I/C: KALLURI VINAYAK

Variable Loading
• Variable loading results when the applied load or
the induced stress on a component is not constant
but changes with time
• In reality most mechanical components experience
variable loading due to
-Change in the magnitude of applied load
Example: Extrusion process
-Change in direction of load application
Example: a connecting rod
-Change in point of load application
Example: a rotating shaft
 Fatigue
• Fatigue is a phenomenon associated with variable
loading or more precisely to cyclic stressing or
straining of a material

• ASTM Definition of fatigue

– The process of progressive localized permanent
structural changes occurring in a material subjected
to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses at
some point or points and that may culminate in
cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient number
of fluctuations.
 Fatigue Failure- Mechanism
• Three stages are involved in fatigue failure
-Crack initiation
-Crack propagation
-Fracture / Rupture
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals

Final rupture occurs

over a limited area,
characterizing a very
small load required to
cause it

Beach marks
showing the
nature of crack
propagation

Crack initiation at
the outer surface
Crack initiation, propagation and rupture in a shaft subjected to repeated bending
Crack initiation at
the root of keyway
at B

Crack
propagation
occurs over a
time period

Final failure over

the small area at
C due to sudden
rupture
Connecting rod failed by fatigue failure

Flash
line of
forging

The crack got initiated at the flash line of forging.

Fatigue failure of a steam engine connecting rod due to PURE TENSION load.

No surface crack.
Crack may initiate
anywhere that is
the weakest or
unknown source
Radial direction of
of weakness.
crack propagation

In this rod, the crack

initiated due to
forging flake slightly
The crack propagated radially outward until some below the centre line.
time after which the sudden rupture occurred.
Scope of this Topic: Approach to Fatigue Failure in Analysis and Design

• Fatigue life methods

• Fatigue strength and endurance limit
• Endurance limit modifying factors
• Stress concentration and notch sensitivity
• Fluctuating stresses
• Combination of loading modes
• Variable, fluctuating stresses, cumulative fatigue
damage
Fatigue Life Methods: Objective is to predict the failure in number of cycles
N to failure for a specific type of loading
Low cycle fatigue (LCF) : 1 ≤ N ≤ 103 ; High cycle fatigue (HCF) : N > 103
• Stress life methods
– Based on stress levels only
– Least accurate of the three, particularly for LCF
– It is the most traditional because easiest to implement for a wide range of
applications
– Has ample supporting data
– Represents high cycle fatigue adequately
• Strain life methods
– Involves more detailed analysis of plastic deformation at localized regions
– Good for LCF
– Some uncertainties may exist in results because several idealizations get
compounded
– Hence normally not used in regular practice but only for completeness and
special occasions
• Linear elastic fracture mechanics methods (LEFM)
– Assumes that crack is already present and detected
– The crack location is then employed to predict crack growth and sudden rupture
with respect to the stress nature and intensity
– Most practical when applied to large structures in conjunction with computer
codes and periodic inspection
Stress Life Method: Determination of the strength of materials under
action of fatigue loads

R. R. Moore high-speed rotating beam machine.

Pure bending by means of weights and no transverse shear.
The specimen shown is very carefully machined and polished with a final polishing
in the axial direction to void circumferential scratches.
Number of revolutions of the specimen required for failure are recorded.
The first test is made at a stress that is some what under the ultimate strength of
the material.
ext, the test is repeated for a lower load, and so on.
The results are plotted in the S-N diagram, which is either semi-log or log-log.
 Specimen preparation for R. R.
Moore Method
• The specimen can be machined on lathe
using formed tool of radius
7
9 inch
8
and workpiece of length
7
3 inch
10
How to apply pure reversed bending without transverse shear?
M b = Fx − F (x − a )
M b = Fx − Fx + Fa = Fa

SFD

Mb
BMD
The S-N Diagram for steel (UNS G41300), normalized, Sut=812 MPa.

Endurance Limit,
It is the stress at
which the
component can
sustain infinite
number of cycles
Endurance limit, not applicable for non-
ferrous metals and alloys
• The plot in the S-N diagram never
becomes horizontal for non-ferrous metals
and alloys
• Hence there is no endurance limit for non-
ferrous metals and alloys
• Fatigue strength (Se) is used instead which
is specified, normally, as fatigue strength
at 5*108 cycles
For different aluminium alloys (which is non-ferrous)

For non-ferrous metals and alloys, as can be seen here, the S-N diagram never
becomes horizontal and hence they do not have endurance limit. Hence, a
stress at a specific number of cycles, normally at 5*108 cycles, must be used as
fatigue strength
 Quick Estimation of Endurance Limit

• Instead of referring to experimental data-bank

each time, it should be possible to quickly
estimate the value of endurance limit using
some kind of formula
• To enable that, data has been generated for
different types of steels, for endurance limit with
respect to the ultimate tensile strength
• This plot seemed to closely follow a combination
of two straight lines, of which the second being
almost horizontal at Sut=1460 MPa
For steels, Endurance limit is estimated as:

 0.504 Sut for Sut ≤ 1460 MPa

S =
'

Sut > 1460 MPa

e
740 MPa for
S e' = Endurance limit obtained in reverse bending
S e = Endurance limit in the actual loading conditions
 Stress concentration
• The single most influential factor leading to
high possibility of crack initiation

• Stress concentration can be due to

– Function of geometry (sudden change in
size/diameter; holes in the structure etc.

– and surface texture (surface finish, presence

of disintegrations etc.)
 What is Kt?
Kt=Theoretical stress concentration factor

Maximum stress
Kt =
Nominal stress w d

P
Nominal stress =
(w − d )t
σ max = K t × σ nom
K t = Determined through experiments or
numerical simulation such as FEM
 What is Kt?: Determination from FEA

Determination of Kt through FEM

Maximum stress
Kt =
Nominal stress
 Actual stress concentration factor, Kf
• Also called as fatigue strength reduction factor

K f = 1 + q(K t − 1) or K fs = 1 + qshear (K ts − 1)
q = notch sensitivity value (from Fig. 6 - 20 & 6 - 21)
K t = Theoretical stress concentration factor
(or geometric factor, from tables)
Notch Sensitivity plot for normal stress

Fig: 6-20
Notch Sensitivity plot for shear stress

Fig: 6-21
 Endurance limit ≠ Endurance strength

• Endurance limit (S’e) is only for rotational

bending of round bar

• Endurance strength (Se) is for all other

types of loading, geometry and operating
conditions
 Endurance limit modifying factors

S e = k a kb k c k d k e S '
e
k a = surface condition modification factor
k a = aS b
ut

Table 6.2
 Size factor, kb
kb = size modifying factor
For rotating circular CS bars in bending and torsion only :
(d / 7.62 )−0.107 = 1.24d −0.107 if 2.79 ≤ d ≤ 51 mm
kb = 
 0.859 − 0.000837d if 51 ≤ d ≤ 254 mm
For axial loading no size effect, kb = 1.

What about bars that are :

Non - rotating circular, rectangular, I - section,
channel section etc.?
 Kb for non-conforming situations:

Effective dimension is used

Effective dimension “de” obtained by equating the
volume of material stressed at and above 95 percent of
the maximum stress to the same volume in the rotating-
beam specimen

Case 1 : Non - rotating circular CS bars

A0.95σ =
π
4
[d 2
e ]
− (0.95d e ) = 0.0766 d e2 K (1), for rotating circular hollow CS bars
2

For nonrotatin g solid or hollow rounds, the 95 percent stress area is twice the area outside
of two parallel chords having a spacing of 0.95d i.e
A0.95σ = 0.01046 d 2 K ( 2), for non - rotating circular CS bars
Equation (1) and (2) d e = 0.37 d
Kb for non-conforming situations:

Table 6-3
 Load modification factor, kc
 1, bending

k c =  0 . 85 , axial
 0 . 59 , torsion

Actually the kc is dependent on the Sut of the material.
Tables 6-11 to 6-14 (page no. 325) in Text Book give the
details. The above values are average values.
 Temperature modifying factor, kd
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
k d = 0.975 + 0.432 10 −3 TF − 0.115 10 −5 TF2 + 0.104 10 −8 TF3 − 0.595 10 −12 TF4
where
70 ≤ TF ≥ 1000o F

Reliability factor, ke
ke = 1− 0.08 za
R za R za
50% 0 99.9% 3.031
90% 1.288 99.99% 3.719
95% 1.645 99.999% 4.265
99% 2.326 99.9999% 4.753
 Miscellaneous effects factor, kf

• Accounts for
– Corrosion
– Coating failure
– Spraying etc.
Four specific types of cyclic loading identified in mechanical
systems:

• Reversed (completely reversed) – mean stress is

zero; equal reversals on both sides
• Repeated – minimum stress is zero; mean stress
equal to half of the range stress
• Fluctuating – maximum, minimum and mean
stress are all non-zero and arbitrary
• Alternating – minimum stress is zero; mean
stress is always compressive and is equal in
magnitude to range stress
Pictorial depiction of various types of cyclic loading
Two important of those four types of cyclic (fatigue) loading

• Completely reversed cyclic loading

– The mean load is zero
– Normally has a well defined mathematical variation
such harmonic, square etc.
– Used for testing and measurement of endurance limit
of a given material
• Fluctuating loading
– The mean load is not zero
– The actual loading may not readily be given by a
mathematical function but needs to be approximated
– More critical and realistic than completely reversed
loading
Different fatigue failure models:

σ σ 1
a
+ m
= K Soderberg line
Se S yt n
σ σ 1
a
+ m
= K Modified Goodman line
Se S ut n
2
nσ a  nσ m 
+   =1 K Gerber line
Se  S ut 
2 2
 nσ a   nσ m 
  +   =1 K ASME Elliptic line
 S 
 Se   yt 
σ σ 1
a
+ m = K Langer line (only for checking
S yt S yt n
for static yielding)
Where σ m = K f σ mo and σ a = K f σ ao
How to estimate Kf
•Kf = 1+q(Kt -1).
•When q=0, the material has no sensitivity to notches,
and hence Kf=1.
•When q=1, or when notch radius is large for which q
is almost equal to 1, the material has full notch
sensitivity, and hence Kf = Kt.
•For all grades of cast iron, use q=0.20.
•Use the different graphs as given to obtain q for
bending/axial and torsional loading.
How to estimate Kf Contd.

• Whenever the graphs do not give values of q for

certain combinations of data, use either Neuber
equation or Heywood equation.
How to estimate Kf Contd.

• Use the Neuber equation when the notch is

circular/cylindrical.
1
q= and K f = 1 + q(K t − 1)
a
1+
r
where a is Neuber constant and is a material constant
a = f ( Sut ), i.e function of ultimate strength.
r = notch radius
For steel, with Sut in kpsi, the Neuber constant can be approximated by a third-
order polynomial fit of data as
How to estimate Kf Contd.

• Use Heywood equation when the notch is NOT

circular/cylindrical but is a tranverse hole or
shoulder or groove.
Kt
Kf =
2 (K t − 1) a
1+
Kt r
where
a values are given in the Table 6 - 15 in text book.
r = hole size/shoul der size/groov e size
How to apply Kf
• If there is no notch, there is also no notch sensitivity,
q=0, and Kf=1. Hence σm= σm0 and σa= σa0. In other
words no stress concentration needs to be applied.
• When there is notch, 0<q<1, Kf>1, and:
 If localized plastic strain at the notch is to be
avoided, then apply Kf to both mean and amplitude
stresses.
σm= Kf σm0 and σa= Kf σa0.
 If localized plastic strain is not a concern or can
not be avoided by incorporating Kf, then apply Kf
only to the amplitude stress (conservative).
σm= σm0 and σa= Kf σa0.
13
Prob 6-17: The cold drawn AISI 1018 steel bar is
subjected to an axial load fluctuating between 3.5 kN
and 15 kN. Estimate the factor of safety ny and nf
using ASME Elliptic criterion
Prob 6-20: A formed round wire cantilever spring
subjected to a varying force. The ultimate
strength is 1296 MPa. No stress concentration.
Surface finish is hot rolled finish. Find factor of
safety by using modified Goodman criteria
Combination of loading modes
• Different types of cyclic loads may be applied in
combination, for example, bending, axial and
torsional on machine components
• When the loads and in-phase, the maximum
values of loads occurs at the same time and so
are the minimum values.
• Hence in such cases, we can estimate the
maximum and minimum von-Mises stress
values and then estimate the mean and
amplitude von-Mises stresses. Then fatigue
criterion may be applied.
Combined loading
For the common case of a shaft with bending stresses, torsional shear stresses,
and axial stresses, the von Mises stress is
For plane stress

Considering that the bending, torsional, and axial stresses have alternating and
midrange components, the von Mises stresses for the two stress elements can be
written as
Design for Combined loading
• Calculate von Mises stresses for alternating and
midrange stress states, σ′a and σ′m .
• Apply stresses to fatigue criterion i.e Soderberg,
Modified-Goodman, Gerber’s or ASME Elliptic
criteria by replacing σa and σm with σ′a and σ′m
respectively
• Conservative check for localized yielding using
von Mises stresses i.e
• 6-27 Fig shows clutch testing machine. Axial load
applied to the shaft is cycled from 0 to P. Torque
is induced as T=0.25fP(D+d). Sy=800 MPa,
Sut=1000 MPa, Kta=3, Kts=1.8, f=0.3. Find the
maximum value of P such that the shaft will
survive 106 cycles with factor of safety of 3 using
Goodman criteria.