaust treatment systems – In some instances, exhaust gases may not be
suitable for release into the atmosphere and may require treatment or
conversion to safe/harmless compounds.

Process control equipment Gauges, controls etc to monitor process parameters such
as pressure, temperature and time. Alarms and safety devices would also be
included in this category.

Energy Sources

There are several suitable sources of heat for CVD processes. These include:
 Resistive Heating e.g. tube furnaces
 Radiant Heating e.g. halogen lamps
 Radio Frequency Heating e.g. induction heating
 Lasers other energy sources may include UV-visible light or lasers as a
source of photo energy.

Materials That Can be Produced by CVD Processes

CVD is an extremely versatile process that can be used to process almost any
metallic or ceramic compound. Some of these include:

 Elements
 Metals and alloys
 Carbides
 Nitrides
 Borides
 Oxides
 Inter metallic compounds

SELECTION OF CAMSHAFT

 MARUTHI 800 CAMSHAFT

The Camshaft lobe has three main features


1) Ramp
2) Flank
3) Nose
What are their characteristics?
Acceleration
Valve lift proportional to lobe radius
Zero velocity at maximum lift (turning point
The camshaft transforms the energy of the expanding gasses into mechanical
energy.

MARUTHI 800 CAMSHAFT

The camshaft is arguably the most complex component in an internal combustion


engine and very few people know how they actually work. The function of the
camshaft is to control the valve timing, ensuring that the valves open and close at
the proper time to allow fuel and air to enter and exit the engine. The size, shape,
and placement of all the eccentric bumps on the camshaft make the engine operate
properly. Despite the complexity, camshaft terminology can be easily understood
when absorbed in small pieces. This description will explain the basic principles of
camshafts and the effects they have on overall engine performance.

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

When a tree falls on a saw, there is rarely any doubt what happened, but when the
engine fails, it is sometimes difficult for pro users to understand what has occurred
and why. The following images of damaged pistons illustrate what can happen
inside a saw's engine.

Image shows formation of fatigue cracks and broken off material.


Image shows loss of material due to fatigue, combined with abrasive wear

FATIGUE FAILURE

 Fatigue accounts for 90% of failure in metals


 Biggest culprit of camshaft failure.
 Cracks propagate under the surface due to shear stresses.
DAMAGE FROM HEAT SEIZURE

The camshaft above shows the most common severe piston damage we see - the
exhaust side has damage caused from excess heat. This damage looks similar to
camshaft damage caused by running straight gas shown in the first image, but with
this piston, conditions under the camshaft looked normal. This kind of damage can
be caused by over-revving the saw, running the carburetor adjustment too lean, by
ignoring an air leak in the saw's engine, or a combination of factors. The best way
to avoid a such a seizure is to use good quality fuel and mix oil, avoid over-revving
the engine, and always stop running a saw that shows signs of a potential air leak.
This kind of damage can also be caused by a partially plugged fuel filter, which is
another reason fuel filters should be replaced regularly.
SELECTION OF COATING MATERIALS

NICKEL COATINGS

The technology of electroplating of nickel has been extensively developed,


particularly through the last five decades, to make possible the efficient production
of a broad range of industrial coatings for both decorative and functional
applications. Electroplated nickel is commercially important with upwards of
150,000 tonnes deposited annually worldwide. This widespread use reflects the
useful properties of nickel as a coating and its versatility.
A feature of is by modifying the composition of the electrolyte and the operating
conditions, the properties and appearance of nickel can be customised to meet
specific needs. Electroplated nickel is used extensively to enhance the utility, value
and sales appeal of consumer goods and manufactured products. Other nickel
coatings are used to improve the physical properties such as wear resistance, heat
resistance or corrosion resistance. In many important applications, the nickel
coatings serve the dual role of providing a bright decorative coating and Imparting
improved corrosion resistance or other functional properties.

Nickel coating process by which nickel is built up by electro deposition onto


a suitable mandrel and subsequently removed to produce a nickel product which
corresponds precisely to the shape and texture of the original substrate. This
Handbook has been prepared to provide practical information on the operation and
control of nickel plating processes. The basics of electroplating are addressed and
is focussed on the operation of the plating bath. Information is included on the
composition of plating solutions, correct control of anodes, trouble-shooting and
practical operation. Quality aspects and specifications are discussed to ensure that
coatings meet the required performance standards.
SELECTION OF COATING PROCESS

PHYSICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION (PVD)

In physical vapor deposition (PVD) processes, the coating is deposited in vacuum


by condensation from a flux of neutral or ionized atoms of metals. Several PVD
techniques are available for deposition of hard coatings. Among them, cathodic arc
vapor (plasma or arc ion plating) deposition magnetron sputtering (or sputter ion
plating), and combined magnetron and arc processes are the most widely used
techniques to deposit various hard coatings. These PVD processes differ with
respect to the type of evaporation of the metallic components and the plasma
conditions employed during the deposition process. The transition of the metallic
component (to be deposited) from a solid to a vapor phase (in which metal atoms
are ionized in different ways) may be performed by heating of an evaporation
source (as in cathodic arc) or by sputtering of a target (as in magnetron sputtering).

Cathodic arc and magnetron sputtering techniques allow evaporation of


metals with different melting points such as Ti and Al from a Ti–Al alloy
cathode/target. The PVD arc evaporation process employs higher energy input than
the PVD sputtering process. In the case of arc evaporation, a small limited cathodic
area is evaporated with a very high-energy arc that quickly moves over a spot on
the metal surface to be evaporated. The plasma generated consists of highly
ionized metal vapor. In the case of sputtering, atoms are ejected mechanically from
a target by the impact of ions or energetic neutral atoms. As may be noted from
Table 1, the cathodic arc process generates the highest quantity of ionized target
atoms, 50–100%, followed by anodic arc ion plating in the range of 5–40%. The
quantity of ionized atoms is rather low for magnetron sputtering. The significance
of metal ionization rates can be described as follows: The energy during the
deposition of coating depends on the atomic masses of the participating ionized
atoms, which in turn controls momentum transfer. The total atomic mass of
participating ions is highest in the case of the cathodic arc deposition process due
to the ability to evaporate large percentage of metallic ions from cathodes (highest
ionization rate). This leads to high deposition energy, and a dense coating. In
addition, the ion plating effectiveness (defined as the potential to coat the substrate
surface in micro scale) of the cathodic arc deposition technique is higher than that
of conventional magnetron sputter techniques. Cathodic arc deposited coatings also
exhibit a higher level of adhesion to the substrate due to the effect of ion
bombardment or ion etching. During bombardment, high-energy metal ions
generated from the cathode bombard the substrate surface kept at a high negative
bias of 500–2000 V. In addition to cleaning and heating the substrate, energetic
metal ions during ion bombardment knock off some metal atoms from within the
substrate or may penetrate the substrate lattice to angstrom levels. This leads to
defects and roughness on the substrate at an atomic level, and the atomic level of
roughness is believed to be responsible for the improved adhesion of the coating.
Target poisoning and very low ionization rates are the two drawbacks of
conventional magnetron sputtering process. Conventional sputtering techniques
were modified to improve ionization rates.

High ionization magnetron sputtering techniques, and allow deposition of


hard coating at a much higher ionization rate than conventional sputtering
techniques. Sputtered coatings generally have a columnar structure and a smooth
coating surface without the presence of macro particles, a typical problem of arc
evaporation. The main disadvantage of the cathodic arc process is the formation of
macro particles. Macro particles (or macro droplets) are the result of droplet
formation during arc evaporation of low melting point materials (e.g. aluminum in
the case of black oxide coating). It is also believed that very fast evaporation
during the cathodic arc process produces excess atoms that are not completely
ionized before they arrive at the substrate surface.The property requirements for
coating vary widely from application to application. The target/cathode ratio,
coating micro hardness and microstructure of the coatings are among the most
important properties that determine the wearing resistance of hard coating for
cutting tools. A rating of the properties for various PVD coating techniques is
difficult because they depend on coating system, deposition processes and
parameters.

However, the target composition, substrate temperature, bias voltage, gas flow and
ion bombardment rates are most important parameters in case of CAE process.
Whereas magnetron Power, ion current density, substrate bias, gas pressure, target
composition and substrate temperature were found to be most influential
parameters in the case of magnetron sputter deposition. These parameters directly
affect the mechanical, tribological, structural and thermo-oxidation properties of
coating. The choice of base material also plays an important role for actual
industrial application. Various industrial tools and dies were used to deposit
various coatings such as TiN, TiCN, TiC, (Ti,Al)N, black oxide and etc. cermets
and high speed steels are the most common tool materials used in industries for
various types of machining operations, namely drilling, metal cutting, milling and
turning. The process involved four steps:

 Evaporation
 Transportation
 Reaction
 Deposition

Evaporation

During this stage, a target, consisting of the material to be deposited is bombarded


by a high energy source such as a beam of electrons or ions. This dislodges atoms
from the surface of the target, ‘vaporizing’ them. Stage. For the above examples,
the reactive gases may be oxygen, nitrogen and methane.

Transport

This process simply consists of the movement of ‘vaporized’ atoms from the target
to the substrate to be coated and will generally be a straight line affair.

Reaction
In some cases coatings will consist of metal oxides, nitrides, carbides and other
such materials. In these cases, the target will consist of the metal. The atoms of
metal will then react with the appropriate gas during the transport stage. For the
above examples, the reactive gases may be oxygen, nitrogen and methane. In
instances where the coating consists of the target material alone, this step would
not be part of the process.
Deposition
This is the process of coating build up on the substrate surface. Depending on the
actual process, some reactions between target materials and the reactive gases may
also take place at the substrate surface simultaneously with the deposition process.

PVD USES

PVD coatings are deposited for numerous reasons. Some of the main ones are:

• Improved hardness and wear resistance


• Reduced friction

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