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ABSTRACT
The paper describes the performance of camshaft surface NICKEL, ZINC AND
CHORIMUM coated by PVD techniques. We review the physical vapor
deposition (PVD) techniques and equipment that are in common use in the high-
volume production of coatings that find application in the optical, display,
decorative and tribological. Specific PVD processes and coating materials have
been developed and optimized for each application. Performance evaluation was
based on the surface hardness wear resistance in the conditions of prevalence of
adhesion and on camshaft wear (durability) in the conditions of maruthi 800 model
piston. It is shown that adhesive wear resistance depends both on the composition
of the PVD coating and on that of the camshaft material to be coated. The nickel
coating of the camshaft is tested surface hardness and wear resistance.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Camshaft is along with the suction and exhaust systems it determines the
useful rpm range of the engine. Camshaft is used in the engine for transfer’s
motion to inlet & exhaust valve. If transfer of motion is not proper then the stokes
will not work in proper way. Also it effects on performance of engine.
Dynamic models were created to obtain insight into dynamic behavior of the
system prior to manufacturing. These models were mathematical tools used to
simulate and predict the behavior of physical systems. They contain systems
properties which are masses, stiffness constants, and damping coefficients.
The automotive sector has reached a very high production capacity in the
last decades. Depending on this increasing capacity, its stable growth is anticipated
in the world economy. The economic value of the work capacity in the automotive
sector is very large and this shows that the automotive sector is the 6th economic
sector worldwide. The sector has an interrelationship with more than 300 different
fields.
So, if there is any malfunction in the main or side industries, the whole
functions of the produced cars are influenced. On the other hand, the failure
analysis is a special field of study for materials and mechanical engineers. On one
side, the materials engineer is intended to develop his/her observational and
reasoning skills for the understanding of interrelationship between observable
features and properties or performance. On the other side, the mechanical engineer
studies on the possible failure locations and types and amount of the existent stress
levels.
Many studies have been carried out on the automotive failure analysis is that
the mostly failed parts are from engine and its components among the automotive
failures. This is followed by the drive train failures. Among the studies on the
engine component failures, the prediction of fatigue failure in a camshaft using the
crack-modeling method
INTRODUCTION OF THE CAM
CAM:
CAMSHAFT:
A shaft with one or more cams attached to it, e.g. working of valves in an internal
combustion engine is controlled by camshaft. Cam shaft is called the “brain” of the
engine.
CAM TERMINOLOGY
Base Circle:
The smallest circle centered on the cam rotation axis, and tangent to the cam
surface. The size of the base circle is dictated by spatial restrictions of the
application.
Trace point:
Home Position:
A circle centered at the cam axis whose radius is equal to the distance to the trace
point. It is the smallest circle from the cam center through the pitch curve
Pressure Angle:
The angle between the direction of motion of the follower and the direction of
the cam contact force is called pressure angle. Pressure angle should not exceed 30
Pitch curve:
The path generated by the trace point at the follower is rotated about a stationary
cam.
WORKING CURVE
The working surface of a cam in contact with the follower. For the knife-edge
follower of the plate cam, the pitch curve and the working curves coincide. In a
close or grooved cam there is an inner profile and an outer working curve.
CAM SHAPE
This is a plate cam with the follower riding in a groove in the face of the cam.
Grooved cam
CYLINDRICAL CAM OR BARREL CAM
The roller follower operates in a groove cut on the periphery of a cylinder. The
follower may translate or oscillate. If the cylindrical surface is replaced by a
conical one, a conical cam
End cam
This cam has a rotating portion of a cylinder. The follower translates or oscillates,
whereas the cam usually rotates. The end cam is rarely used because of the cost
and the difficulty in cutting its contour.
When the cam turns through one motion cycle, the follower executes a series of
events consisting of rises, dwells and returns. Rise is the motion of the follower
away from the cam center, dwell is the motion during which the follower is at rest;
and return is the motion of the follower toward the cam center.
Lift:
CAST IRONS
1. HARDENABLE IRON:
Chilled iron is Grade 17 cast iron with 1% chrome. When the camshaft is cast in
the foundry, machined steel moulds the shape of the cam lobe are incorporated in
the mould. When the iron is poured, it hardens off very quickly (known as
chilling), causing the cam lobe material to form a matrix of carbide (this material
will cut glass) on the cam lobe. This material is exceedingly scuff-resistant and is
the only material for producing quantity OHC performance camshafts.
When purchasing a camshaft, enquire which material the camshafts are produced
from. A chilled iron camshaft may be more expensive, but its resistance to wear in
all conditions, far exceeds any other type of cast iron.
STEEL CAMSHAFTS
Used mainly in the 1930 to 1945 period and is currently used for induction
hardened camshafts in conjunction with roller cam followers, due to the through-
hardening characteristics of the material.
Used by British Leyland in the A Series and B Series engine and best when run
against a chilled cam follower.
The best steel for camshafts. When nitride it gives a surface hardness and finish
similar to chilled iron. We used this when replacing chilled iron camshafts in
competition engines. This material is used on several of the current F1 engines.
DESIGN PROCEDURE:
The lift of the valve is 37.5 mm and the least radius of the cam is 40 mm. The
follower is provided with a roller of radius of 20 mm and its line of stroke passes
through the axis of the cam.
METHODS OF MANUFACTURING:
1. CASTING:
Chilled cast iron is primarily used for production of cam shaft. The development
of automobile industry and engine power brings up more advance requirement for
properties of camshaft. In casting process, there are more chances of casting
defects such as shrinkage defect, porosity, crack, insufficient pouring. However for
higher loads in roller contact, cast camshafts with induction hardened cam lobes
can be used.
2. FORGING:
Forged or manufactured from a steel bar camshafts are also used for certain high
loaded diesel engines. These are produced on computer-controlled forging systems
with integrated heat treatment or machined from steel bar.
A. While using Casted or Forged CAM only Final Machining is require to achieve
final size within the required tolerances. In this process casted or forged CAM are
in the required shape but their size is maintained by machining and finishing
operation.
B. While Using Metal Billet (metal rod), the profile of cam is obtained by
removing excess material which from metal billet. In this process only machining
is required to manufacture CAM.
1.TURNING & DRILLING: The raw forging is put in this machine and center
drilling and turning on one side is done here.
2. TURNING: Here the turning of the 6 journals takes place. There are 4 tools
used for this turning – Rough, Neutral, Left and Right tool. Also, Grooving and
Parting operation is performed on the left side of the shaft.
3. DRILLING: This machine drills the diameter 4.5 dowel hole which is used as
reference for further operations.
An angular grinding wheel is used for the face grinding operation. At this stage,
inspection is done after every 10 components using gauges.
Grinding of the Cam is done here. The dowel hole is taken as the reference.
7. LAPPING:
To give super finish in microns, lapping is done using lapping paper on the Cams.
8. SLITTING: This machine makes a slit in the right side of the shaft to fit in the
engine. The cutter used is a Saw cutter and pneumatic debarring is done here.
9. AIR & WATER CLEANING: This is the Washing Machine where water and
air jets are used to clean the component of dust, oil, chips etc.
REVIEW OF LITERTURE
REVIEW OF LITERTURE
The materials used should have perfect mechanical strength and corrosion
resistance and thus be able to work under aggressive environments and high
temperatures. The temperatures that turbine blades are exposed to can be close to
the melting point of the super alloys. Internal cooling by cooling channels and
insulation by thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) is used in order to lower the
temperature of turbine blades and prevent the failure of super alloy substratesL.
Wang, X.H. Zhong, Y.X. Zhao, S.Y. Tao, W. Zhang, Y. Wang, X.G. Sun, Design
and optimization of coating structure for the thermal barrier coatings fabricated by
atmospheric plasma spraying via finite element method‖ has presented fabricating
the thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) with excellent performance is to find an
optimized coating structure with high thermal insulation effect and low residual
stress. This paper discusses the design and optimization of a suitable coating
structure for the TBCs prepared by atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) using the
finite element Method. The design and optimization processes comply with the
rules step by step, as the structure develops from a simple to a complex one..
Freiburg, D. Biermann, A. Peukera, P. Kersting, H. -J. Maier, K. Möhwald,
P. Knödler, M. Otten, Development and Analysis of Microstructures for the
Transplantation of Thermally Sprayed Coatings‖ has presented thermally sprayed
coatings and tribological surfaces are a point of interest in many industrial sectors.
They are used for better wear resistance of light weight materials or for oil
retention on surfaces. Lightweight materials are often used in the automotive
industry as a weight-saving solution in the production of engine blocks.
It is necessary to coat the cylinder liners to ensure wear resistance. In most
cases, the coating is sprayed directly onto the surface. Previous research has shown
that it is possible to transfer these coatings inversely onto other surfaces. This was
achieved with plasma sprayed coatings which were transplanted onto pressure-
casted surfaces.
Mr. Atul A. Sagade, Prof. N.N. Shinde, Prof. Dr. P.S. Patil, Effect of
receiver temperature on performance evaluation of silver coated selective surface
compound parabolic reflector with top glass cover has presented the experimental
results of the prototype compound parabolic trough made of G.I and silver coated
selective surface. The performance of collector has been evaluated with three kinds
of receiver coated with two kinds of receiver coatings black copper and black zinc
and top cover.
This line focusing parabolic trough yields Instantaneous efficiency of 60
%with top cover. A simple relationship between the parameters has been worked
out with the regression analysis. [Latitude: 16.42° N, Longitude: 74.13°W
Andrew Roberts, Richard Brooks, Philip Shipway, Internal combustion
engine cold-start efficiency: A review of the problem, causes and potential
solutions has presents vehicle emissions continues to become more stringent in an
effort to minimize the impact of internal combustion engines on the environment.
One area of significant concern in this respect is that of the cold-start; the thermal
efficiency of the internal combustion engine is significantly lower at cold start than
when the vehicle reaches steady state temperatures owing to sub optimal lubricant
and component temperatures.
The drive for thermal efficiency (of both the internal combustion engine and
of the vehicle as a whole) has led to a variety of solutions being trialed to assess
their merits and effects on other vehicle systems during this warm-up phase (and
implemented where appropriate). The approaches have a common theme of
attempting to reduce energy losses so that systems and components reach their
intended operating temperature range as soon as possible after engine start. In the
case of the engine, this is primarily focused on the lubricant system. Lubricant
viscosity is highly sensitive to temperature and the increased viscosity at low
temperatures results in higher frictional and pumping losses than would-be
observed at the target operating temperature.
CHAPTER II
INTRODUCTION OF COATINGS
Protective coatings
Protective coatings are used in oil and gas storage, transmission and distribution
network to prevent steel structures against corrosion. Steel structures like trains,
ships, automobiles, airplanes, underground buried gas pipelines, fuel storage tanks
etc require the use of protective coatings. The importance of a coating can be
judged from the fact that it can hardly be ignored in any corrosion protective
scheme. Protective coatings are unique specialty products which represent the most
widely used method of corrosion control.
They are used to give long term protection under different corrosive
conditions. The function of a protective coating or lining is to separate two highly
reactive materials; to prevent corrosive environment species from contacting the
reactive underlying steel structure. This is to say that a coating or a lining acts as
a barrier to prevent either chemical compounds or corrosion currents from
contacting the substrate . Corrosion protection of over-ground and under-ground
steel structures with the help of organic coatings are one of the most proven
methods. Other methods include Cathodic Protection (CP), environmental
modification, material selection and design. If the resistivity of electrolyte is
increased and the electron flux is retarded, the rate of corrosion is decreased. By
applying coatings of high resistivity, such as epoxies, vinyls, chlorinated rubbers,
etc. the flow of electric current to the metal surface is impeded. Also the higher the
thickness of a coating, the higher would be its electrical resistance.
Purposes of a coating
First attempts to control steel structures corrosion relied on the use of coating
materials and the reasoning that if the substrate could be isolated from contact with
the surrounding earth, no corrosion could occur.
Characteristics of coatings
SPECIFICATIONS OF A COATING
Requirements for handling and transporting the coated pipe Details of coating field
joints when factory coated pipe is used Backfilling requirements Modern coatings
are mainly of barrier type among which organic coatings are being extensively
used in oil and gas storage/transmission and distribution due to ease of application.
They have excellent barrier and fairly quick drying properties besides being cost
effective. The study of water uptake in an organic coating easily provides
knowledge about the interaction between water molecules and polymer.
Classification of a coating may help in understanding its degradation mechanism
and ultimate corrosion underneath coating at an early stage.
CLASSIFICATION OF COATINGS
According to their ability to resist corrosion, coatings can be classified into four
main categories namely barrier coatings, conversion coatings, anodic coatings, and
cathodic coatings. A brief description of these coatings is given as follows:-
Barrier coatings
Barrier coatings are of four types including organic coatings, inorganic coatings,
anodic oxides, and inhibitive coatings.
Organic Coatings
Epoxy, polyurethane, chlorinated rubber and polyvinyl chloride coatings serve as a
barrier to water, oxygen, and ions. They prevent initiation of any cathodic reactions
at the coating-substrate interface. Their barrier properties can be further enhanced
by addition of suitable inhibitors, like chromate, in the primer.
Inorganic Coatings
These include coatings like ceramics and glass. Glass coatings are virtually
impervious to water. Cement coatings are impervious as long as they are not
mechanically damaged.
Anodic Oxides
Inhibitive Coatings
Inhibitors are added to form surface layers which not only serve as a barrier against
the hostile environment but also prevent substrate corrosion in neutral or alkaline
media.
Conversion coatings
In case of steel substrates, they are also known as sacrificial coatings. They protect
the substrate at the expense of the metallic coating applied. The zinc coatings
protect the substrate by acting as a sacrificial anode for the steel which is cathodic
to zinc.
Catholic coatings
In such types of coating, the metals which are deposited are electropositive to the
substrate like copper coated steel wherein copper (0.337 Volts) is positive to steel
(-0.440 Volts). Electroplated coatings are generally pore-free and discontinuities
are not observed. Since organic coatings have been the focus of attention during
this research work, a brief review of literature on organic coatings is presented
below:-
Organic Coatings
FBE coatings systems can be divided into two main categories namely:-
FBE single, or multiple coating systems these coatings initially consist of
100% solids thermosetting powders. When electro statically spray applied to
a preheated pipe, the FBE powder material melts flows, gels and cross-links,
forming a tough durable coating.
Dual-layer FBE systems consist of two differently formulated FBE powders
applied consecutively. The second layer usually is tougher, and has better
temperature and/or mechanical resistance. Liquid coatings can also be
applied over FBE to impart mechanical resistance. 3-layer polyethylene
coating system
It is similar to the non-FBE 3-layer polyethylene except an FBE primer is
used in lieu of the liquid epoxy primer. After FBE application, a co- or ter-
polymer an hydride grafted adhesive is applied to bond the polyethylene to
the FBE, followed by application of the polyethylene by wrapping, powder
spray and cure, or extrusion.
Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE is considered a superior coating material for
underground oil/gas transmission pipeline protection since it has excellent
adhesion to steel, good chemical resistance, low oxygen permeability, and
good flexibility.
There are many factors that may affect the long-term performance of a
coating. One of them is its formulation while another may be the surface
preparation of the steel substrate before application of a coating. Improved
adhesion will enhance the FBE/CP performance. Adhesion comes from
mechanical, polar-polar (i.e. hydrogen bonding) and chemical bonding to the
substrate.
The use of two or more layers of FBE coatings provides much greater versatility
to oil/gas pipeline coating-protection-system capability. The primary layer is
typically a coating material designed as part of a corrosion protection system.
That means it has good initial adhesion and maintains adhesion after
exposure to hot water or other environmental factors. For underground
pipeline service, it also must resist cathodic disbondment. The top layer can
provided many different attributes, depending on coating-system requirements.
It can provide protection against mechanical damage - e.g., impact, abrasion, and
gouge. Coated steel pipes are exposed to different types of conditions while
being transported from the coating applicator plant to finally being buried under
ground. These could result into coating damage in the form of holidays,
disbondment and delamination leading to premature failure of the coating
substrate system.
Selection of coating
ZINC COATINGS
Zinc, in commerce also is a chemical element with symbol Znand atomic number
30. It is the first element of group 12 of the periodic table. In some respects zinc is
chemically similar to magnesium: its ionis of similar size and its only
common oxidation state is +2. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earth's
crust and has five stableisotopes. The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc
blende), a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest mineable amounts are found in
Australia, Asia, and the United States. Zinc production includes froth flotation of
the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity (electrowinning).
Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, has been used since at least the
10th century BC in Judea[2] and by the 7th century BC in Ancient
Greece.[3] Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in
India and was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century. The mines
of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to the 6th
century BC.[4] To date, the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, in
Rajasthan, as early as the 9th century AD when a distillation process was
employed to make pure zinc.[5] Alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they
called "philosopher's wool" or "white snow".
The element was probably named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German
word Zinke. German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is credited with
discovering pure metallic zinc in 1746. Work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro
Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800. Corrosion-
resistant zinc plating of iron (hot-dip galvanizing) is the major application for zinc.
Other applications are in batteries, small non-structural castings, and alloys, such
as brass. A variety of zinc compounds are commonly used, such as zinc
carbonateand zinc gluconate (as dietary supplements), zinc chloride (in
deodorants), zinc pyrithione (anti-dandruff shampoos), zinc sulfide (in luminescent
paints), and zinc methyl or zinc diethyl in the organic laboratory.
Zinc, a natural, healthy, and abundant element was first used in construction in 79
AD; thus, its characteristics as a well-suited corrosion protective coating for iron
and steel products has long been known. The 27th most abundant element in the
Earth’s crust, zinc is naturally present in rocks, soil, air, water, and the biosphere,
as well as in plants, animals, and humans. In fact, zinc is essential to life as all
organisms require it to survive and complete normal physiological functions.Today,
more than 13 million tons of zinc are produced
annually worldwide, 70% from mined ores, and 30%
from recycled sources. More than half of the annual
production is used in zinc coatings to protect steel
from corrosion. Because zinc is an infinitely recyclable
material, the level of recycling increases each year, and
currently 80% of the zinc available for recycling is indeed
reclaimed. However, because of zinc’s excellent field
performance as a corrosion protection coating, it often
remains in service for generations before recycling. Zinc, like all metals, corrodes
when exposed to the
Zinc
Zinc, 30Zn
General properties
Appearance silver-gray
Pronunciation /ˈzɪŋk/
ZINGK
–
↑
Zn
↓
Cd
copper ← zinc → gallium
Period period 4
Physical properties
Phase solid
vapor pressure
Atomic properties
Miscellanea
History
ε 1.3519 65
Cu
65
Zn syn 243.8 d
γ 1.1155 –
66 66
Zn 27.9% Zn is stable with 36 neutrons
67 67
Zn 4.1% Zn is stable with 37 neutrons
68 68
Zn 18.8% Zn is stable with 38 neutrons
69
Zn syn 56 min β− 0.906 69
Ga
69m
Zn syn 13.76 h β− 0.906 69
Ga
70
Zn 0.6% >1.3×1016 y (β−β−) 0.998 70
Ge
71
Zn syn 2.4 min β− 2.82 71
Ga
71m
Zn syn 3.97 d β− 2.82 71
Ga
72
Zn syn 46.5 h β− 0.458 72
Ga
Decay modes in parentheses are predicted, but have not yet been observed
CHARACTERISTICS
Physical properties
Many alloys contain zinc, including brass, an alloy of copper and zinc. Other
metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc
are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesiu
m, cobalt, nickel, tellurium andsodium.[15] Although neither zinc
nor zirconium are ferromagnetic, their alloy ZrZn
2 exhibits ferromagnetism below 35 K.[10]
A bar of zinc generates a characteristic sound when bent, similar to tin cry.
Occurrence
See also: Zinc minerals
Zinc makes up about 75 ppm (0.0075%) of Earth's crust, making it the 24th most
abundant element. Soil contains 5–770 ppm of zinc with an average of
64 ppm. Seawater has only 30 ppb zinc and the atmosphere contains 0.1–
4 µg/m3.[16]
Sphalerite (ZnS)
The element is normally found in association with other base metals such
as copper andlead in ores.[17] Zinc is a chalcophile, meaning the element has a low
affinity for oxides and prefers to bond with sulfides. Chalcophiles formed as the
crust solidified under the reducingconditions of the early Earth's
atmosphere.[18] Sphalerite, which is a form of zinc sulfide, is the most heavily
mined zinc-containing ore because its concentrate contains 60–62% zinc.[17]
Identified world zinc resources total about 1.9 billion tonnes.[20] Large deposits are
in Australia, Canada and the United States with the largest reserves
in Iran.[18][21][22] At the current rate of consumption, one source has estimated these
reserves could be depleted sometime between 2027 and 2055.[23][24] About 346
million tonnes have been extracted throughout history to 2002, and one estimate
found that about 109 million tonnes of that remains in use.[25]
Reactivity
See also: Clemmensen reduction
Zinc(I) compounds
Zinc(I) compounds are rare, and requires bulky ligands to stabilize the low
oxidation state. Most zinc(I) compounds contains formally the [Zn 2]2+ core, which
is analogous to the [Hg2]2+ dimeric cation present in mercury(I) compounds.
Thediamagnetic nature of the ion confirms its dimeric structure. The first zinc(I)
compound containing the Zn—Zn bond, (η5-C5Me5)2Zn2, is also the
first dimetallocene. The [Zn2]2+ ion rapidly disproportionates into zinc metal and
zinc(II), and has only been obtained as a yellow glass formed by cooling a solution
of metallic zinc in molten ZnCl2.[40]
Zinc acetate
Zinc chloride
Binary compounds of zinc are known for most of themetalloids and all
the nonmetals except the noble gases. The oxide ZnO is a white powder that is
nearly insoluble in neutral aqueous solutions, but is amphoteric, dissolving in both
strong basic and acidic solutions. The otherchalcogenides (ZnS, ZnSe, and ZnTe)
have varied applications in electronics and optics. Pnictogenides(Zn
3N2, Zn3P2, Zn3As2 and Zn3Sb2), theperoxide(ZnO2), the hydride
(ZnH2), and the carbide (ZnC2) are also known. Of the four halides, ZnF2 has the
most ionic character, whereas the others(ZnCl2,ZnBr
2,and ZnI2) have relatively low melting points and are considered to have more
covalent character. In weak basic solutions containing Zn2+
ions,thehydroxide Zn(OH)2 forms as a white precipitate. In stronger alkaline
solutions, this hydroxide is dissolved to form zincates([Zn(OH)4]2−
).Thenitrate Zn(NO32,chlorate Zn(ClO3)
2sulfateZnSO4,phosphate Zn3(PO4)2,molybdate ZnMoO4, cyanide Zn(CN)
2,arsenite Zn(AsO2)2,arsenate Zn(AsO4)2·8H2O and the chromate ZnCrO
4 (one of the few colored zinc compounds) are a few examples of other common
inorganic compounds of zinc.[46][47] One of the simplest examples of an organic
compound of zinc is the acetate (Zn(O
2CCH3)2).Organozinc compounds are those that contain zinc–carbon covalent
bonds.Diethylzinc((C2H5)2Zn) is a reagent in synthetic chemistry. It was first
reported in 1848 from the reaction of zinc and ethyl iodide, and was the first
compound known to contain a metal–carbon sigma bond.[48]
History
Ancient use
Late Roman brass bucket – the HemmoorerEimer from Warstade, Germany,
second to third century AD
Various isolated examples of the use of impure zinc in ancient times have been
discovered. Zinc ores were used to make the zinc–copper alloy brass many
centuries prior to the discovery of zinc as a separate element. Judean brass from the
14th to 10th centuries BC contains 23% zinc.[2]
The oldest known pills were made of the zinc carbonates hydrozincite and
smithsonite. The pills were used for sore eyes and were found aboard the Roman
ship Relitto del Pozzino, which wrecked in 140 BC.[50][51]
The manufacture of brass was known to the Romans by about 30 BC.[52] They
made brass by heating powdered calamine (zinc silicate or carbonate), charcoal
and copper together in a crucible.[52] The resulting calamine brass was then either
cast or hammered into shape for use in weaponry.[53] Some coins struck by Romans
in the Christian era are made of what is probably calamine brass.[54]
Strabo writing in the 1st century BC (but quoting a now lost work of the 4th
century BC historian Theopompus) mentions "drops of false silver" which when
mixed with copper make brass. This may refer to small quantities of zinc that is a
by-product of smelting sulfide ores.[55] Zinc in such remnants in smelting ovens
was usually discarded as it was thought to be worthless.[56]
The Berne zinc tablet is a votive plaque dating to Roman Gaul made of an alloy
that is mostly zinc.[57]
The Charaka Samhita, thought to have been written between 300 and 500
AD,[58] mentions a metal which, when oxidized, produces pushpanjan, thought to
be zinc oxide.[59] Zinc mines at Zawar, near Udaipur in India, have been active
since theMauryan period. The smelting of metallic zinc here, however, appears to
have begun around the 12th century AD.[60][61]One estimate is that this location
produced an estimated million tonnes of metallic zinc and zinc oxide from the 12th
to 16th centuries.[19] Another estimate gives a total production of 60,000 tonnes of
metallic zinc over this period.[60] The Rasaratna Samuccaya, written in
approximately the 13th century AD, mentions two types of zinc-containing ores:
one used for metal extraction and another used for medicinal purposes.[61]
Alchemists burned zinc metal in air and collected the resulting zinc oxide on
acondenser. Some alchemists called this zinc oxide lana philosophica, Latin for
"philosopher's wool", because it collected in wooly tufts, whereas others thought it
looked like white snow and named it nix album.[64]
The name of the metal was probably first documented by Paracelsus, a Swiss-born
German alchemist, who referred to the metal as "zincum" or "zinken" in his
bookLiber Mineralium II, in the 16th century.[63][65] The word is probably derived
from the German zinke, and supposedly meant "tooth-like, pointed or jagged"
(metallic zinc crystals have a needle-like appearance).[66] Zink could also imply
"tin-like" because of its relation to German zinn meaning tin.[67] Yet another
possibility is that the word is derived from the Persian word سنگseng meaning
stone.[68] The metal was also called Indian tin, tutanego, calamine, and spinter.[17]
Isolation
Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is given credit for first isolating pure zinc
The isolation of metallic zinc was achieved in India by 1300 AD, [70][71][72] much
earlier than in the West. Before it was made in Europe, it was imported from India
around 1600 CE.[73]Postlewayt's Universal Dictionary, a contemporary source
giving technological information in Europe, did not mention zinc before 1751 but
the element was studied before then.[61][74]
German chemist Andreas Marggraf normally gets credit for discovering pure
metallic zinc even though Swedish chemist Anton von Swab had distilled zinc
from calamine four years before.[63] In his 1746 experiment, Marggraf heated a
mixture of calamine and charcoal in a closed vessel without copper to obtain a
metal.[56]This procedure became commercially practical by 1752.[77]
Later work
William Champion's brother, John, patented a process in 1758 for calcining zinc
sulfide into an oxide usable in the retort process.[17] Prior to this, only calamine
could be used to produce zinc. In 1798, Johann Christian Ruberg improved on the
smelting process by building the first horizontal retort smelter.[78] Jean-Jacques
Daniel Dony built a different kind of horizontal zinc smelter in Belgium, which
processed even more zinc.[63] Italian doctorLuigi Galvani discovered in 1780 that
connecting the spinal cord of a freshly dissected frog to an iron rail attached by a
brass hook caused the frog's leg to twitch.[79] He incorrectly thought he had
discovered an ability of nerves and muscles to create electricity and called the
effect "animal electricity".[80] The galvanic cell and the process of galvanization
were both named for Luigi Galvani and these discoveries paved the way
for electrical batteries, galvanization and cathodic protection.[80]Galvani's
friend, Alessandro Volta, continued researching this effect and invented theVoltaic
pile in 1800.[79] The basic unit of Volta's pile was a simplified galvanic cell, which
is made of a plate of copper and a plate of zinc connected to each other externally
and separated by an electrolyte. These were stacked in series to make the Voltaic
cell, which in turn produced electricity by directing electrons from the zinc to the
copper and allowing the zinc to corrode.[79] The non-magnetic character of zinc and
its lack of color in solution delayed discovery of its importance to biochemistry
and nutrition.[81] This changed in 1940 when carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme that
scrubs carbon dioxide from blood, was shown to have zinc in its active site.[81] The
digestive enzyme carboxypeptidase became the second known zinc-containing
enzyme in 1955.[81] Production[edit]
1 China 5,000,000
2 Australia 1,500,000
3 Peru 1,300,000
4 India 820,000
5 United States 700,000
6 Mexico 700,000
Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use, trailing only iron, aluminium, and
copper with an annual production of about 13 million tonnes.[20] The world's
largest zinc producer is Nyrstar, a merger of the Australian OZ Minerals and the
Belgian Umicore.[83] About 70% of the world's zinc originates from mining,
whereas the remaining 30% comes from recycling secondary zinc.[84]Commercially
pure zinc is known as Special High Grade, often abbreviated SHG, and is 99.995%
pure.[85]
Worldwide, 95% of the zinc is mined from sulfidic ore deposits, in which
sphalerite ZnS is nearly always mixed with the sulfides of copper, lead and
iron.[86] There are zinc mines throughout the world, with the main mining areas
being China, Australia and Peru. China produced 38% of the global zinc output in
2014.[20]
Zinc metal is produced using extractive metallurgy.[87] After grinding the ore, froth
flotation, which selectively separates minerals from gangue by taking advantage of
differences in their hydrophobicity, is used to get an ore concentrate.[87] This
concentrate consists of about 50% zinc with the rest being sulfur (32%), iron
(13%), and SiO
2 (5%).[87] The composition of this is normally zinc sulfide (80% to 85%), iron
sulfide (7.0% to 12%), lead sulfide(3.0% to 5.0%) silica (2.5% to 3.5%),
and cadmium sulfide (0.35% to 0.41%).Roasting converts the zinc sulfide
concentrate produced during processing to zinc oxide:[86] 2 ZnS + 3 O
2 →2ZnO2 SO2 The sulfur dioxide is used for the production of sulfuric acid,
which is necessary for the leaching process. If deposits of zinc carbonate, zinc
silicate or zinc spinel, like the Skorpion Deposit in Namibia are used for zinc
production the roasting can be omitted.[88] For further processing two basic
methods are used: pyrometallurgy or electrowinning. Pyrometallurgy processing
reduces zinc oxide with carbon or carbon monoxide at 950 °C (1,740 °F) into the
metal, which is distilled as zinc vapor.[89] The zinc vapor is collected in a
condenser.[86] The below set of equations demonstrate this process:[86] This allows
it to be separated from the other metallic impurities which are involatile.
2ZnO+C→2Z+ CO2ZnO+CO→Zn+ CO2
In electrowinning, zinc is leached from the ore concentrate by sulfuric acid:[90]
Zinc present in electric arc furnace dusts due to use of galvanised feedstock is
recovered by a number of processes, predominately the Waelz process (90% as of
2014).[91]
Environmental impact
The production for sulfidic zinc ores produces large amounts of sulfur dioxide
and cadmium vapor. Smelter slag and other residues of process also contain
significant amounts of heavy metals. About 1.1 million tonnes of metallic zinc and
130 thousand tonnes of lead were mined and smelted in the Belgian towns of La
Calamine and Plombières between 1806 and 1882.[92] The dumps of the past
mining operations leach significant amounts of zinc and cadmium, and, as a result,
the sediments of the Geul River contain significant amounts of heavy
metals.[92] About two thousand years ago emissions of zinc from mining and
smelting totaled 10 thousand tonnes a year. After increasing 10-fold from 1850,
zinc emissions peaked at 3.4 million tonnes per year in the 1980s and declined to
2.7 million tonnes in the 1990s, although a 2005 study of the Arctic troposphere
found that the concentrations there did not reflect the decline. Anthropogenic and
natural emissions occur at a ratio of 20 to 1.[93]
Levels of zinc in rivers flowing through industrial or mining areas can be as high
as 20 ppm.[94] Effective sewage treatmentgreatly reduces this; treatment along
the Rhine, for example, has decreased zinc levels to 50 ppb.[94] Concentrations of
zinc as low as 2 ppm adversely affects the amount of oxygen that fish can carry in
their blood.[95]
Historically responsible for high heavy metal levels in the Derwent River,[96] the
zinc works at Lutana is the largest exporter in Tasmania, generating 2.5% of the
state's GDP, and producing over 250 thousand tonnes of zinc per year.[97]
Soils contaminated with zinc through the mining of zinc-containing ores, refining,
or where zinc-containing sludge is used as fertilizer, can contain several grams of
zinc per kilogram of dry soil. Levels of zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interfere
with the ability of plants to absorb other essential metals, such as iron
and manganese. Zinc levels of 2000 ppm to 180,000 ppm (18%) have been
recorded in some soil samples.[94]
Applications
Major applications of zinc include (numbers are given for the US)[98]
1. Galvanizing (55%)
2. Alloys (21%)
3. Brass and bronze (16%)
4. Miscellaneous (8%)
Zinc is more reactive than iron or steel and thus will attract almost all local
oxidation until it completely corrodes away.[100] A protective surface layer of
oxideandcarbonate(Zn5(OH)6(CO3)2) forms as the zinc corrodes.[101] This
protection lasts even after the zinc layer is scratched but degrades through time as
the zinc corrodes away.[101] The zinc is applied electrochemically or as molten zinc
by hot-dip galvanizing or spraying. Galvanization is used on chain-link fencing,
guard rails, suspension bridges, lightposts, metal roofs, heat exchangers, and car
bodies.[16]
The relative reactivity of zinc and its ability to attract oxidation to itself makes it an
efficient sacrificial anode in cathodic protection (CP). For example, cathodic
protection of a buried pipeline can be achieved by connecting anodes made from
zinc to the pipe.[101] Zinc acts as the anode (negative terminus) by slowly corroding
away as it passes electric current to the steel pipeline.[101][note 2] Zinc is also used to
cathodically protect metals that are exposed to sea water from corrosion.[102] A zinc
disc attached to a ship's iron rudder will slowly corrode, whereas the rudder stays
unattacked.[100] Other similar uses include a plug of zinc attached to a propeller or
the metal protective guard for the keel of the ship.
With a standard electrode potential (SEP) of −0.76 volts, zinc is used as an anode
material for batteries. (More reactive lithium (SEP −3.04 V) is used for anodes
in lithium batteries ). Powdered zinc is used in this way in alkaline batteries and
sheets of zinc metal form the cases for and act as anodes in zinc–carbon
batteries.[103][104] Zinc is used as the anode or fuel of the zinc-air battery/fuel
cell.[105][106][107] The zinc-cerium redox flow battery also relies on a zinc-based
negative half-cell.[108]
Alloys
A widely used alloy that contains zinc is brass, in which copper is alloyed with
anywhere from 3% to 45% zinc, depending upon the type of brass.[101] Brass is
generally more ductile and stronger than copper and has superior corrosion
resistance.[101] These properties make it useful in communication equipment,
hardware, musical instruments, and water valves.[101]
Other widely used alloys that contain zinc include nickel silver, typewriter metal,
soft and aluminium solder, and commercial bronze.[10] Zinc is also used in
contemporary pipe organs as a substitute for the traditional lead/tin alloy in
pipes.[109] Alloys of 85–88% zinc, 4–10% copper, and 2–8% aluminium find
limited use in certain types of machine bearings. Zinc is the primary metal used in
making American one cent coins since 1982.[110] The zinc core is coated with a thin
layer of copper to give the impression of a copper coin. In 1994, 33,200 tonnes
(36,600 short tons) of zinc were used to produce 13.6 billion pennies in the United
States.[111]
Alloys of primarily zinc with small amounts of copper, aluminium, and magnesium
are useful in die casting as well as spin casting, especially in the automotive,
electrical, and hardware industries.[10] These alloys are marketed under the
nameZamak.[112] An example of this is zinc aluminium. The low melting point
together with the low viscosity of the alloy makes the production of small and
intricate shapes possible. The low working temperature leads to rapid cooling of
the cast products and therefore fast assembly is possible.[10][113] Another alloy,
marketed under the brand name Prestal, contains 78% zinc and 22% aluminium
and is reported to be nearly as strong as steel but as malleable as
plastic.[10][114] Thissuperplasticity of the alloy allows it to be molded using die casts
made of ceramics and cement.[10]
Similar alloys with the addition of a small amount of lead can be cold-rolled into
sheets. An alloy of 96% zinc and 4% aluminium is used to make stamping dies for
low production run applications for which ferrous metal dies would be too
expensive.[115] In building facades, roofs or other applications in which zinc is used
as sheet metal and for methods such asdeep drawing, roll forming or bending, zinc
alloys with titanium and copper are used.[116] Unalloyed zinc is too brittle for these
kinds of manufacturing processes.[116]
As a dense, inexpensive, easily worked material, zinc is used as
a lead replacement. In the wake of lead concerns, zinc appears in weights for
various applications ranging from fishing[117] to tire balances and flywheels.[118]
Cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) is a semiconductive alloy that can be divided into
an array of small sensing devices.[119]These devices are similar to an integrated
circuit and can detect the energy of incoming gamma ray photons.[119] When placed
behind an absorbing mask, the CZT sensor array can also be used to determine the
direction of the rays.[119]
Roughly one quarter of all zinc output in the United States (2009), is consumed in
the form of zinc compounds;[98] a variety of which are used industrially. Zinc oxide
is widely used as a white pigment in paints, and as a catalyst in the manufacture of
rubber. It is also used as a heat disperser for the rubber and acts to protect its
polymers from ultraviolet radiation (the same UV protection is conferred to
plastics containing zinc oxide).[16] The semiconductor properties of zinc oxide
make it useful in varistors and photocopying products.[120] The zinc zinc-oxide
cycle is a two stepthermochemical process based on zinc and zinc oxide
for hydrogen production.[121]
Zinc chloride is often added to lumber as a fire retardant[122] and can be used as a
wood preservative.[123] It is also used to make other chemicals.[122] Zinc
methyl(Zn(CH3)
2) is used in a number of organic syntheses.[124] Zinc sulfide (ZnS) is used
in luminescent pigments such as on the hands of clocks, X-ray and television
screens, and luminous paints.[125] Crystals of ZnS are used in lasers that operate in
the mid-infrared part of the spectrum.[126] Zinc sulfate is a chemical in dyes and
pigments.[122] Zinc pyrithione is used in antifouling paints.[127]
Dietary supplement
Zinc deficiency has been associated with major depressive disorder (MDD), and
zinc supplements may be an effective treatment.[138]
Zinc serves as a simple, inexpensive, and critical tool for treating diarrheal
episodes among children in the developing world. Zinc becomes depleted in the
body during diarrhea, but recent studies suggest that replenishing zinc with a 10- to
14-day course of treatment can reduce the duration and severity of diarrheal
episodes and may also prevent future episodes for up to three months.[139]
Zinc gluconate is one compound used for the delivery of zinc as a dietary
supplement.
The Age-Related Eye Disease Study determined that zinc can be part of an
effective treatment forage-related macular degeneration.[140] Zinc supplementation
is an effective treatment for acrodermatitis enteropathica, a genetic disorder
affecting zinc absorption that was previously fatal to babies born with it.[52]
The most positive results for using zinc lozenges have been found in studies in
which zinc acetate was used, apparently because acetate does not bind zinc
ions.[146][147]
Topical use
Further information: Zinc oxide § Medicine
Topical administration of zinc preparations include one used on the skin, often in
the form of zinc oxide. Zinc preparations can protect against sunburn in the
summer and windburn in the winter.[52] Applied thinly to a baby's diaper area
(perineum) with each diaper change, it can protect against diaper rash.[52]
Organic chemistry
Addition of diphenylzinc to an aldehyde
1. Nickel
2. Chromium
3. Yttrium oxide
4. black oxide
5. zinc
TYPE OF COATING
1. Pvd coating
2. Cvd coating
These PVD processes differ with respect to the type of evaporation of the
metallic components and the plasma conditions employed during the deposition
process. The transition of the metallic component (to be deposited) from a solid to
a vapor phase (in which metal atoms are ionized in different ways) may be
performed by heating of an evaporation source (as in cathodic arc) or by sputtering
of a target (as in magnetron sputtering). Cathodic arc and magnetron sputtering
techniques allow evaporation of metals with different melting points such as Ti and
Al from a Ti–Al alloy cathode/target.
The PVD arc evaporation process employs higher energy input than the
PVD sputtering process. In the case of arc evaporation, a small limited cathodic
area is evaporated with a very high energy arc that quickly moves over a spot on
the metal surface to be evaporated. The plasma generated consists of highly
ionized metal vapor. In the case of sputtering, atoms are ejected mechanically from
a target by the impact of ions or energetic neutral atoms.
The high micro-hardness provides excellent abrasion resistance, and allows
the cutting edge to stay sharper for longer
The lowered Coefficient of Friction means there is less resistance during the
cut; therefore, less heat is generated heat build-up being another major factor
in cutting edge break down
The lowered Coefficient of Friction also means the chips generated during
the cutting process are evacuated more efficiently; therefore, the heat that is
generated does not have as much time to transfer from the chip to the tool –
more heat stays in the chip
The lowered Coefficient of Friction will reduce machining noise and the
load placed on spindle motors
The lack of chemical affinity between various coatings and work pieces will
reduce material “pick-up,” another leading cause of cutting edge
breakdown. For example, when cutting titanium with a ZrN coated end mill,
the titanium has no chemical affinity towards ZrN; therefore, you will
experience almost no “pick-up.”
The lowered Coefficient of Friction creates a free-cutting tool – this may
reduce or eliminate burrs and help to improve the surface finish or machined
parts.
Chemical vapour deposition or CVD is a generic name for a group of processes
that involve depositing a solid material from a gaseous phase and is similar in
some respects to physical vapour deposition (PVD).PVD differs in that the
precursors are solid, with the material to be deposited being vaporised from a solid
target and deposited onto the substrate.
CVD WORK
Precursor gases (often diluted in carrier gases) are delivered into the reaction
chamber at approximately ambient temperatures. As they pass over or come into
contact with a heated substrate, they react or decompose forming a solid phase
which and are deposited onto the substrate. The substrate temperature is critical
and can influence what reactions will take place.
Coating Characteristics
Fine grained
Impervious
High purity
Harder than similar materials produced using conventional ceramic
fabrication processes
CVD coatings are usually only a few microns thick and are generally deposited at
fairly slow rates, usually of the order of a few hundred microns per hour.
CVD APPARATUS
Gas delivery system – For the supply of precursors to the reactor chamber
Reactor chamber – Chamber within which deposition takes place Substrate
loading mechanism A system for introducing and removing substrates,
mandrels etc
Energy source – Provide the energy/heat that is required to get the
precursors to react/decompose.
Vacuum system – A system for removal of all other gaseous species other
than those required for the reaction/deposition.
Exhaust system – System for removal of volatile by-products from the
reaction chamber.
Exhaust treatment systems – In some instances, exhaust gases may not be
suitable for release into the atmosphere and may require treatment or
conversion to safe/harmless compounds.
Process control equipment Gauges, controls etc to monitor process parameters such
as pressure, temperature and time. Alarms and safety devices would also be
included in this category.
Energy Sources
There are several suitable sources of heat for CVD processes. These include:
Resistive Heating e.g. tube furnaces
Radiant Heating e.g. halogen lamps
Radio Frequency Heating e.g. induction heating
Lasers other energy sources may include UV-visible light or lasers as a
source of photo energy.
CVD is an extremely versatile process that can be used to process almost any
metallic or ceramic compound. Some of these include:
Elements
Metals and alloys
Carbides
Nitrides
Borides
Oxides
Inter metallic compounds
SELECTION OF CAMSHAFT
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
When a tree falls on a saw, there is rarely any doubt what happened, but when the
engine fails, it is sometimes difficult for pro users to understand what has occurred
and why. The following images of damaged pistons illustrate what can happen
inside a saw's engine.
FATIGUE FAILURE
The camshaft above shows the most common severe piston damage we see - the
exhaust side has damage caused from excess heat. This damage looks similar to
camshaft damage caused by running straight gas shown in the first image, but with
this piston, conditions under the camshaft looked normal. This kind of damage can
be caused by over-revving the saw, running the carburetor adjustment too lean, by
ignoring an air leak in the saw's engine, or a combination of factors. The best way
to avoid a such a seizure is to use good quality fuel and mix oil, avoid over-revving
the engine, and always stop running a saw that shows signs of a potential air leak.
This kind of damage can also be caused by a partially plugged fuel filter, which is
another reason fuel filters should be replaced regularly.
SELECTION OF COATING MATERIALS
NICKEL COATINGS
However, the target composition, substrate temperature, bias voltage, gas flow and
ion bombardment rates are most important parameters in case of CAE process.
Whereas magnetron Power, ion current density, substrate bias, gas pressure, target
composition and substrate temperature were found to be most influential
parameters in the case of magnetron sputter deposition. These parameters directly
affect the mechanical, tribological, structural and thermo-oxidation properties of
coating. The choice of base material also plays an important role for actual
industrial application. Various industrial tools and dies were used to deposit
various coatings such as TiN, TiCN, TiC, (Ti,Al)N, black oxide and etc. cermets
and high speed steels are the most common tool materials used in industries for
various types of machining operations, namely drilling, metal cutting, milling and
turning. The process involved four steps:
Evaporation
Transportation
Reaction
Deposition
Evaporation
Transport
This process simply consists of the movement of ‘vaporized’ atoms from the target
to the substrate to be coated and will generally be a straight line affair.
Reaction
In some cases coatings will consist of metal oxides, nitrides, carbides and other
such materials. In these cases, the target will consist of the metal. The atoms of
metal will then react with the appropriate gas during the transport stage. For the
above examples, the reactive gases may be oxygen, nitrogen and methane. In
instances where the coating consists of the target material alone, this step would
not be part of the process.
Deposition
This is the process of coating build up on the substrate surface. Depending on the
actual process, some reactions between target materials and the reactive gases may
also take place at the substrate surface simultaneously with the deposition process.
PVD USES
PVD coatings are deposited for numerous reasons. Some of the main ones are: