Chapter 5

Symmetric Groups

Ÿ References

The following notes are based on Chap 5, Tung & Chap 15, Inui.
Caution: the conventions used by Tung & Inui are very different ( see section group product ).
Basic concepts of the idempotents are described in note GroupAlgebra , which was based on App III, Tung.
Other noteworthy references are:
1. J.Q.Chen, "Group Representation Theory for Physicists" , Sec 1.2, World Scientific (87).
This book also describes the Eigenfunction Method for finding group representations.
2. Chapter 7, Hamermeash.

5.0 Basics

Ÿ Sn

The n ! permutations of n objects form a symmetric ( permutation ) group Sn of degree n & order n !.

The group elements are written as

1 2 … n i
p= º
p1 p2 … pn pi

Obviously, the order of the elements in the permutation symbol is immaterial, eg.:

1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2
= = =…
2 1 3 1 3 2 3 2 1

Ÿ Group Product

There're 2 inequivalent ways to define the group product.

The active view will be adopted in this note.
In either view, 2 permutations commute if they do not involve permutations of the same index.
2 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

Ÿ Active Point of View

The active way used by Tung ( see p.18, Tung ) interprets a permutation

= H pi ¬ i L
1 2 … n
p=
p1 p2 … pn
as taking the object originally in box i to box pi .
The product p q of 2 permutations p & q then denotes 2 consecutive actions:
1st, take objects in box i to box qi ,
then, take objects in box i to box pi .
Thus, an object that is originally in box i is 1st taken to box qi , then to box pqi .
Symbolically:
p q = H pi ¬ i L H qi ¬ i L
= I pqi ¬ qi M H qi ¬ i L
= I pqi ¬ i M
or
1 2 … n 1 2 … n
pq=
p1 p2 … pn q1 q2 … qn

q1 q2 … qn 1 2 … n
=
pq1 pq2 … pqn q1 q2 … qn

1 2 … n
=
pq1 pq2 … pqn

1 2 … n
H p qL1 H p qL2 … Hp qLn
=

is the rearrangement of the columns of J N so that the 1st row H 1 2 … n L

q1 q2 … qn 1 2 … n
where
pq1 pq2 … pqn p1 p2 … pn
becomes H q1 q2 … qn L.
Thus H p q L j = pq j .

The inverse p-1 of p is:

= H i ¬ pi L = H pi ® i L
1 2 … n p1 p2 … pn
Ip M1 Ip M2 … Ip Mn
p-1 = -1 -1 -1 =
1 2 … n
so that
p p-1 = H pi ¬ i L H i ¬ pi L = H pi ¬ pi L = e
p-1 p = H i ¬ pi L H pi ¬ i L = H i ¬ i L = e

1 2 … n p1 p2 … pn p1 p2 … pn
p p-1 = = =e
p1 p2 … pn 1 2 … n p1 p2 … pn

p1 p2 … pn 1 2 … n 1 2 … n
p-1 p = = =e
1 2 … n p1 p2 … pn 1 2 … n
as expected.
Obviously, pI p-1 M = I p p-1 M j = e j = j = I p-1 p M j = Ip-1 M p
j j

Ÿ Passive Point of View

 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 3

Passive Point of View

The passive way used by Inui is ( see p.16, Inui ) interprets a permutation

= H i ® pi L
1 2 … n
p=
p1 p2 … pn
as relabeling object i as pi .
The product p q of 2 permutations p & q then denotes 2 consecutive re-labeling:
1st, relabeling object i as qi ,
then, relabeling object i as pi .
Thus, object i is finally labeled q pi .
Symbolically:
p q = H i ® pi L H i ® qi L
= H i ® pi L I pi ® q pi M
= I i ® q pi M
or
1 2 … n 1 2 … n
pq=
p1 p2 … pn q1 q2 … qn

1 2 … n p1 p2 … pn
=
p1 p2 … pn q p1 q p2 … q pn

1 2 … n
=
q p1 q p2 … q pn

so that the 1st row H 1 2 … n L

p1 p2 … pn 1 2 … n
where is the rearrangement of the columns of
q p1 q p2 … q pn q1 q2 … qn
becomes H p1 p2 … pn L.
Thus H p q L j = qpj.

This means products in the passive view correspond to products in inverse order in the active view, & vice versa. ie.
passive p q … r s – active s r … q p

Since we shall adopt the active point of view in the rest of this note, further development of the passive way will be left as
exercise for those interested.

Ÿ Example

Let
1 2 3 1 2 3
p= q=
2 1 3 3 2 1

The active view gives

1 2 3 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3 1 2 3
pq= = =
2 1 3 3 2 1 3 1 2 3 2 1 3 1 2

1 2 3 1 2 3 2 1 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
q p= = =
3 2 1 2 1 3 2 3 1 3 2 1 2 3 1

The passive view gives

Ÿ
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 1 3 1 2 3
pq= = =
2 1 3 3 2 1 2 1 3 2 3 1 2 3 1

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3
q p= = =
3 2 1 2 1 3 3 2 1 3 1 2 3 1 2
4 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

The passive view gives

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 1 3 1 2 3
pq= = =
2 1 3 3 2 1 2 1 3 2 3 1 2 3 1

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3
q p= = =
3 2 1 2 1 3 3 2 1 3 1 2 3 1 2

Ÿ Example S3

Permutations of 3 objects form the group S3 .

There are 3 ! = 6 group elements:

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
e= a= b=
1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
c= d= f =
1 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 3

Ÿ S3 & C3 v

Consider the group C3 v , which is isomorphic to S3 .

To facilitate the correspondence between elements of the 2 groups, we identify the objects under permutation to be the
vertices of the triangle & the boxes to be positions in space.
Both vertices & positions are labeled 1, 2, 3 in a counterclockwise sense.
Originally, vertex labelled i is at postion ( box ) i .

= H123L moves the vertex 1 at position 1 to position 2, vertex 2 at

1 2 3
In the active point of view, the permutation
2 3 1
position 2 to position 3, and vertex 3 at position 3 to position 1. The result is that vertices 1, 2, 3 are now at positions 2, 3,
1, respectively. Clearly, this corresponds to the C3 rotation of the triangle if the boxes or positions are fixed in space.

= H123L relabels the vertex 1 as vertex 2, vertex 2 as vertex 3,

1 2 3
In the passive point of view, the permutation
2 3 1
and vertex 3 as vertex 1. The result is that vertices 1, 2, 3 are now at positions 3, 1, 2, respectively. Clearly, this corre-
sponds to the C3 2 rotation of the triangle if the positions are fixed in space. Alternatively, we can also say that the boxes are
rotated by C3 while the triangle is held fixed.

Similarly, the elements of S3 = 8e, a, b, c, d, f < can be identified with those of C3 v = 9E, C3 , C3 2 , Σ1 , Σ2 , Σ3 = ,
respectively, if we adopt the convention that in the active ( passive ) point of view, operations of C3 v represent rotations of
the triangle ( positions ).
Obviously, it is also correct to identify S3 = 8e, a, b, c, d, f < with C3 v = 9E, C3 2 , C3 , Σ1 , Σ2 , Σ3 = , respectively, if we
adopt the convention that in the active ( passive ) point of view, operations of C3 v represent rotations of the positions (
triangle ).

This freedom of interpretation may create confusion to novices & is a major source of computational error, especially when
results from different authors are quoted.
We shall henceforth adopt the active point of view for all groups, which means elements of the point groups are treated as
actions on the geometric figure.
The active point of view is usually preferred by physicists while the passive one, by mathematicians.

The group multiplication table for S3 can be obtained from that of C3 v ( p.12, Inui ) :

S3 e a = C3 b = C3 2 c = Σ1 d = Σ2 f = Σ3
e e a b c d f
a a b e f c d
b b e a d f c
 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 5

The group multiplication table for S3 can be obtained from that of C3 v ( p.12, Inui ) :

S3 e a = C3 b = C3 2 c = Σ1 d = Σ2 f = Σ3
e e a b c d f
a a b e f c d
b b e a d f c
c c d f e a b
d d f c b e a
f f c d a b e

This table is the same as that in p.15, Tung but the roles of a & b are interchanged in p.17, Inui.
Both authors adopt the active view on rotation operators but Tung used the active, Inui the passive view for permutations.

Ÿ Cycles

An n - cycle H i1 i2 … in L is defined by

H i1 i2 … in L =
i1 i2 … in
i2 i3 … i1

Ÿ Examples

1 - cycle:

HiL =
i
i
2 - cycle, also called a transposition:

Hi, jL =
i j
j i
3 - cycle :

Hi jkL=
i j k
j k i

The generator of a cyclic group Cn is the n - cycle.

Any permutation can be written as a product of cycles with no common indices, eg.

= H14L H237L H5L H68L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4 3 7 1 5 8 2 6

Ÿ Example S3

In cycle notations, elements of S3 becomes:

= H1L H2L H3L = ea = = H123L b = = H132L

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
e=
1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2

= H1L H23L = H23L = H13L = H12L

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
c= d= f =
1 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 3

For convenience, the multiplication table is reproduced in cycle notations ( cf p.15, Tung ):

S3 e H123L H132L H23L H13L H12L

e e H123L H132L H23L H13L H12L
H123L H123L H132L e H12L H23L H13L
H132L H132L e H123L H13L H12L H23L
H23L H23L H13L H12L e H123L H132L
6 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

For convenience, the multiplication table is reproduced in cycle notations ( cf p.15, Tung ):

S3 e H123L H132L H23L H13L H12L

e e H123L H132L H23L H13L H12L
H123L H123L H132L e H12L H23L H13L
H132L H132L e H123L H13L H12L H23L
H23L H23L H13L H12L e H123L H132L
H13L H13L H12L H23L H132L e H123L
H12L H12L H23L H13L H123L H132L e

For comparison purposes, the following table may be more useful:

S3 e a = H123L b = H132L c = H23L d = H13L f = H12L

C3 v = C3 = C3 2 = Σ1 = Σ2 = Σ3
e e a = H123L b = H132L c = H23L d = H13L f = H12L
= C3 = C3 2 = Σ1 = Σ2 = Σ3
a = H123L a = H123L b = H132L e f = H12L c = H23L d = H13L
= C3 = C3 = C3 2 = Σ3 = Σ1 = Σ2
b = H132L b = H132L e a = H123L d = H13L f = H12L c = H23L
2
= C3 = C3 2 = C3 = Σ2 = Σ3 = Σ1
c = H23L c = H23L d = H13L f = H12L e a = H123L b = H132L
= Σ1 = Σ1 = Σ2 = Σ3 = C3 = C3 2
d = H13L d = H13L f = H12L c = H23L b = H132L e a = H123L
= Σ2 = Σ2 = Σ3 = Σ1 = C3 2 = C3
f = H12L f = H12L c = H23L d = H13L a = H123L b = H132L e
= Σ3 = Σ3 = Σ1 = Σ2 = C3 = C3 2

Ÿ Cycle Structures

Every element of Sn can be expressed as a product of cycles.

If an element contains ki i-cycles H i = 1 … n), its cycle structure is denoted by:
I 1k1 2k2 … i ki … nkn M
with the convention that terms with ki = 0 can be omitted.
Some authors, eg. Inui, uses the n-tuple notation k = H k1 … kn L.

Since each element is a permutation of n objects, the ' total length ' of the cycles must be n. Thus

â j kj = n
n

j=1

As an example, the permutation

= H14L H237L H5L H68L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4 3 7 1 5 8 2 6
has a cycle structure I 11 22 31 M with k = H 1 ´ 2 ´ 1 ´ 0 ´ 0 ´ 0 ´ 0 ´ 0 L.

â j kj = 1´1 + 2´2 + 3´1 + 4´0 + … = 8

n

j=1

Ÿ Classes
 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 7

Classes

Let

= H pi ¬ i L = H qi ¬ i L
1 2 … n 1 2 … n
p= q=
p1 p2 … pn q1 q2 … qn

q p q-1 = H qi ¬ i L H pi ¬ i L H i ¬ qi L
= H qi ¬ i L H pi ¬ qi L
= I q pi ¬ pi M H pi ¬ qi L
= I q pi ¬ qi M
q1 q2 … qn
=
q p1 q p2 … q pn
= q[p]
where
q1 q2 … qn
q@pD º
q p1 q p2 … q pn
1 2 … n
is the permutation of the numbers in the array p = .
p1 p2 … pn

Thus, q p q-1 has the same cycle structure as p.

Conversely, the cycle structure can be used to characterize classes.

The number of elements in a class is therefore equal to the number of distinct elements with the same cycle structure.
Given a cycle structure I 1k1 2k2 … i ki … nkn M , there'll be n ! ways to fill it with the numbers 1 … n.
Obviously, permutations within each of the sets of ki i-cycle result in the same class element. The number of such permuta-
tions is k1 ! … kn ! = P k j !.
j

Furthermore, cyclic permutations within each i-cycle also results in the same class element. For an i-cycle, there are i such
permutations. Hence, the total number of such permutations is 1k1 … iki … nkn = ä j k j .
j

Thus, the number of elements in a class is

n! n!
k1 ! … kn ! 1k1 … iki … nkn Û k j ! j k j
=
j

Ÿ
8 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

Ÿ Example

Let

=H1´2L = H 12 ´ 3 L
1 2 3 1 2 3
p= q=
2 1 3 2 3 1
By direct multiplication, we have:

1 2 3 1 2 3 2 3 1
q p q-1 =
2 3 1 2 1 3 1 2 3

1 2 3 2 3 1
=
2 3 1 2 1 3

2 1 3 2 3 1
=
3 2 1 2 1 3

2 3 1
=
3 2 1
Alternatively,

q p q-1 = q @ p D = qB F= =H2´3L
1 2 3 q1 q2 q3 2 3 1
=
2 1 3 q2 q1 q3 3 2 1
 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 9

Ÿ Notations & Properties of Cycle Structures

1. In writing a permutation in terms of products of cycles, the 1 - cycle is usually omitted, eg.

= H14L H237L H68L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4 3 7 1 5 8 2 6

2. The order of the cycles in the product is immaterial since they do not have common indices.
3. Any cyclic permutations of the indices of a cycle are equivalent, eg.
Hi jkL=H jkiL=Hki jL=…
4. Any transposition can be written as product of adjacent transpositions according to the following recursive formula:
Hi, i + vL = Hi + 1, i + vL Hi, i + 1L Hi + 1, i + vL
eg.
For the group S4 :
H1 ´ 3L = H2 ´ 3L H1 ´ 2L H2 ´ 3L Hv = 2 L
H2 ´ 4L = H3 ´ 4L H2 ´ 3L H3 ´ 4L Hv = 2 L
H1 ´ 4L = H2 ´ 4L H1 ´ 2L H2 ´ 4L Hv = 3 L
= H3 ´ 4L H2 ´ 3L H3 ´ 4L H1 ´ 2L H3 ´ 4L H2 ´ 3L H3 ´ 4L
5. Some useful relations:
Habcd eL=HabLHbcd eL=HabcLHcd eL=Habcd LHd eL=HabLHbcLHcd LHd eL
Ha b c d e L-1 = H e d c b a L
6. The generators of Sn are the n - 1 adjacent transpositions
Hi, i + 1L, i = 1, 2 … n - 1.
7. The parity ∆P of a permutation is defined by
∆P = H-LN
where N is the number of transpositions in the permutation.
The permutation is even (odd) if ∆P = 1 H-1L.
8. An n - cycle is a product of n - 1 transpositions. ( see 5. )
Thus, an n - cycle is an even ( odd ) permutation if n = odd ( even ).
9. Consider the sum of 2 integers m & n:

n+m=:
even n, m are both odd or both even
if
odd 1 of n, m is even , the other odd
Hence, the product of 2 permutations p & q is

pq=:
even p, q are both odd or both even
if
odd 1 of p, q is even , the other odd
10. The inverse of a cycle is just the cycle written in reverse order.
ie. p=Hi j…lm L ™ p-1 = H m l … j i L
This can be proved by writing the cycle in terms of a product of transpositions.
Writing an arbitrary permutation as products of cycles, its inverse is obtained by writing each cycle in reversed order.
Thus, a permutation & its inverse have the same parity & cycle structure.
11. Similarity transforms p q p-1 do not change cycle structures.
Elements with the same cycle structure must belong to the same class & vice versa.
A similarity transform will be even ( odd ) if q is even ( odd ) since the p p-1 part is always even.
10 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

Ÿ Example S3

In cycle structure notations, elements of S3 becomes:

e = I13 20 30 M = I13 M a = I10 20 31 M = I31 M b = I10 20 31 M = I31 M

c = I11 21 30 M = I11 21 M d = I11 21 30 M = I11 21 M f = I11 21 30 M = I11 21 M

There're therefore 3 classes with cycle structures

8e< = I13 M 8a, b< = I31 M 8c, d, f < = I11 21 M
or, in the k notation:
8e< = H 3 ´ 0 ´ 0 L 8a, b< = H 0 ´ 0 ´ 1L 8c, d, f < = H 1 ´ 1 ´ 0 L

The # of elements in these classes can be calculated using the formula

n!
k1 ! … kn ! 1k1 … iki … nkn
Thus
I13 M = I 13 20 30 M ™ 3 ! ‘ I 3 ! ´ 0 ! ´ 0 ! 13 20 30 M = 1
I31 M = I 10 20 31 M ™ 3 ! ‘ I 0 ! ´ 0 ! ´ 1 ! 10 20 31 M = 2
I11 21 M = I 11 21 30 M ™ 3 ! ‘ I 1 ! ´ 1 ! ´ 0 ! 11 21 30 M = 3
as expected.

Since S3 is isomorphic to C3 v , its character table is:

S3 I13 M 2 I31 M 3 I11 21 M

G1 1 1 1
G2 1 1 -1
G3 2 -1 0

5.1 1-D Representations

Ÿ Alternating Group An

Since the product of 2 even permutations is even, the set of all even permutations of n objects is a group called the alternat-
ing group An .

Since an even permutation remains even under a similarity transform, An is an invariant subgroup of Sn with Sn  An = S2
where

S2 I12 M I21 M
Χ1 1 1
2
Χ 1 -1

Thus, there are always two 1-D representations for Sn .

The 1st is obtained by assigning 1 to all elements & is called the identity representation.
even
The other is obtained by assigning ± 1 to elements with permutations.
odd
This also implies that the number of even & odd permutations in Sn are equal.

Definition:
s=Ú p is called the symmetrizer
p

a = â H-L p p is called the anti-symmetrizer

p
 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 11

Definition:
s=Ú p is called the symmetrizer
p

a = â H-L p p is called the anti-symmetrizer

p

The left coset decomposition of Sn is

Sn = â Ri S2
k nSn n!
k= =
i=1 nS2 2

Ÿ Theorem: s & a are essentially idempotent & primitive

Ÿ Proof:

Rearrangement theorem ™
qs=qâ p=â p '=s=sq " q Î Sn
p p'

\ s s = â p s = â s = n! s ™ s is essentially idempotent.
p p

s q s = s s = n! s ™ s is primitive

Similarly:
q a = q â H-L p p = â H-L p '+ q p ' = H-Lq a = a q
p p'

\ a a = â H-L p a = â H-L p+ p a = â a = n ! a
p
™ a is essentially idempotent.
p p p

a q a = a H-Lq a = H-Lq n ! a ™ a is primitive

Since there are equal number of even & odd permutations in Sn ,

s a = â p a = â H-L p a = 0
p p

Hence:
s q a = s H-Lq a = s a = 0 ™ s & a are inequivalent.

5.2 Partitions & Young Diagrams

Ÿ Partition of n

A partition Λ of an integer n is a set Λ = 8 Λ1 … Λr < such that

1. Λi = positive integers.

â Λi = n
r
2.
i=1
3. Λi ³ Λi+1 ( decending order )

Some basic definitions:

a. Λ=Μ – Λi = Μi "i
b. Λ > Μ if 1st non-zero number in the sequence 8Λi - Μi < is positive.
Λ < Μ if negative.

Ÿ Young Diagram
12 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

Young Diagram

The Young diagram of a partition Λ = 8Λ1 … Λr < is an arrangement of n squares into r rows such that the i th row has Λi
squares.

Ÿ Example Partition of 3

Possible partitions are 83< , 82, 1<, 81, 1, 1< = 913 =.

The corresponding Young diagrams are:
83< ™

82, 1< ™

81, 1, 1< ™

Ÿ Theorem: Young Diagrams & IRs of Sn

# of distinct Young diagrams of partition of n = # of classes of Sn

= # of IR's of Sn .

Given a Young diagram:

Each column represents a cycle.
# of vertical blocks in each column is equal to the length of the cycle.

Ÿ Proof:

Every class of Sn is characterized by its cycle structure I 1k1 … i ki … nkn M where k j is the number of j - cycles.
Since the ' total length ' of the cycles must be n , we have
n = â j k j = k1 + 2 k2 + … + n kn
j

= H k1 + k2 + … + kn L + H k2 + … + kn L + … + H kn-1 + kn L + kn

= â â ki
n n

j=1 i= j

â Λj
n
=
j=1

where

Λ j = â ki
n
j=1…n
i= j

Since k j are all non-negative integers, Λ j £ Λ j-1 " j = 2 … n.

Thus, 9 Λ j = is a partition of n.

Specifically,
Λ1 = k1 + k2 + … + kn
= # of cycles in each permutation.
= # of blocks in the 1st row of the Young diagram.
Ÿ # of blocks in the 1st column = # of non-zero Λ j ' s
= length of the longest cycle
The reason for the last statement is as follows:
Let m be the length of the longest cycle.
This implies Λm is the last non-zero number in the partition.
 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 13

Specifically,
Λ1 = k1 + k2 + … + kn
= # of cycles in each permutation.
= # of blocks in the 1st row of the Young diagram.
# of blocks in the 1st column = # of non-zero Λ j ' s
= length of the longest cycle
The reason for the last statement is as follows:
Let m be the length of the longest cycle.
This implies Λm is the last non-zero number in the partition.

Λm = â ki = km
m
ie.
i=m
Obviously,
Λj ¹ 0 " j£m
Λj = 0 " j>m
Thus, the # of blocks in the 1st and longest column is just m.
By the same token, we see that
# of blocks in the 2nd column = length of the 2nd longest cycle
or, in general,
# of blocks in each column = length of a cycle

To summarize, given a cycle structure, the corresponding Young diagram is constructed by writing each j - cycle present as
a column of j blocks. The columns are placed adjacently with longer ones to the left of shorter ones.

For example, the class I 13 32 41 M = I 13 20 32 41 M with k = H 3 ´ 0 ´ 2 ´ 1 L corresponds to the following Young diagram with
Λ = 8 6, 3, 3, 1, 0, … , 0 <.

6
3
3
1
4 3 3 1 1 1
I 13 20 32 41 M

Thus, there is a 1 - 1 correspondence between the partitions ( Young diagrams ) of n to the classes of Sn .
The number of distinct Young diagrams is therefore equal to the number of classes of Sn .

Ÿ Example: S3

The cycle structures of the classes of S3 are

8e< = I13 M 8a, b< = I31 M 8c, d, f < = I11 21 M
With k = H k1 … kn L , we have
k = H 3, 0, 0 L for 8e<
k = H 0, 0, 1 L for 8a, b<
k = H 1, 1, 0 L for 8c, d, f <

Thus, the partitions Λ = : Λ j = â ki > are

n

i= j

Λ=H 3, 0, 0L for 8e<

Λ=H 1, 1, 1L for 8a, b<
Λ=H 2, 1, 0L for 8c, d, f <

The corresponding Young diagrams are:

for 8e< = I13 M

14 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

The corresponding Young diagrams are:

for 8e< = I13 M

for 8a, b< = I31 M

for 8c, d, f < = I11 21 M

Note that given n , its partitions are easily constructed.

So are the Young diagrams.
The classes & their cycle structures of Sn can then be read off directly from the Young diagrams.

Ÿ Young Tableau

When the squares of a Young diagram are filled with the numbers 81, 2, …, n< , it becomes a Young tableau ΘΛ .
Since each Young diagram represents a class of Sn , an element ( permutation ) in the class is just the cyclic permutations of
the numbers within each column in the Young tableau. In this sense, each Young tableau is an element of a class in Sn if we
treat tableaux that differ by mere cyclic permutations in any column as equivalent.

Using S3 as an example,
1 2 or 3 2 represents H1 ´ 3L = d Î I 11 21 M
3 1

1 2 3
2 or 3 or 2 represents H1 ´ 2 ´ 3L = b Î I 31 M
3 1 1

Obviously, permutations of numbers in a row or non-cyclic permutations within a column will in general result in a different
member of the class.

When the numbers are filled sequentially from top left to right bottom, the resultant Young tableau is called normal &
denoted by QΛ .

If the magnitudes of the numbers in every row increase from left to right, & those in every column increase from top to
bottom, the tableau is called standard.
We state without proof that the number of distinct standard tableaux of a Young diagram is equal to the dimension of the IR
generated by that diagram.

Any Young tableau ΘΛ can be obtained from QΛ by an appropriate permutation p.

p
This is denoted by ΘΛ = QΛ = p QΛ .
p qp
Obviously q QΛ = q p QΛ = QΛ .
 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 15

Ÿ Example Partition of 3

Normal 1 2

Standard 1 3

5.3 Symmetrizers & Anti-Symmetrizers of Young Tableau

9 hΛ =
p
Ÿ Horizontal Permutations

The horizontal permutations 9hΛ = of a Young tableau QΛ are permutations which leaves invariant the sets of numbers in each
p p

p
row of QΛ .

Ÿ Vertical Permutations 9 vΛ =
p

The vertical permutations 9vΛ = of a Young tableau QΛ are permutations which leaves invariant the sets of numbers in each
p p

p
column of QΛ .

p
Ÿ Symmetrizers sΛ

p p p
The symmetrizer sΛ of a Young tableau QΛ is the sum of all horizontal permutations hΛ :
sΛ = â hΛ
p p

p
Ÿ Anti-Symmetrizers aΛ

p p p
The anti – symmetrizer aΛ of a Young tableau QΛ is the signed sum of all vertical permutations vΛ :
aΛ = â H-Lv vΛ
p p

p
Ÿ Irreducible / Young Symmetrizers eΛ

p p
The irreducible symmetrizer eΛ of a Young tableau QΛ is the sum of the products of the horizontal & vertical symmetrizers.
eΛ = sΛ aΛ = â H-Lv hΛ vΛ
p p p p p

hv
16 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

Ÿ Example S3

In cycle notations, elements of S3 are:

e=e a = H123L b = H132L
c = H23L d = H13L f = H12L

The classes of S3 have cycle structures:

8e< = I13 M 8a, b< = I31 M 8c, d, f < = I11 21 M

The corresponding partitions are found using the formula

Λi = â k j
n
k j = # of j - cycle
j=i

For class 8e<:

k = 8k1 , k2 , k3 < = 83, 0, 0<
Λ = 8Λ1 , Λ2 , Λ3 < = 83 + 0 + 0, 0 + 0, 0< = 83, 0, 0< = 83<

For class 8a, b<:

k = 8k1 , k2 , k3 < = 80, 0, 1<
Λ = 8Λ1 , Λ2 , Λ3 < = 80 + 0 + 1, 0 + 1, 1< = 81, 1, 1<

For class 8c, d, f <:

k = 8k1 , k2 , k3 < = 81, 1, 0<
Λ = 8Λ1 , Λ2 , Λ3 < = 81 + 1 + 0, 1 + 0, 0< = 82, 1, 0< = 82, 1<

The normal Young tableau are:

Q1 = 1 2 3 :
hΛ : 8e, a, b, c, d, f <
vΛ : e
s1 = â p = e + a + b + c + d + f º S
p

a1 = e
e1 = s1 a1 = S

Q2 = 1 2
3
hΛ : 8e, f = H12L <
vΛ : 8e, d = H13L <
s2 = e + f = e + H12L
a2 = e - d = e - H13L
e2 = s2 a2 = He + f L He - dL = e - d + f - f d = e - d + f - b
= e - H13L + H12L - H132L

1
Q3 = 2
3
hΛ : e
vΛ : 8e, a, b, c, d, f <
s3 = e
a3 = â H-L p p = e - a - b + c + d + f º A
p

e3 = A = e - a - b + c + d + f
 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 17

1
Q3 = 2
3
hΛ : e
vΛ : 8e, a, b, c, d, f <
s3 = e
a3 = â H-L p p = e - a - b + c + d + f º A
p

e3 = A = e - a - b + c + d + f

The only standard Young tableau is:

Qc2 = QH23L
2 = 1 3
2

hΛ : 8e, d = H13L <

vΛ : 8e, f = H12L <
s2 = e + d = e + H13L
a2 = e - f = e - H12L
e2 = s2 a2 = He + dL He - f L = e + d - f - d f = e + d - f - a
= e + H13L - H12L - H123L

5.4 IR of Sn

Ÿ 8 hΛ < & 8 vΛ < are subgroups of Sn

See Lemma IV.2 , Tung

e must belong to 8 hΛ < .

hΛ -1 must be a horizontal permutations & hence in 8 hΛ < .
Products of two horizontal permutations must be another horizontal permutations & hence in 8 hΛ < .
Therefore, 8 hΛ < is a group.
Since hΛ are permutations of n numbers, they must be elements of Sn .
Thus 8 hΛ < is a subgroup of Sn .

Same argument is applicable to 8 vΛ <.

Ÿ sΛ & aΛ are essentially idempotent

See Lemma IV.2 & p.67–8, Tung.

Using the rearrangement theorem on the subgroups 8 hΛ < & 8 vΛ < , we have
sΛ hΛ = â h Λ ' hΛ = â h Λ '' = sΛ where hΛ '' = h Λ ' hΛ
h' h ''

Similarly,
hΛ sΛ = sΛ .
aΛ vΛ = â H-LvΛ ' vΛ ' vΛ = â H-Lv Λ ''+ ΝΛ vΛ '' = H-LΝΛ aΛ where ΝΛ '' = Ν Λ ' ΝΛ
v' v ''

Similarly,
vΛ aΛ = H-LvΛ aΛ
sΛ sΛ = â h Λ â h Λ ' = â h Λ '' = â sΛ = nΛ sΛ
h h' h h '' h

aΛ aΛ = â H-L vΛ â H-L
vΛ vΛ '
vΛ ' = â H-Lv Λ '' vΛ '' = â aΛ = mΛ aΛ
v v' Ν , v '' v
18 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

Using the rearrangement theorem on the subgroups 8 hΛ < & 8 vΛ < , we have
sΛ hΛ = â h Λ ' hΛ = â h Λ '' = sΛ where hΛ '' = h Λ ' hΛ
h' h ''

Similarly,
hΛ sΛ = sΛ .
aΛ vΛ = â H-LvΛ ' vΛ ' vΛ = â H-Lv Λ ''+ ΝΛ vΛ '' = H-LΝΛ aΛ where ΝΛ '' = Ν Λ ' ΝΛ
v' v ''

Similarly,
vΛ aΛ = H-LvΛ aΛ
sΛ sΛ = â h Λ â h Λ ' = â h Λ '' = â sΛ = nΛ sΛ
h h' h h '' h

aΛ aΛ = â H-L vΛ â H-LvΛ vΛ '

vΛ ' = â H-Lv Λ '' vΛ '' = â aΛ = mΛ aΛ
v v' Ν , v '' v

where nΛ = # of horizontal permutations in ΘΛ & mΛ = # of vertical permutations in ΘΛ .

Now, the diagram ΘΛ consists of rows of Λ j blocks. Thus the # of horizontal permutations nΛ is simply
nΛ = Λ1 ! … Λn !
The diagram ΘΛ consists of k j columns of j blocks. Thus the # of vertical permutations mΛ is
mΛ = H 1 ! Lk1 … H j ! Lk j … H n ! Lkn

To summarize,
sΛ hΛ = hΛ sΛ = sΛ sΛ sΛ = nΛ sΛ nΛ = Λ1 ! … Λn !
aΛ vΛ = vΛ aΛ = H-L aΛ vΛ
aΛ aΛ = mΛ aΛ mΛ = H 1 ! Lk1 … H n ! Lkn
Hence, sΛ & aΛ are essentially idempotent.

p
Ÿ xΛ = p xΛ p-1 x = h, v, s, a, e

See Lemma IV.1 , Tung.

p
Consider a tableau ΘΛ & its permutation ΘΛ = p ΘΛ .
An operation xΛ on ΘΛ gives a tableau ΘΛ ' = xΛ ΘΛ .
p p p p p p
The problem is to find the corresponding operation xΛ on ΘΛ so that ΘΛ ' = xΛ ΘΛ is the permutation of ΘΛ ', ie., ΘΛ ' = p ΘΛ '.
Thus
p
p ΘΛ ' = p xΛ ΘΛ = p xΛ p-1 p ΘΛ = p xΛ p-1 ΘΛ
Setting this to
p p p
ΘΛ ' = xΛ ΘΛ
We have
p
xΛ = p xΛ p-1 .
 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 19

Ÿ Example

Let p = H123L

p
ΘΛ = 1 2 ™ ΘΛ = 2 3
3 1

Let xΛ = hΛ = H12L
™
hΛ ΘΛ = 2 1
3

hΛ = p hΛ p-1 = p B F= = H23L
p 1 2 3 2 3 1
2 1 3 3 2 1

p p
hΛ ΘΛ = 3 2 = p hΛ ΘΛ = 3 2
1 1

Ÿ p ¹ hΛ vΛ –
p
$ 2 nos in 1 row of ΘΛ = those in 1 column of ΘΛ .

See Lemma IV.3 , Tung

Ÿ Proof ’

Assume p = hΛ vΛ .
p
™ ΘΛ = p ΘΛ = hΛ vΛ ΘΛ = hΛ vΛ hΛ -1 hΛ ΘΛ = vhΛ Λ ΘΛh Λ
where vhΛ Λ = hΛ vΛ hΛ -1 is the vertical permutation on tableau ΘΛh Λ that corresponds to vΛ on ΘΛ .

Consider 2 numbers a & b in the same row of ΘΛ .

They will remain in the same row in ΘΛh Λ since hΛ is a permutation of numbers in each row of ΘΛ .
Thus, a & b must be in different columns of ΘΛh Λ .
The operation vhΛ Λ is a permutation of numbers in each column of ΘΛh Λ .
p
Hence, a & b must remain in different columns of ΘΛ .

To summarize,
p
p = hΛ vΛ ” 2 numbers in the same row of ΘΛ must be in different columns of ΘΛ .
Taking the negation,
p
p ¹ hΛ vΛ ’ At least 2 numbers in the same row of ΘΛ appear in same columns of ΘΛ .

Ÿ Proof ”

p
Let every number in the same row of ΘΛ be in different columns of ΘΛ .
p
Tableau ΘΛ can be obtained from ΘΛ in the following manner.

p
Starting with the numbers in the 1st column of ΘΛ , they must belong to different rows in ΘΛ .
Hence, they can be brought to the 1st column by a horizontal permutation on ΘΛ .
p
The same procedure can be applied to all columns of ΘΛ .
Subsequently, we have a tableau ΘΛh Λ = hΛ ΘΛ each of whose columns contains the same numbers of the corresponding
p
columns in ΘΛ .
h p
20 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

p
Starting with the numbers in the 1st column of ΘΛ , they must belong to different rows in ΘΛ .
Hence, they can be brought to the 1st column by a horizontal permutation on ΘΛ .
p
The same procedure can be applied to all columns of ΘΛ .
Subsequently, we have a tableau ΘΛh Λ = hΛ ΘΛ each of whose columns contains the same numbers of the corresponding
p
columns in ΘΛ .
p
Obviously, ΘΛh Λ can be brought to ΘΛ by pure vertical permutations, ie.,
p
ΘΛ = vhΛ Λ ΘΛh Λ = hΛ vΛ hΛ -1 hΛ ΘΛ = hΛ vΛ ΘΛ = p ΘΛ
™ p = hΛ vΛ

To summarize:
p
Every number in the same row of ΘΛ be in different columns of ΘΛ ” p = hΛ vΛ
Taking the negation:
p
At least 2 numbers in the same row of ΘΛ appear in same columns of ΘΛ ’ p ¹ hΛ vΛ

Ÿ p ¹ hΛ vΛ ”
Ž Ž Ž Ž
$ hΛ & v Λ ' p = hΛ p v Λ

p
p ¹ hΛ v Λ ” At least 2 numbers in the same row of ΘΛ appear in same columns of ΘΛ

Let the transposition of these 2 numbers be t.

t Î 8 hΛ < t Î 9 vΛ =
p
™ &
Thus we can write
Ž Žp
t = hΛ = vΛ
where hΛ is the transition in 8 hΛ < that equals to t & simularly for vΛ .
Ž Žp

where vΛ Î 8 vΛ <
Žp Ž Ž
Using vΛ = p vΛ p-1
we have
Ž Ž Ž Žp Ž Žp
hΛ p vΛ = hΛ p p-1 vΛ p = hΛ vΛ p = t2 p = p
since any transition is its own inverse, ie. t2 = e.

Ÿ hΛ r vΛ = H-LvΛ r " hΛ , vΛ
” r µ eΛ

Let r = â Αp p G = Sn
pÎG

hΛ r vΛ = H-LvΛ r ™ â Α p hΛ p vΛ = H-LvΛ â Α p p
pÎG pÎG

Now,
â Α p hΛ p vΛ = â IΑ hΛ -1 q vΛ -1 M q where q = hΛ p vΛ so that p = hΛ -1 q vΛ -1
pÎG qÎG

= H-LvΛ â Αq q
qÎG

™ Α hΛ -1 q vΛ -1 = H-L Αq vΛ
" hΛ & vΛ

If q ¹ hΛ ' vΛ '
Ž Ž Ž Ž
™ $ transpositions hΛ & vΛ ' q = hΛ q vΛ
= Αq = H-LvΛ Αq = - Αq where H-LvΛ = -1 for transpositions.
Ž Ž
ΑŽ -1 Ž -1
hΛ q vΛ

Thus Αq = 0.
 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 21

If q ¹ hΛ ' vΛ '
Ž Ž Ž Ž
™ $ transpositions hΛ & vΛ ' q = hΛ q vΛ
= Αq = H-LvΛ Αq = - Αq where H-LvΛ = -1 for transpositions.
Ž Ž
ΑŽ -1 Ž -1
hΛ q vΛ

Thus Αq = 0.

If q = hΛ ' vΛ '
Α hΛ ' -1 q vΛ ' -1 = Αe = H-LvΛ ' Αq
ie. Αq = H-LvΛ ' Αe = H-LvΛ ' Ξ where Ξ = Αe is a constant independent of q.

Thus
r = â Α p p = Ξ â H-LvΛ hΛ vΛ = Ξ eΛ
pÎG hΛ vΛ

p q
Ÿ xΜ xΝ µ ∆ΜΝ x = s, a, e

See Lemma IV.6 , Tung

Without loss of generality, we can assume Μ > Ν, ie. the 1st non-zero Μi - Νi is positive.
Since tableau Θ Μ has rows of lengths 8 Μ1 … Μn < & similarly for Θ Ν , the longer rows in both tableau are equal in length until
q p

q p
the i th row corresponding to the 1st non-zero Μi - Νi . The i th row of Θ Μ will be longer than any row in Θ Ν with label j ³ i.

Consider 1st the normal tableaux QΜ & QΝ . The i th in QΜ will contain all the numbers in the i th row of QΝ plus at least 1
extra number, say a. Now, a must appear in a row of QΝ with label j ³ i.
In other words, there must be a number b in the i th row of QΜ such that it is in the same column with a in QΝ .
q q q q
Since Θ Μ = q QΜ , Θ Ν = q QΝ , we see that the numbers qa & qb will be in the same row of Θ Μ & the same column in Θ Ν . So
q h q q v q
do any h Μ Θ Μ = Θ Μ Μ & v Ν Θ Ν = Θ ΝΝ .

q p
Now, given Θ Μ = q QΜ , Θ Ν = p QΝ , there exists h Μ , v Ν , r such that q = h Μ r & p = v Ν r.
q p q p
Hence, Θ Μ = hΜ Θ rΜ & Θ Ν = vΝ Θ rΝ so that there is at least 2 numbers appearing in both in a row of Θ Μ & a column of Θ Ν .
Ž Ž
Now, let the transposition of these 2 numbers be t = hΜ = vΝ .
q q q
™ t sΜ=sΜt=sΜ
t aΝ = aΝ t = H-Lt aΝ = -aΝ
p p p p

Hence
p q p q p q
aΜ sΝ = aΜ t t sΝ = - aΜ sΝ = 0
q p q p q p
sΝ aΜ = sΝ t t aΜ = -sΝ aΜ = 0
q p q q p p
e Μ eΝ = sΜ aΜ sΝ aΝ = 0

Ÿ sΛ r aΛ = Ξr eΛ

See Theorem 5.3, Tung

Let u = sΛ r aΛ
hΛ u vΛ = hΛ sΛ r aΛ vΛ = sΛ r aΛ H-LvΛ = u H-LvΛ " hΛ , vΛ
™ u = sΛ r aΛ = Ξr eΛ

Ÿ eΛ 2 = Η eΛ
22 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

eΛ 2 = Η eΛ

See Theorem 5.3, Tung

eΛ 2 = sΛ aΛ sΛ aΛ = ΞaΛ sΛ eΛ = Η eΛ

Thus, eΛ is essentially idempotent.

Ÿ eΛ are primitive idempotents

See Theorem 5.4, Tung

eΛ r eΛ = sΛ aΛ r sΛ aΛ = Ξ aΛ r sΛ eΛ
Hence, eΛ are primitive idempotents.

p
Ÿ IRs generated by eΛ & eΛ are equivalent

IRs generated by 2 primitive idempotents e1 & e2 are equivalent iff e1 r e2 ¹ 0 for some r Î G.
p
Now, using eΛ = p eΛ p-1 , we have
p
eΛ p-1 eΛ = eΛ p-1 p eΛ p-1 = eΛ 2 p-1 = Η eΛ p-1 ¹ 0

Ÿ IRs generated by eΜ & eΝ are inequivalent if Μ ¹ Ν

p
" pÎG e Μ p eΝ = e Μ p eΝ p-1 p = e Μ eΝ p = 0 if Μ¹Ν
" rÎG r = â cp p
p

™ e Μ r eΝ = 0
Hence, the IRs generated by e Μ & eΝ are inequivalent.

Ÿ eΛ of all normal Young tableaux generate all IRs of the group

See Theorem 5.7, Tung

Since
1. # of Young diagrams = # of normal Young tableaux
= # of classes
= # of inequivalent IRs.
2. There's one eΛ for each normal tableau QΛ .
3. IRs generated by eΛ & e Μ are inequivalent if Λ ¹ Μ.
Hence, the set of all eΛ ' s generates all inequivalent IRs of Sn .

Ÿ Example: S3

As shown before, the partitions of 3 are

Λ = 8 3 <, 8 2, 1<, 8 1, 1, 1 <

For Λ = 83< , there is only one standard tableau Q1

Hence, the IR is 1 - D.
The Young symmetrizer is
Ÿ
e1 = S
Since e1 g = e1 " g Î S3 , the IR is the identity representation, as expected.
 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 23

For Λ = 83< , there is only one standard tableau Q1

Hence, the IR is 1 - D.
The Young symmetrizer is
e1 = S
Since e1 g = e1 " g Î S3 , the IR is the identity representation, as expected.

For Λ = 8 2, 1 <, there are 2 standard tableaux Q2 & QH23L

2 .
The IRs are 2 - D.
For Q2 , the Young symmetrizer is
e2 = e - H13L + H12L - H132L

Ÿ eΛ of all standard tableaux generate the complete IR decomposition of the Regular Representation

The # of standard tableaux for each Young diagram is equal to the dimension of the IR generated from it. Since
Greg = â nΜ GΜ , the theorem is proved.
Μ

Ÿ S4

The partitions of 4 are

4=4=3+1=2+2=2+1+1=1+1+1+1

The corresponding Young diagrams & cycle structures are are:

Λ = 84 < I 14 M k =H4´0´0´0L

# of elements: 4 ! ‘ 14 ´ 4 ! = 1
Elements: e

Λ=83´1< I 12 21 Mk = H 2 ´ 1 ´ 0 ´ 0 L

# of elements: 4 ! ‘ 12 2 2 ! = 6
Elements: H1 ´ 2L, H1 ´ 3L, H1 ´ 4L, H2 ´ 3L, H2 ´ 4L, H3 ´ 4L

Λ = 9 22 = I 22 M k =H0´2´0´0L

# of elements: 4 ! ‘ 22 2 ! = 3
Elements: H1 ´ 2L H3 ´ 4L, H1 ´ 3L H2 ´ 4L, H1 ´ 4L H2 ´ 3L

Λ = 9 2 ´ 12 = I 11 31 Mk = H 1 ´ 0 ´ 1 ´ 0 L

# of elements: 4 !  3 =8
Elements: H1 ´ 2 ´ 3L, H1 ´ 2 ´ 4L, H1 ´ 3 ´ 2L, H1 ´ 3 ´ 4L, H1 ´ 4 ´ 2L, H1 ´ 4 ´ 3L, H2 ´ 3 ´ 4L, H4 ´ 3 ´ 2L

Λ = 9 14 = I 41 M k =H0´0´0´1L

# of elements: 4 !  4 =6
Elements: H1 ´ 2 ´ 3 ´ 4L, H1 ´ 2 ´ 4 ´ 3L, H1 ´ 3 ´ 2 ´ 4L, H1 ´ 3 ´ 4 ´ 2L, H1 ´ 4 2 ´ 3L, H1 ´ 4 ´ 3 ´ 2L
24 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

Λ = 9 14 = I 41 M k =H0´0´0´1L

# of elements: 4 !  4 =6
Elements: H1 ´ 2 ´ 3 ´ 4L, H1 ´ 2 ´ 4 ´ 3L, H1 ´ 3 ´ 2 ´ 4L, H1 ´ 3 ´ 4 ´ 2L, H1 ´ 4 2 ´ 3L, H1 ´ 4 ´ 3 ´ 2L

Thus, there are 5 classes, namely, I 14 M, I 12 21 M, I 22 M, I 11 31 M, & I 41 M.

Λ=84<

There's only 1 standard tableaux:

1 2 3 4

8 hΛ < = Sn sΛ = â g
g

8 vΛ < = e aΛ = e
eΛ = sΛ
Since eΛ g = eΛ , this gives the identity representation.

Λ=83´1<

There are 3 standard tableaux so that the IRs are 3 - D.

1 2 3 1 2 4 1 3 4
4 3 2

For the normal tableau:

8 hΛ < = e, H1 ´ 2 ´ 3L, H1 ´ 3 ´ 2L, H1 ´ 2L, H1 ´ 3L, H2 ´ 3L
sΛ = e + H1 ´ 2 ´ 3L + H1 ´ 3 ´ 2L + H1 ´ 2L + H1 ´ 3L + H2 ´ 3L
8 vΛ < = e, H1 ´ 4L
aΛ = e - H1 ´ 4L
eΛ = 8 e + H1 ´ 2 ´ 3L + H1 ´ 3 ´ 2L + H1 ´ 2L + H1 ´ 3L + H2 ´ 3L < 8 e - H1 ´ 4L <
= e + H1 ´ 2 ´ 3L + H1 ´ 3 ´ 2L + H1 ´ 2L + H1 ´ 3L + H2 ´ 3L
- H1 ´ 4L - H1 ´ 4 ´ 2 ´ 3L - H1 ´ 4 ´ 3 ´ 2L - H1 ´ 4 ´ 2L - H1 ´ 4 ´ 3L - H2 ´ 3L H1 ´ 4L

5.5 Symmetry Classes of Tensors

Let Vm be a m-D vector space.
The set 8g< of all invertible linear transformations on Vm forms a group called the general linear group GLHm, CL.
In this chapter, we call it simply Gm .

Given any basis 8 i \ , i = 1, 2, … , m < on Vm , a natural matrix rep of Gm is:

(5.5-1) g i \ = j \ g ji
where g j i are elements of an invertible m ´ m matrix (i.e. det g ¹ 0).
 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 25

Ÿ Definition 5.5 (Tensor Space):

The direct product space Vm ´ Vm ´ … ´ Vm , involving n factors of V shall be referred to as the tensor space and denoted by
Vm n .
÷

Given a basis 8 i \< on Vm , a natural basis for Vm n is obtained in the form:

(5.5-2) i1 i2 … in \ = i1 \ i2 \ … in \
= | i \n Tung's notation
= I\ My notation

An arbitrary element x of the tensor space Vm n has the decomposition,

(5.5-3) x \ = i1 i2 … in \ x i1 i2 … in
(5.5-4) = I \ xI
where x I = x i1 i2 … in are the tensor components of x.

Elements of Gm (defined on Vm ) induce the following linear transformations on Vm n

(5.5-5) g I \= J \ DHgL J I
where
(5.5-6) DHgL J I = g j1 i g j2 i … g jn in " g Î Gm
1 2

It can easily be verified that 8DHgL< forms a Hn × mL-D rep of Gm , and that for any x \ Î Vm n ,
(5.5-7) g x \= xg ] = J ] xg J
where
(5.5-8) xg J = DHgL J I x I

Independently, Sn also has a natural realization on Vm n .

In particular, consider the mapping
p Î Sn ™ p = linear transformation on Vm n
defined by,
(5.5-9) p x \= xp ]
where x \, x p ] Î Vm andn

(5.5-10) x p I = x Ip
with
I = i1 i2 … in
I p º i p1 i p2 … i pn

In terms of the basis vectors 8 I \<, the action of p goes as

(5.5-11)
p I \ = I p-1 ]
where
I p-1 = i p-1 i p-1 … i p-1
1 2 n

Therefore, if we write
(5.5-12) p I \= J \ DH pL J I
then
(5.5-13) DHpL J I = ∆I J-1 = ∆IJ p
p

= ∆i j … ∆i j = ∆i j … ∆i j
p-1 1 1 p-1 n n 1 p1 n pn

The last equality involves permuting the n ∆-factors by p. The reader should verify that Eq. (5.5-9), or equivalently (5.5-11),
does provide a rep for Sn . [ Problem 5.5 ]
26 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

The last equality involves permuting the n ∆-factors by p. The reader should verify that Eq. (5.5-9), or equivalently (5.5-11),
does provide a rep for Sn . [ Problem 5.5 ]

Both D @Gm D and D@Sn D are in general reducible.

As Sn is a finite group, D @Sn D can be decomposed into IRs.

This will be achieved through the e Μ 's.

Gm is an infinite group.
A general D @Gm D is not guaranteed to be fully decomposible.
However, the reduction of Vm n by e Μ 's from the Sn algebra leads naturally to a full decomposition of D @Gm D.
This is a consequence of the fact that linear transformations on Vm n representing 8 g Î Gm < and 8 p Î Sn < commute with each
other, and each type of operator constitutes essentially the "maximal set" which has this property.

The underlying principle behind the following results is just a generalization of the familiar facts that:
(i) a Complete Set of Commuting Operators (CSCO) on a vector space share common eigenvectors.
(ii) a decomposition of reducible subspaces with respect to some subset of the commuting operators often leads naturally
to diagonalization of the remaining operator(s).

We have made use of this principle to diagonalize the Hamiltonian for a general 1-D lattice by taking advantage of T1 .
Similarly, as is often done in the solution to physical problems involving spherical symmetry, the Hamiltonian is diagonalized
by decomposing first with respect to angular momentum operators.

Ÿ Lemma 5.1:

The rep matrices DHGm L, Eq. (5.5-6), and DHSn L, Eq. (5.5-13) satisfy the following symmetry relation:
(5.5-14) D J I = D Jq Iq

where I = i1 i2 … in Iq = iq1 iq2 … iqn

1 2 … n
q= Î Sn
q1 q2 … qn

Linear transformations on Vm n satisfying this condition are said to be symmetry- preserving.

Ÿ Proof:

(5.5-6) DHgL J I = g j1 i g j2 i … g jn in " g Î Gm

1 2
jq1 jq2 jqn
= g iq1 g iq2 …g iqn
Jq
= DHgL Iq

(5.5-13) DHpL J I = ∆I J-1 = ∆IJ p " p Î Sn

p

= ∆IqJ = DHpL Jq Iq
qp

Ÿ Theorem 5.9:

The two sets of matrices 8 DH pL , p Î Sn < and 8 DHgL , g Î Gm < commute with each other.

Ÿ Proof:

Consider the action of p g and g p on the basis vectors in turn:

(i) p g I \ = p J \ DHgL J I
= J p-1 ] DHgL J I
= J \ DHgL J p I
 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 27

(i) p g I \ = p J \ DHgL J I
= J p-1 ] DHgL J I
= J \ DHgL J p I

(ii) g p I \ = g J p-1 ]
= J \ DHgL J I
p-1

= J \ DHgL Jp
I

Hence
pg I \=g p I \ " I\
Therefore
pg=g p

Ÿ Example 1: V2 2

Consider second rank tensors Hn = 2L in 2-D space Hm = 2L.

The basis vectors will be denoted by
++ \ +- \ -+ \ -- \
Now, S2 = 8 e, H12L <.
Since e leads to trivial results, we need only to consider p = H12L and its interplay with elements of G2 :
p g ± ± \ = p i k \ g i± g k ± = k i ] g k ± g i±
g p ±± \ = g ±± \ = ki \g k
g i± = p g ± ± ]
p g ± ¡ \ = p i k \ g i± g k ¡ = k i ] g k ¡ g i±
±

g p ±¡ \ = g ¡± \ = k i \ g k ¡ g i± = p g ± ¡ ]

These equalities hold for any element g Î G2 .

Ÿ Irreducible Subspaces of Vm n

We shall now decompose Vm n into irreducible subspaces wrt Sn and Gm , utilizing the eΛ p 's associated with various QΛ p of Sn .
Let LΛ be the left ideal generated by eΛ . The main results will be:

(i) For a fixed Α Î Vm n , the subspace 8 r Α \; r Î LΛ < is irreducibly invariant under Sn ;

(ii) For a fixed QΛ p , the subspace 8 eΛ p Α \; Α \ Î Vm n < is irreducibly invariant under Gm ;

(iii) Vm n can be decomposed in the "factorized" basis vectors Λ, Α, a \ where Λ denotes a symmetry class specified by
a Young diagram; Α & a labels the various irreducible invariant subspaces under Sn & Gm , resp.

Ÿ Definition 5.6
(Tensors of Symmetry QΛ p and Tensors of Symmetry Class Λ):

To each Young tableau QΛ p we associate tensors of the symmetry QΛ p consisting of

TΛ p = 8 eΛ p Α \ ; Α \ Î Vm n <.

For a given Young diagram characterized by Λ , the set of tensors

TΛ = 8 r eΛ Α \, r Î Sn , Α \ Î Vm n <
is said to belong to the symmetry class Λ.

Ÿ Theorem 5.10
28 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

Theorem 5.10

For a given Α \, let TΛ HΑL = 8 r eΛ Α \, r Î Sn <.

(i) TΛ HΑL is an irreducible invariant subspace with respect to Sn ;

(ii) if TΛ HΑL ¹ Æ, then the realization of Sn on TΛ HΑL coincides with the IR generated by eΛ on Sn .

Ÿ Proof:

(i) Let x \ Î TΛ HΑL, then by definition,

x \ = r eΛ Α \ for some r Î Sn
hence, " p Î Sn ,
p x \ = p r eΛ Α \
= q eΛ Α ] Î TΛ HΑL [ q = p r Î Sn ]

This means TΛ HΑL is invariant under Sn .

(ii) Since TΛ HΑL is not empty, we know eΛ Α \ ¹ 0. Let 8 ri eΛ < be a basis of LΛ , then 8 ri eΛ Α \< form a basis of TΛ HΑL.
Hence, if
p ri eΛ \ = p ri eΛ \ = ri eΛ \ DH pL j i on Sn
then,
p ri eΛ Α \ = r j eΛ Α ] DH pL j i on TΛ HΑL
for all p Î Sn .

Hence the invariant subspace is irreducible, and the representation matrices on TΛ HΑL coincide with those on Sn . QED

Ÿ ÷

then es = â
p
Let QΛ=s = …… is the total symmetrizer.
p n!
Since r es = es for all r Î Sn , the left ideal Ls is 1-D.
Correspondingly, for any given Α \ Î Vm n , the irreducible subspace Ts HΑL consists of all multiples of es Α \.
These are totally symmetric tensors, as it is straightforward to verify:
(5.5-15) es Α \ n ! = â p   I \ Α I
p

= â ¡ I p-1 ] ΑI
p

= I \ â ΑI p
p

hence the components are totally symmetric in the n-indices.

The realization of Sn on TΛ HΑL is the 1-D identity rep because all permutations leave a totally symmetric tensor unchanged.

Ÿ Example 2:

Consider third rank tensors (n = 3) in two dimensions (m = 2). Four distinct totally symmetric tensors can be generated by
starting with different elements of V2 n=3 .

@ e + H12L + H13L + H23L + H123L + H321L D

1
es =
Ÿ 3!

(i) Α = 1 \ = +++ \
es Α \ = +++ \ º s, 1, 1 \
 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 29

(i) Α = 1 \ = +++ \
es Α \ = +++ \ º s, 1, 1 \

(ii) Α = 2 \ = ++- \
es Α \ = @ ++- \ + ++- \ + - ++ \ + +-+ \ + - ++ \ + +-+ \ D
1
6

@ ++- \ + +-+ \ + - ++ \ D
1
=
s, 2, 1 \
3
º

(iii) Α=3 \= --+\

es Α \ = @ --+ \ + --+ \ + + -- \ + -+- \ + + -- \ + -+- \ D
1
6

@ --+ \+ -+ - \+ +-- \D
1
=
s, 3, 1 \
3
º

(iv) Α =4\= ---\

es Α \ = - - - \ º s, 4, 1 \

In the last column, we introduced the Λ, Α, a \ labelling scheme.

This classification is used extensively in the following discussions.
Each of the above totally symmetric tensors is invariant under all p Î S3 .
Together, they represent all totally symmetric tensors that can be constructed in V2 3 ; they are tensors of the symmetry class s,
where s represents the Young tableau with one single row.
We shall denote the subspace of tensors of the symmetry class s by Ts '.

Ÿ ÷

Can we similarly generate totally anti- symmetric tensors in Vm n ? We leave as an exercise [ Problem 5.6 ] for the reader to

show that they exist only if m ³ n. The total anti- symmetrizer is ea = â H-L p . Since p ea = H-L p ea , both La and Ta HΑL
p

p n!
are 1-D, and the realization of Sn on Ta HΑL corresponds to the 1-D rep p ® H-L p .

Ÿ Example 3:

There is one and only one independent totally anti- symmetric tensor of rank n in n-D space, usually denoted by Ε. In 2-D, its
components are
Ε12 = -Ε21 = 1, Ε11 = Ε22 = 0

In 3-D, the components are Εi j k = ± 1 according to whether Hi j kL is an even or odd permutation of (123); else, if any two
indices are equal, then Εi j k = 0.

Ÿ Example 4:

Consider second rank tensors (n = 2) in m-D Hm ³ 2L,

es i i \ = i i \ i = 1, 2, … , m

es i j \ = 8   i j \ +   j i \ <
1
i¹ j
2
There are mHm - 1L  2 distinct anti- symmetric tensors, as
ea i i \ = 0

ea i j \ = 8   i j \ -   j i \ <
1
i¹ j
2
Let us now turn to tensors with mixed symmetry.
30 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

Let us now turn to tensors with mixed symmetry.

Ÿ Example 5:

We return to V2 3 .
Consider

@ e + H12L D @ e - H31L D
1
Qm = 1 2 and em =
4
3

Since
em +++ \ = em --- \ = 0
only two independent irreducible invariant subspaces of tensors can be generated.

(i) By choosing Α \ = ++- \, we obtain:

em Α \ = @ e + H12L D @ ++- \ - - ++ \ D
1
4

@ ++- \ - - ++ \ + ++- \ - +-+ \ D

1
=
4

@ 2 ++- \ - - ++ \ - +-+ \ D
1
=

º m, 1, 1 \ [ Λ, Α, a \ ]
4

H23L em Α \ = H23L@ 2 ++- \ - - ++ \ - +-+ \ D

1
4

@ 2 +-+ \ - - ++ \ - ++- \ D
1
=

º m, 1, 2 \
4

and, for any r Î S3 , r em Α \ is a linear combination of the above two tensors. These two mixed tensors form a basis for
TΛ=m H1L.

(ii) By choosing Α \ = --+ \, we obtain:

em Α \ = @ 2 --+ \ - + -- \ - -+- \ D
1

º m, 2, 1 \
4

H23L em Α \ = @ 2 -+- \ - + -- \ - --+ \ D

1

m, 2, 2 \
4
º

as the basis for another irreducible invariant subspace of tensors with mixed symmetry TΛ=m H2L.

The realization of the group S3 on either TΛ=m H1L or TΛ=m H2L corresponds to the 2-D IR discussed in Sec. 5.2 and described
earlier in Chap. 3 [ cf Table 3.3 ].

The two tensors of mixed symmetry m, i, 1 \, i = 1, 2 (first ones of the two sets given above), are two linearly independent
tensors of the form em Α \ with Α \ ranging over Vm n . [ Problem 5.8 ] They are tensors of the symmetry Qm . We call the
subspace spanned by these vectors Tm ' H1L. Tm ' H1L is an invariant subspace under G2 since
g em Α \ = em g Α \ Î Tm ' H1L " Α \ Î Vm n

One can also show that this invariant subspace is irreducible under G2 . [ Problem 5.8 ]

Similarly, the two tensors m, i, 2 \, i = 1, 2 (second ones of the two sets) are two linearly independent tensors of the form
em H23L
Α ] — as can easily be verified by noting that H23L em = em H23L . They are tensors of the symmetry Qm H23L , denote the
subspace spanned by these tensors by Tm ' H2L. Tm ' H2L is also invariant under group transformations of G2 , and it is irre-
ducible. Together, the two sets 8 Tm ' HaL, a = 1, 2< comprise tensors of the symmetry class m, where m denotes the Young
diagram (frame) associated with the normal tableau Qm . For the sake of economy of indices, we shall use "Α" in place of the
label "i" from now on; it is understood that the range of this label is equal to the number of independent tensors that can be
generated by eΛ Α \ with Α \ Î Vm n .
 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 31

Similarly, the two tensors m, i, 2 \, i = 1, 2 (second ones of the two sets) are two linearly independent tensors of the form
em H23L Α ] — as can easily be verified by noting that H23L em = em H23L . They are tensors of the symmetry Qm H23L , denote the
subspace spanned by these tensors by Tm ' H2L. Tm ' H2L is also invariant under group transformations of G2 , and it is irre-
ducible. Together, the two sets 8 Tm ' HaL, a = 1, 2< comprise tensors of the symmetry class m, where m denotes the Young
diagram (frame) associated with the normal tableau Qm . For the sake of economy of indices, we shall use "Α" in place of the
label "i" from now on; it is understood that the range of this label is equal to the number of independent tensors that can be
generated by eΛ Α \ with Α \ Î Vm n .

We note that for the 8-D tensor space V2 3 , the use of Young symmetrizers (in Examples 2 and 5) leads to the complete
decomposition into irreducible tensors Λ, Α, a \ where Λ H= s, m L characterizes the symmetry class (Young diagram); "Α"
labels the distinct (but equivalent) sets of tensors TΛ HΑL invariant under Sn ; and "a" labels the basis elements within each set
TΛ HΑL, it is associated with distinct symmetries (tableaux) in the same symmetry class. We have 4 totally symmetric tensors
(Example 2) and 2 sets of 2 linearly independent mixed symmetry tensors. The latter can be classified either as belonging to
two invariant subspaces under S3 8 Tm HΑL, Α = 1, 2<, or as belonging to two invariant subspaces under G2
8 Tm ' HaL, a = 1, 2<. The latter comprise of tensors of two distinct symmetries associated with Qm and Qm H23L .

Bearing in mind these results for V2 3 , we return to the general case.

Ÿ Theorem 5.11:

(i) Two tensor subspaces irreducibly invariant with respect to Sn and belonging to the same symmetry class either
overlap completely or they are disjoint;

(ii) Two irreducible invariant tensor subspaces corresponding to two distinct symmetry classes are necessarily disjoint.

Ÿ Proof:

(i) Let TΛ HΑL and TΛ HΒL be two invariant subspaces generated by the same irreducible symmetrizer eΛ . Either they are
disjoint or they have at least one non- zero element in common. In the latter case, there are s, s ' Î Sn , such that
s eΛ Α \ = s ' eΛ Β \

This implies,
r s eΛ Α \ = r s ' eΛ Β \ " r Î Sn

When r ranges over all Sn , so do r s and r s '. Therefore, the left-hand side of the last equation ranges over TΛ HΑL and the right-
hand side ranges over TΛ HΒL, hence the two invariant subspaces coincide.

(ii) Given any two subspaces TΛ HΑL and TΜ H ΒL invariant under Sn ; their intersection is also an invariant subspace. If TΛ HΑL
and TΜ HΒL are irreducible, then either the intersection is the null set or it must coincide with both TΛ HΑL and TΜ HΒL. If Λ and Μ
correspond to different symmetry classes, then the second possibility is ruled out. Hence TΛ HΑL and TΜ HΒL have no elements in
common if Λ ¹ Μ. QED

Ÿ ÷

These general results permit the complete decomposition of the tensor space Vm n into irreducible subspace TΛ HΑL invariant
under Sn . As explained when working on the the example of V2 3 , we shall use Α as the label for distinct subspaces correspond-
ing to the same symmetry class Λ. The decomposition can be expressed as
(5.5-16) Vm n = â â TΛ HΑL
ΛÅ ΜÅ

The basis elements of the tensors in the various symmetry classes are denoted by Λ, Α, a \ where a ranges from 1 to the
dimension of TΛ HΑL. We can choose these bases in such a way that the representation matrices for Sn on TΛ HΑL are identical
for all Α associated with the same Λ , or
(5.5-17) p Λ, Α, a \ = Λ, Α, b \ DΛ HpLb a
independently of Α.
32 5._SymmetricGroups.nb

The basis elements of the tensors in the various symmetry classes are denoted by Λ, Α, a \ where a ranges from 1 to the
dimension of TΛ HΑL. We can choose these bases in such a way that the representation matrices for Sn on TΛ HΑL are identical
for all Α associated with the same Λ , or
(5.5-17) p Λ, Α, a \ = Λ, Α, b \ DΛ HpLb a
independently of Α.

The central result of this section will be that the decomposition of Vm n according to the symmetry classes of Sn , as described
above, automatically provides a complete decomposition with respect to the general linear group Gm as well. We have
already seen how this worked out in the case of V2 3 .

Ÿ Theorem 5.12:

If g Î Gm and 8 Λ, Α, a \ < is the set of basis tensors generated according to the above procedure, then the subspaces TΛ ' HaL
spanned by 8 Λ, Α, a \ < with fixed Λ and a are invariant with respect to Gm , and the representations of Gm on TΛ ' HaL are
independent of a: i.e.
(5.5-18) g Λ, Α, a \ = Λ, Β, a \ DΛ HgL Β Α

Ÿ Proof:

(i) Given r eΛ Α \ Î TΛ HΑL and g Î Gm , we have

g H r eΛ L Α \ = H r eΛ L g Α \ Î TΛ Hg ΑL

Hence, the operations of the linear group do not change the symmetry class of the tensor, or
g Λ, Α, a \ = Λ, Β, a \ DΛ H gL Β b Α a

(ii) We now show that DΛ H gL is diagonal in the indices Hb, aL. To this end, we note, for g Î Gm , and p Î Sn ,
g p Λ, Α, a \ = g Λ, Α, c \ DΛ H pLc a
= Λ, Β, b \ DΛ H gL Β b Α c DΛ H pLc a
and
p g Λ, Α, a \ = p Λ, Β, c \ DΛ H gL Β c Α a
= Λ, Β, b \ DΛ H pLb c DΛ H gL Β c Α a

Since g p = p g (Theorem 5.9), the two product matrices on the right- hand sides can be equated to each other. For clarity, let
us designate quantities in square brackets as matrices in the space of Latin indices, and suppress these indices. We obtain
(5.5-19) A DΛ H gL Β Α E @ DΛ H pL D = @ DΛ H pL D A DΛ H gL Β Α E

For given g, this equation holds for all p Î Sn . According to Schur's Lemma, the matrix DΛ H gL Β b Α a must be proportional to
the unit matrix in the Latin indices. QED

Ÿ Theorem 5.13 (Irreducible Representations of Gm ):

The reps of Gm on the subspace TΛ ' HaL of Vm n as described above are IRs.

Ÿ Proof:

Even though the complete proof involves some technical details [ Miller ], the basic idea behind it is rather easy to under-
stand: since Gm is, so to speak, the most general group of transformations which commutes with Sn on Vm n on the subspace
TΛ ' the operators 8 DH gL, g Î Gm < must be "complete" — they cannot be reducible. More specifically, consider an arbitrary
linear transformation A on the vector space TΛ ' HaL. In tensor component notation,
xI ™ yI = AI J x J

Because x and y belong to the same symmetry class, A must be "symmetry preserving" in the sense that,
(5.5-20) AI J = AI p J p " p Î Sn
 5._SymmetricGroups.nb 33

Because x and y belong to the same symmetry class, A must be "symmetry preserving" in the sense that,
(5.5-20) AI J = AI p J p " p Î Sn

We know already that the linear transformations representing g Î Gm on Vm n are symmetry preserving [ Lemma 5.1 ]. It can
be established that, even though A does
not necessarily factorize as DH gL in Eq. (5.5-6), it can nevertheless be written as a linear combination of DH gL. [ cf. Lemma
IV.7 ] Since this is true for all linear transformations, DH gL must be irreducible. QED.

Ÿ ÷

A concrete example on how the tensor space Vm n is decomposed to irreducible invariant subspaces with respect to both Sn
and Gm was worked out in detail previously for V2 3 . In the context of Theorems 5.12 and 5.13, we found:

(i) associated with totally symmetric tensors (Λ = s), there is an invariant subspace (with respect to Gm ) Ts ' which is 4-
dimensional and has basis vectors 8 s, Α, 1 \, Α = 1, … , 4 < given in Example 2; and

(ii) associated with the symmetry class Λ = m, there are two invariant subspaces Tm ' H1L and Tm ' H2L which give rise to
equivalent 2-dimensional irreducible representations of the linear group G2 . [ cf. Problem 5.8 ]

The irreducible representations of Gm provided by tensors of various symmetry classes as described in this section are by no
means the only irreducible representations of the general linear group. The main purpose of this exposition is to illustrate the
usefulness of the symmetric (or permutation) group in an important class of application — tensor analysis. In Chapter 13, we
shall give a more systematic discussion of finite-dimensional representations of the classical groups which includes
GLHm, C L as the most general case. We shall also utilize the tensor method to help evaluate the explicit expression for all
representation matrices of the rotation group in Sec. 8.1.