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Sport Participation Constraints of Malaysian

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Article in International Journal of the Humanities · February 2007

DOI: 10.18848/1447-9508/CGP/v05i03/42043

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 The International
Journal
the HUMANITIES

Volume 5, Number 3

Sport Participation Constraints of Malaysian

University Students

Aminuddin Yusof and Parilah M. Shah

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in ORGANISATIONS,
COMMUNITIES
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Sport Participation Constraints of Malaysian University Students
Aminuddin Yusof, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
Parilah M. Shah, National University of Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to examine the reasons that keep Malaysian university students from participating
in sport activities during their leisure time. The three-dimensional leisure constraints model was used as the theoretical
framework for the study. The sample consisted of 303 students from University Putra Malaysia using survey instruments
based on Crawford and Godbey’s (1987) Leisure Constraints Model. The instrument is designed to measure three types of
constraints to sport participation: (1) structural, (2) interpersonal and (3) intrapersonal. Data were analyzed by descriptive
statistics, t-tests and ANOVA. The results suggest the subjects were constrained most by structural factors such as lack of
information about existing sport activities and facilities, inconvenient facility location and inconvenient facility operating
hours. Female students experienced higher levels of structural and intrapersonal constraints than their male counterparts.
Implications of the findings for sport administrators were given to overcome some constraints, and increase student’s par-
ticipation in sport activities.

Keywords: Leisure Constraint Model, Sport Participation Constraints, Physical Activity

Introduction Jackson and Godbey (1991), the model categorized

leisure constraints to three different levels: (1)
PERSON MAY choose to participate in

A sporting activities on the basis of that per-

son’s interests and the type of activity that
is available. Factors such as cultural, health,
fitness, psychological and social experiences have
been suggested as influencing a person’s sport parti-
cipation behaviours (Coakley, 1998; Dunn, 1998; &
Salman, 1997). The reasons for not participating in
sport have also been studied. Although lack of time
was found to be a major factor cited for not particip-
ating in sport, Wankel (1988) argued that it does not
mean that people who participate have more time
available than others. Many consider having no time
as a lame excuse for not participating as participation
depends on the priority one gives to physical activity.
Another major factor inhibiting exercise participation
is the pressure of work. This was found in the Canada
Fitness Survey (1983) which reported work pressure
as the main factor inhibiting subjects over 20 years
of age from participating in sport activities. Others
such as Biddle (1995) and Boothby (1981) have
identified lack of interest, lack of facilities and
physical problems as the reasons for non-participa-
tion in sport activities.
One conceptual framework that may help under-
stand why individuals do not participate in sport
activities is leisure constraints theory. Researchers
have studied extensively the barriers to participation
in a variety of leisure activities, but no studies have
explored the usefulness of this theory within the
sports context. Originally proposed by Crawford and
Godbey (1987) and later elaborated by Crawford,
structural, (2) interpersonal and (3) intrapersonal.
The constraints are sequentially ordered and the first
level of constraints faced by an individual is intraper-
sonal constraints. These constraints are due to indi-
vidual psychological states and attributes such as
stress, depression, anxiety, religiosity, kin reference
group, attitudes and perceived self-skill. The next
stage, interpersonal constraints, occurs as a result of
interaction or the relationship between individuals’
characteristics. An example of this type of constraint
is the inability in finding a suitable partner to play
badminton or tennis. Once interpersonal barriers
have been overcome, an individual may face struc-
tural constraints, such as lack of facilities, equipment,
time, money and information.
Sport administrators will certainly be interested
in investigating whether the model conceptualized
by Crawford and Godbey (1987) can be used to ex-
plain non-participation in sport activities. The ability
to identify, explain and predict non-participation in
sport is important especially in Malaysia considering
that the country has spent millions of dollars building
modern sport facilities and organizing programs to
encourage people to participate in sport and over-
come their sedentary behaviours. Example of such
programs include the Malaysia Cergas (Active
Malaysia) programs targeted for the mass public and
Rakan Muda (Young Friends) programs aimed at
encouraging youth to spend their leisure time in sport
and recreational activities. At the university level,
various intramural and co-curricular activities have

THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE HUMANITIES,

VOLUME 5, NUMBER 3, 2007
http://www.Humanities-Journal.com, ISSN 1447-9508
© Common Ground, Aminuddin Yusof, Parilah M. Shah, All Rights Reserved, Permissions: cg-support@commongroundpublishing.com
190 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE HUMANITIES, VOLUME 5

also been organized to encourage students to parti- Sample

cipate in sport activities during their leisure time. It
has been frequently reported that these programs
have received poor response in terms of participation
despite the numerous publicity and amount of money
spent on these programs. By recognising structural,
interpersonal and intrapersonal constraints to sport
participation in Malaysia, administrators would be
able to design better programs to persuade people to
participate in sport. Thus, the purpose of this study
was to examine the reasons given by students for not
participating in sport during their leisure time at
University Putra Malaysia. The following research
questions were formulated in this study:
What are the factors which prevent students from
participating in sport activities at University Putra
Malaysia?
Are there differences in terms of sport participa-
tion constraints perceived by students from different
gender, academic programs, and ethnicity?
Data were collected using convenient sampling pro-
cedures from 303 university students from the Fac-
ulty of Education, University Putra Malaysia. Table
1 describes the characteristics of the subjects. The
subjects were selected from the following academic
programs: (1) Physical Education (n=25, 8.3%), (2)
Agriculture Education (n=2, 0.7%), (3) Teaching of
Malay Language (n=94, 31.05%), (4) Teaching of
English (n=17, 5.6%), (5) Counseling (n=2, 0.7%),
(6) Music Education (n=4, 1.3%), (7) Science Edu-
cation (n=96, 31.7%), (8) Teaching of Accounting
(n=52, 17.2%) and (9) Home Science (n=5, 1.7%).
In terms of gender, the subjects consisted of 264 fe-
males (87.1%) and 37 males (12.9%). The age range
of the sample was 19-38 years old with a mean age
of 21.63 years. With respect to ethnicity, the majority
of the subjects (n=250, 82.5%) were Malays while
there were 34 Chinese (11.2%), 7 Indian (2.4%) and
12 students from other racial groups (3.9%).

Table 1: Characteristics of Subjects

Gender
Male 39 12.9%
Female 264 87.1%
Ethnicity
Malays 250 82.5%
Chinese 34 11.2%
Indian 7 2.4%
Others 12 3.9%
Programs
Malay Language 94 31.0%
Teaching of English 17 5.6%
Counseling 2 0.7%
Music Education 4 1.3%
Science Education 96 31.7%
Accounting Education 52 17.2%
Home Science 5 1.7%
Physical Education 25 8.3%
Agriculture Education 8 2.7%
Mean Std Dev Min Max
Age 21.63 1.92 19 38

Instrument measure the subjects’ perception of sport participa-

Subjects’ constraints for participation in sport activ-
ities were measured through the use of survey instru-
ments developed by Raymore, Godbey, Crawford &
Von Eye (1993). A modified version of the original
instrument was translated into Malay language to
tion constraints. Subjects were asked to indicate how
strongly they agreed or disagreed with each question
item based on a five-point Likert scale in which 1
represented strongly disagree and 5 strongly agree.
The subjects were also required to respond to ques-
tion items pertaining to demographic information
 AMINUDDIN YUSOF, PARILAH M. SHAH 191

such as age, gender, time spend (per week) particip-
ating in sport, ethnicity, academic standing and aca-
demic programs.
Results
Descriptive analysis (frequencies, mean, mode and
standard deviation) was performed on the subjects’
responses on each question item. The purpose of this
analysis was to determine the order of the subjects’
responses in terms of ranking from highest to lowest,
according to the mean scores on each question item.
Table 2 reports the results of this analysis.

Table 2: Reasons for Nonparticipation by Rank and Mean

Rank Item Mean
1 Q13 Lack of information about existing facilities and activities 3.63
2 Q1 Facility location inconvenient 3.62
3 Q14 Facility operating hours inconvenient 3.61
4 Q6 Facility too crowded 3.38
5 Q9 Lack of personal transportation – no car/motorcycle 3.28
6 Q7 Lack of friends with the time to participate in sport 3.18
7 Q17 Feel awkward participating in sport 2.82
8 Q11 Lack of public transportation 2.80
9 Q16 People that can play sport live too far away 2.75
10 Q15 Don’t have friends with enough skills to play sport 2.64
11 Q10 Lack of money to participate in sport 2.48
12 Q4 Lack of skill – don’t know how to do activity 2.32
13 Q8 Friends don’t have money to participate in sport 2.25
14 Q2 Too shy to do activity 2.21
15 Q18 Sport makes me feel uncomfortable 2.21
16 Q12 Family discourages participation in sport activity 1.98
17 Q3 Activity not conducted according to religious beliefs 1.93
18 Q5 Friends disapprove participation in sporting activity 1.90

An examination of the results revealed the three
question items with the highest means were lack of
information about existing facilities and activities
(M=3.63), facility location inconvenient (M=3.62)
and facility operating hours inconvenient (M=3.61).
Crawford and Godbey (1987) classified these items
as structural constraints and the results suggest the
subjects are constrained most by the lack of inform-
ation with respect to the types of sport activities
available on campus, the lack of information regard-
ing the facilities which offer these activities and the
inconvenient location and operating hours of these
facilities. On the other hand, question items associ-
ated with intrapersonal constraints had the lowest
means such as friends disapprove participation in
sporting activity (M=1.90), activity not conducted
according to religious beliefs (M=1.93) and family
discourages participation in sport activity (M=1.98).
The results suggest the subjects in this study were
constrained most by structural factors and least by
intrapersonal factors.
One-way ANOVA and T-tests were used to test dif-
ferences in terms of sport participation constraints
perceived by students from different gender, academ-
ic programs, and ethnicity. For the three dimensions,
the results (table 3) showed significant differences
among the academic programs for structural con-
straints (F = 11.09, p<0.05) and intrapersonal con-
straints (F = 4.18, p<0.05). The results showed no
significant differences among academic programs
with respect to interpersonal constraints. Post hoc
tests (Student Newman Keuls) as shown in table 4
indicates that Physical Education students (M=16.95)
differed significantly from Science (M=22.48), Ac-
counting (M=23.67), English (M=23.93), Home
Science (M=24.0), Malay Language (M=24.31) and
Agriculture (M=26.5) students in terms of the scores
on the structural constraints questions items. In other
words, Physical Education students reported the least
structural constraints while Science, Accounting,
English, Home Science and Malay Language students
reported experiencing the most constraints in terms
192 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE HUMANITIES, VOLUME 5

of structure. For intrapersonal constraints, Table 4 Science (M=18.2) students. The results suggest that
shows that Physical Education (M=11.80) differed Physical Education students reported the least in-
significantly from Malay Language (M=15.22), trapersonal barriers to sport participation while Home
Science (M=16.26), Accounting (M=16.3) and Home Science students experienced the most constraints.

Table 3: Analysis of Variance for Sport Participation Constraints among Different Academic Programs
Factor Source SS df MS F
Structural Between groups 1284.77 8 160.59 11.09*
Within groups 4125.78 285 14.47
Total 5410.55 293
Interpersonal Between groups 89.42 8 11.17 1.53
Within groups 2096.75 288 7.28
Total 2186.18 296
Intrapersonal Between groups 561.61 8 70.20 4.18*
Within groups 4779.41 285 16.76
Total 5341.02 293
* p < 0.05

Table 4: Student-Newman-Keuls Post-hoc Comparisons for Sport Participation Constraints among

Different Academic Programs
Factor Program Program Mean Difference
Structural Physical Education Music 0.05
Counselling 3.15
Science 5.53*
Accounting 6.72*
English 6.98*
Home Science 7.05*
Malay Language 7.36*
Agriculture 9.55*
Intrapersonal Physical Education Music 0.70
Counselling 0.20
Science 4.46*
Accounting 4.50*
English 2.55
Home Science 6.40*
Malay Language 3.42*
Agriculture 5.70
* p < 0.05

Comparisons between racial groups on structural,
interpersonal and intrapersonal constraints were done
by performing one-way ANOVA as shown in Table
5. The results suggest that there were no significant
differences between the four racial groups in the
three sport participation constraints. T-tests were
performed to compare whether male and female
students differed in terms of structural, interpersonal
and intrapersonal constraints as depicted in Table 6.
Significant differences were found in two factors –
structural t (303) = -6.06, p < 0.05 and intrapersonal
t (303) = -7.00, p < 0.05. The results suggest that
female students experienced higher structural and
intrapersonal constraints to sport participation than
their male counterparts.
 AMINUDDIN YUSOF, PARILAH M. SHAH 193

Table 5: Analysis of Variance for Sport Participation Constraints among Different Ethnic Groups
Factor Source SS df MS Fine
Structural Between groups 20.97 3 6.99 0.37
Within groups 5491.90 295 18.61
Total 5512.88 298
Interpersonal Between groups 24.01 3 8.00 1.09
Within groups 2184.84 298 7.33
Total 2208.86 301
Intrapersonal Between groups 81.84 3 27.28 1.52
Within groups 5288.44 295 17.92
Total 5370.29 298
*p < 0.05

Table 6: Independent Samples t-test for Sport Participation Constraints between Male and Female
Students
Factor Group M SD N Mean Difference T
Structural Male 18.92 4.34 39 4.48 -6.06*
Female 23.40 3.97 261
Interpersonal Male 10.23 2.48 39 0.68 -1.58
Female 10.91 2.74 264
Intrapersonal Male 11.94 3.14 39 3.96 -7.00*
Female 15.90 4.14 261
*p < 0.05

Discussion and Conclusion It was suggested by Crawford and Godbey’s

The objective of this study was to identify the factors
which inhibit students at Universiti Putra Malaysia
(UPM) from participating in sports activities during
their leisure time. The findings suggest there are
differences in terms of structural and intrapersonal
constraints experienced by students from different
academic programs and between males and females
students. Specifically, in this study Physical Educa-
tion majors reported fewer and weaker structural and
intrapersonal constraints compared with students
from other programs. Physical Education students
are required to take skill activity classes as part of
the course requirements and may continue particip-
ating in sport activities during their leisure time.
While Physical Education students are familiar with
the types, location and operating hours of sport facil-
ities and have a greater knowledge about the types
of sport programs available on campus, what appears
to be restraining students from other programs are
the lack of information regarding the facilities which
offer sports activities, inconvenient location and op-
erating hours of these facilities, lack of transportation
and facilities too crowded. The present findings
suggest that the process by which an individual par-
ticipates in an activity or experiences constraints
which prevent this from occurring may be moderated
by previous exposure to an activity.
(1987) Leisure Constraints Model that people have
to overcome intrapersonal constraints in order to gain
a leisure preference and those who have successfully
negotiated intrapersonal constraints will move along
the hierarchy to confront structural constraints. Given
the findings of this study, students need to overcome
intrapersonal constraints prior to confronting struc-
tural constraints. The university may wish to consider
education programs that portray the positive benefits
of sports participation. Such an education program
if combined with counseling and awareness programs
may assist in overcoming intrapersonal barriers to
sports participation. To overcome structural con-
straints, the university as the agency sponsoring
sports activities may wish to consider providing
enough information to students (especially non-
Physical Education majors and female students) re-
garding the types of activities available on campus,
the location of facilities where sport activities are
being organised, and the operating hours of these
facilities. Messages and information could be sent
to students to promote and publicize sports activities
on campus by using : (1) the internet through the
university’s and sports unit’s web pages, (2) display
media such as bulletin boards, exhibits, posters and
signs, (3) printed media such as campus newspapers,
student newsletters, brochures and fliers, and (4)
194 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE HUMANITIES, VOLUME 5

presentation of information concerning a specific In Malaysian society, cultural upbringing has

program or activity to groups of students.
It is also recommended that the university conduct
an assessment of the needs and wants of students to
overcome barriers to sports participation. Unfortu-
nately in Malaysia, many universities and sport
sponsoring agency developed sport programs without
ever having gathered a needs assessment. Most pro-
grams were offered out of convenience rather than
based on the real needs, interests and wants of the
constituents. The university may wish to consider
using activity records to identify genders of users,
facility usage patterns, age and ethnicity of users.
Evaluation and feedback forms may also be used to
identify problems faced by user, identify student’s
interests, generate new program ideas, justify need
for new facilities and equipment, justify staffing re-
quirements and identify support services such as
transportation, parking, and security services.
The results of this study suggest gender may be a
critical variable which influences sport participation
and non-participation. In contrast to males, the
present study suggests females reported a stronger
intensity of structural and intrapersonal constraints.
This finding suggests that different strategies should
be implemented for female students in order to in-
crease their participation in sport. One factor which
may inhibit females’ participation in sport may be
due to differences in terms of access to resources
and freedom to use them between males and females
in Malaysia. For female students, they are less likely
to have access to personal transportation such as
automobiles and motorcycles and this may be a major
obstacle for them to participate in sport activities
which involve travel. Because of safety concerns,
female students are also less likely to participate in
activities held at night or late evening where they
are more likely to be subjected to harassment and
ridicule if they enter a gymnasium or swimming pool
alone at night.
taught females that a wide variety of activities are
not appropriate for them and some of these activities
may include sports. As with any other culture, it is
difficult to change deeply ingrained beliefs, but the
university may be advised to encourage female par-
ticipation in sport by promoting the positive aspects
of sports participation. Unfortunately in Malaysia,
many universities and schools have traditionally
spent more money supporting sport activities for
males and organize sport activities which do not re-
cognize females’ special needs and wants, thus
making female participation more unlikely. For ex-
ample, many sport facilities are managed by males
and the design and management of these facilities is
based on the desires of males. The university may
also wish to take steps to provide equal opportunities
for males and females with regard to access to sport
activities. These steps include (1) offering more
programs and activities for female students, (2) in-
creasing funding for female sport activities, (3) con-
ducting a needs assessment of female students, and
(4) hiring more female coaches, managers and in-
structors.
The findings of this study have confirmed the
usefulness of the Leisure Constraints Model in
identifying, explaining and predicting non-participa-
tion in sport activities. While the results reported
here relate only to students at UPM, rather than in
other universities in Malaysia, it raises some interest-
ing challenges for other universities and public sports
agencies in Malaysia to increase the levels of sports
participation among their respective populations. In
terms of future research, it is recommended that an
extended program of research be conducted to other
segments of the population in Malaysia. This would
enable Malaysian sports administrators to gain a
better understanding of the constraints to sports par-
ticipation of different segments and consequently
allow for better sports programs to be developed.

References
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(edited by S.J. Biddle), pp. 3-25. Leeds : Human Kinetics Europe.
Boothby, J. (1981). Ceasing participation in sports activity. Journal of Leisure Research, 13, 1-14.
Canada Fitness Survey (1983). Canada Youth and Physical Activity. Ottawa, Ontario : Author.
Coakley, J.J.(1998). Sport in society : Issues and controversies. Boston, MA : Irwin McGraw-Hill.
Crawford, D., & Godbey, G. (1987). Reconceptualizing barriers to family recreation. Leisure Sciences, 9 (3), 119-127.
Crawford, D., Jackson, E., & & Godbey, G.(1991). A hierarchical model of leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 13, 309-
320.
Dunn, A.L. (1998). Six-month physical activity and fitness change in project active : A randomised trial. Medicine & Science
in Sport & Exercise, 30, 1076-1083.
Raymore, L., Godbey, G., Crawford, D., & Von Eye, A. (1993). A nature and process of leisure constraints : An empirical
test. Leisure Sciences, 15, 104.
Salman, N.W. (1997). Sports in Malaysia : Opportunities and barriers for women. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Leeds
Metropolitan University.
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by R.K. Dishman), pp. 369-396. Leeds : Human Kinetics Europe.
 AMINUDDIN YUSOF, PARILAH M. SHAH 195

About the Authors

Dr. Aminuddin Yusof
Dr. Aminuddin Yusof is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Educational Studies, University Putra Malaysia.
In 2003, he was seconded for service at the university’s Sports Academy. Dr. Aminuddin Yusof received his
tertiary education in the United States; his B.A. from Wilmington College, his M.A. from University of Illinois
at Urbana Champaign, and his Ph.D. from the University of Connecticut. His areas of expertise are Sport
Management, Sport Tourism, and Sport and Tourism Communication. He has several research publications that
have been presented both locally and internationally.

Dr. Parilah M. Shah

Dr. Parilah M. Shah is a lecturer at the Faculty of Education, National University of Malaysia. She obtained
her M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Connecticut, USA. Her research interests are second language ac-
quisition, reading, teaching of English to speakers of other languages, and bilingual-bicultural education. She
has presented several papers at both the national and international levels and has several publications in areas
related to second language acquisition and learning.
 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE HUMANITIES

EDITORS
Tom Nairn, RMIT University, Melbourne.
Mary Kalantzis, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA.

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Patrick Baert, Cambridge University, UK.
David Christian, San Diego State University, California, USA.
Bill Cope, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA.
Mick Dodson, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.
Hafedh Halila, Institut Supérieur des Langues de Tunis, Tunisia.
Ted Honderich, University College, London.
Paul James, RMIT University, Australia.
Moncef Jazzar, Institut Supérieur des Langues de Tunis, Tunisia.
Eleni Karantzola, University of the Aegean, Greece.
Bill Kent, Monash Centre, Prato, Italy.
Krishan Kumar, University of Virginia, USA.
Ayat Labadi, Institut Supérieur des Langues de Tunis, Tunisia.
Greg Levine, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
Fethi Mansouri, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia.
Juliet Mitchell, Cambridge University, UK.
Nikos Papastergiadis, University of Melbourne, Australia.
Robert Pascoe, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia.
Scott Schaffer, Millersville University, USA.
Jeffrey T. Schnapp, Stanford University, USA.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Columbia University, USA.
Giorgos Tsiakalos, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece.
Siva Vaidhyanathan, New York University, USA.
Hortensia Beatriz Vera Lopez, University of Nottingham, UK.
Chris Ziguras, RMIT University, Australia.

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