INTRODUCTION

Calculus is the mathematical study of change, in the same way that geometry is the study of
shape and algebra is the study of operations and their application to solving equations. It has two
major branches, differential calculus(concerning rates of change and slopes of curves), and integral
calculus(concerning accumulation of quantities and the areas under and between curves); these two
branches are related to each other by the fundamental theorem of calculus. Both branches make
use of the fundamental notions of convergence of infinite sequences and infinite series to a well-
defined limit.

Generally considered to have been founded in the 17th century by Isaac Newton and Gottfried
Leibniz, today calculus has widespread uses in science,engineering and economics and can solve
many problems that algebra alone cannot.

Calculus is a part of modern mathematics education. A course in calculus is a gateway to other,

more advanced courses in mathematics devoted to the study of functions and limits, broadly called
mathematical analysis.

Calculus has historically been called "the calculus of infinitesimals", or "infinitesimal calculus".
The word "calculus" comes from Latin (calculus) and refers to a small stone used for counting. More
generally, calculus (pluralcalculi) refers to any method or system of calculation guided by the
symbolic manipulation of expressions. Some examples of other well-known calculi are propositional
calculus, calculus of variations, lambda calculus, and process calculus.

Principles
Limits and infinitesimals
Calculus is usually developed by working with very small quantities. Historically, the first method
of doing so was byinfinitesimals. These are objects which can be treated like numbers but which are,
in some sense, "infinitely small". An infinitesimal number dx could be greater than 0, but less than
any number in the sequence 1, 1/2, 1/3, ... and less than any positive real number. Any integer
multiple of an infinitesimal is still infinitely small, i.e., infinitesimals do not satisfy theArchimedean
property. From this point of view, calculus is a collection of techniques for manipulating
infinitesimals. This approach fell out of favor in the 19th century because it was difficult to make the
notion of an infinitesimal precise. However, the concept was revived in the 20th century with the
introduction of non-standard analysis and smooth infinitesimal analysis, which provided solid
foundations for the manipulation of infinitesimals.
 In the 19th century, infinitesimals were replaced by the epsilon, delta approach to limits. Limits
describe the value of afunction at a certain input in terms of its values at nearby input. They capture
small-scale behavior in the context of the real number system. In this treatment, calculus is a
collection of techniques for manipulating certain limits. Infinitesimals get replaced by very small
numbers, and the infinitely small behavior of the function is found by taking the limiting behavior for
smaller and smaller numbers. Limits are the easiest way to provide rigorous foundations for calculus,
and for this reason they are the standard approach.

Differential calculus

Tangent line at (x, f(x)). The derivative f′(x) of a curve at a point is the slope (rise over run) of the line tangent to that
curve at that point.

Differential calculus is the study of the definition, properties, and applications of the derivative of a
function. The process of finding the derivative is called differentiation. Given a function and a point in
the domain, the derivative at that point is a way of encoding the small-scale behavior of the function
near that point. By finding the derivative of a function at every point in its domain, it is possible to
produce a new function, called the derivative function or just the derivative of the original function. In
mathematical jargon, the derivative is a linear operator which inputs a function and outputs a second
function. This is more abstract than many of the processes studied in elementary algebra, where
functions usually input a number and output another number. For example, if the doubling function is
given the input three, then it outputs six, and if the squaring function is given the input three, then it
outputs nine. The derivative, however, can take the squaring function as an input. This means that
the derivative takes all the information of the squaring function—such as that two is sent to four,
three is sent to nine, four is sent to sixteen, and so on—and uses this information to produce another
function. (The function it produces turns out to be the doubling function.)

The most common symbol for a derivative is an apostrophe-like mark called prime. Thus, the
derivative of the function of f isf′, pronounced "f prime." For instance, if f(x) = x2 is the squaring
function, then f′(x) = 2x is its derivative, the doubling function.
 If the input of the function represents time, then the derivative represents change with respect to
time. For example, if f is a function that takes a time as input and gives the position of a ball at that
time as output, then the derivative of f is how the position is changing in time, that is, it is
the velocity of the ball.

If a function is linear (that is, if the graph of the function is a straight line), then the function can be
written as y = mx + b, where x is the independent variable, y is the dependent variable, b is the y-
intercept, and:

This gives an exact value for the slope of a straight line. If the graph of the function is not a
straight line, however, then the change in y divided by the change in x varies. Derivatives give an
exact meaning to the notion of change in output with respect to change in input. To be concrete,
let f be a function, and fix a point a in the domain of f. (a, f(a)) is a point on the graph of the function.
If h is a number close to zero, then a + h is a number close to a. Therefore (a + h, f(a + h)) is close to
(a, f(a)). The slope between these two points is

This expression is called a difference quotient. A line through two points on a curve is called
a secant line, so m is the slope of the secant line between (a, f(a)) and (a + h, f(a + h)). The secant
line is only an approximation to the behavior of the function at the point a because it does not
account for what happens between a and a + h. It is not possible to discover the behavior at a by
setting h to zero because this would require dividing by zero, which is impossible. The derivative is
defined by taking the limit as h tends to zero, meaning that it considers the behavior of f for all small
values of h and extracts a consistent value for the case when h equals zero:

Geometrically, the derivative is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at a. The tangent line
is a limit of secant lines just as the derivative is a limit of difference quotients. For this reason, the
derivative is sometimes called the slope of the function f.

Here is a particular example, the derivative of the squaring function at the input 3.
Let f(x) = x2 be the squaring function.
 The derivative f′(x) of a curve at a point is the slope of the line tangent to that curve at that point.
This slope is determined by considering the limiting value of the slopes of secant lines. Here the
function involved (drawn in red) is f(x) = x3 − x. The tangent line (in green) which passes through
the point (−3/2, −15/8) has a slope of 23/4. Note that the vertical and horizontal scales in this
image are different.

The slope of tangent line to the squaring function at the point (3,9) is 6, that is to say, it is going
up six times as fast as it is going to the right. The limit process just described can be performed for
any point in the domain of the squaring function. This defines the derivative function of the squaring
function, or just the derivative of the squaring function for short. A similar computation to the one
above shows that the derivative of the squaring function is the doubling function.
Leibniz notation

A common notation, introduced by Leibniz, for the derivative in the example above is

In an approach based on limits, the symbol dy/dx is to be interpreted not as the quotient of two
numbers but as a shorthand for the limit computed above. Leibniz, however, did intend it to
represent the quotient of two infinitesimally small numbers, dybeing the infinitesimally small change
in y caused by an infinitesimally small change dx applied to x. We can also think of d/dxas a
differentiation operator, which takes a function as an input and gives another function, the derivative,
as the output. For example:

In this usage, the dx in the denominator is read as "with respect to x". Even when calculus is
developed using limits rather than infinitesimals, it is common to manipulate symbols
like dx and dy as if they were real numbers; although it is possible to avoid such manipulations, they
are sometimes notationally convenient in expressing operations such as the total derivative.

Integral calculus
Integral calculus is the study of the definitions, properties, and applications of two related
concepts, the indefinite integraland the definite integral. The process of finding the value of an
integral is called integration. In technical language, integral calculus studies two related linear
operators.

The indefinite integral is the antiderivative, the inverse operation to the derivative. F is an
indefinite integral of f when f is a derivative of F. (This use of lower- and upper-case letters for a
function and its indefinite integral is common in calculus.)

The definite integral inputs a function and outputs a number, which gives the algebraic sum of
areas between the graph of the input and the x-axis. The technical definition of the definite integral is
the limit of a sum of areas of rectangles, called aRiemann sum.

A motivating example is the distances traveled in a given time.

If the speed is constant, only multiplication is needed, but if the speed changes, a more powerful
method of finding the distance is necessary. One such method is to approximate the distance
traveled by breaking up the time into many short intervals of time, then multiplying the time elapsed
in each interval by one of the speeds in that interval, and then taking the sum (a Riemann sum) of
the approximate distance traveled in each interval. The basic idea is that if only a short time elapses,
then the speed will stay more or less the same. However, a Riemann sum only gives an
approximation of the distance traveled. We must take the limit of all such Riemann sums to find the
exact distance traveled.

Constant Velocity

Integration can be thought of as measuring the area under a curve, defined

by f(x), between two points (here a and b).

When velocity is constant, the total distance traveled over the given time interval can be
computed by multiplying velocity and time. For example, travelling a steady 50 mph for 3 hours
results in a total distance of 150 miles. In the diagram on the left, when constant velocity and time
are graphed, these two values form a rectangle with height equal to the velocity and width equal to
the time elapsed. Therefore, the product of velocity and time also calculates the rectangular area
under the (constant) velocity curve. This connection between the area under a curve and distance
traveled can be extended toany irregularly shaped region exhibiting a fluctuating velocity over a
given time period. If f(x) in the diagram on the right represents speed as it varies over time, the
distance traveled (between the times represented by a and b) is the area of the shaded region s.

To approximate that area, an intuitive method would be to divide up the distance

between a and b into a number of equal segments, the length of each segment represented by the
symbol Δx. For each small segment, we can choose one value of the function f(x). Call that value h.
Then the area of the rectangle with base Δx and height h gives the distance (time Δxmultiplied by
speed h) traveled in that segment. Associated with each segment is the average value of the
function above it,f(x) = h. The sum of all such rectangles gives an approximation of the area between
the axis and the curve, which is an approximation of the total distance traveled. A smaller value
for Δx will give more rectangles and in most cases a better approximation, but for an exact answer
we need to take a limit as Δx approaches zero.

The symbol of integration is , an elongated S (the S stands for "sum"). The definite integral is
written as:

and is read "the integral from a to b of f-of-x with respect to x." The Leibniz notation dx is intended to
suggest dividing the area under the curve into an infinite number of rectangles, so that their width
Δx becomes the infinitesimally small dx. In a formulation of the calculus based on limits, the notation

is to be understood as an operator that takes a function as an input and gives a number, the area, as
an output. The terminating differential, dx, is not a number, and is not being multiplied by f(x),
although, serving as a reminder of the Δx limit definition, it can be treated as such in symbolic
manipulations of the integral. Formally, the differential indicates the variable over which the function
is integrated and serves as a closing bracket for the integration operator.

The indefinite integral, or antiderivative, is written:

Functions differing by only a constant have the same derivative, and it can be shown that the
antiderivative of a given function is actually a family of functions differing only by a constant. Since
the derivative of the function y = x2 + C, where Cis any constant, is y′ = 2x, the antiderivative of the
latter given by:

The unspecified constant C present in the indefinite integral or antiderivative is known as

the constant of integration.

Fundamental theorem
The fundamental theorem of calculus states that differentiation and integration are inverse
operations. More precisely, it relates the values of antiderivatives to definite integrals. Because it is
usually easier to compute an antiderivative than to apply the definition of a definite integral, the
fundamental theorem of calculus provides a practical way of computing definite integrals. It can also
be interpreted as a precise statement of the fact that differentiation is the inverse of integration.

The fundamental theorem of calculus states: If a function f is continuous on the interval [a, b] and
if F is a function whose derivative is f on the interval (a, b), then

Furthermore, for every x in the interval (a, b),

This realization, made by both Newton and Leibniz, who based their results on earlier work
by Isaac Barrow, was key to the massive proliferation of analytic results after their work became
known. The fundamental theorem provides an algebraic method of computing many definite
integrals—without performing limit processes—by finding formulas for antiderivatives. It is also a
prototype solution of a differential equation. Differential equations relate an unknown function to its
derivatives, and are ubiquitous in the sciences.
PART 2.
A car travels along a road and its velocity-time function is illustrated in Diagram 1. The straight
line PQ is parallel to the straight line RS.

v (km/h)
P
v = 60t + 20

v = -160t+320

Q R
t (h)
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

S
Diagram 1

(a) From the graph, find

(i) the acceleration of the car in the first hour.

dv
v = 60t + 20∴a = = 60t +20
dt

When t = 1, = 60 ms-2

v = 60(1) + 20

= 80

When t = 0,

v = 60(0) + 20

= 20

(ii) the average speed of the car in the first two hours.
 Total distance travelled
Average speed =
Total time

Total distance = Area under the graph

(1.0 , 80) (1.5 , 80)

A B

C
(0 , 20)
D
(2.0 , 0)
0 1.0 1.5 2.0

1 1
Area of A = × 1.0 × 60 Area of BC = × (0.5 + 1.0) × 80
2 2

= 30 = 60

Area of D = 1.0 × 20

= 20

Total distance = 30 + 60 + 20

=110

110
∴ The average speed of the car in the first two hour =
2

= 55 km/h.

(b) What is the significance of the position of the graph

 (i) above the t-axis

The car move to a destination.

(ii) below the t-axis

The car move opposite ways the destination.

(c) Using two different methods, find the total distance travelled by the car.

Method 1

(1.0 , 80) (1.5 , 80)

A
(0 , 20)

(2.0 , 0) (2.5 , 0) (4.0 , 0)

(3.0 , -80) (3.5 , -80)

Based on calculation at 1(a)(ii), the total distance at region A is 110 km.

Total distance travelled at region B = Area of trapezium

1
= × (1.5 + 0.5) × 80
2

= 80 km

∴ Total distance travelled by the car = 110 + 80

= 190 km.

Method 2
 v = 80 P
v = 60t +20
v = -160t +320
A B C

Q
0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
R 3.0 3.5 4.0

D E F

S
v = -80

At region A, v = 60t + 20 At region D, equation PQ = v = -160t + 320

a = 60 mPQ= -160
1
s = ∫0 60t + 20 dt mRS = -160
= 50 y – y1= m(x – x1)
Thus, area = 50 km v – 0 = -160(t – 2.5)
v = -160t + 400
3.0
At region B, v = 80 s = ∫2.5 −160t + 400 dt
1.5
s = ∫1.0 80 = -20
= 40 Thus, area = 20 km
Thus, area = 40 km

At region C, v = -160t + 320 At region E, when t = 3.0,

a = -160 v = -160t + 400
2.0
s = ∫1.5 −160t + 320 dt = -160(3.0) + 400
= 20 = -80
3.5
Thus, area = 20 km s = ∫3.0 −80 dt
= -40
Thus, area = 40 km
 −80 − 0
At region F, gradient = m =
3.5 − 4.0
= 160
y – y1 = m(x – x1)
v – 0 = 160(t – 4.0)
v = 160t – 640
4.0
s = ∫3.5 160t − 640 dt

= -20
Thus, area = 20 km

∴Total distance travelled = Sum of all areas

= 50 + 40 + 20 + 20 + 40 + 20
= 190 km
(d) Based on the above graph, write an interesting story of the journey in not more than
100 words.

Soo was in his journey to join a convoy from Selangor to Terengganu. On that day, Soo
was late and drove his car accelerating from 20 km/h to 80 km/h. After the first hour, Soo found
his convoy’s members that are moving together on the highway. He then followed them with a
constant velocity, 80 km/h for half an hour. The group then decided to take a rest at any rest stop,
so they reduced their velocity for 30 minutes before they reached there. At that moment, Soo
received a phone call saying that his mother was admitted to a hospital. He then asked
permission from his group leader to leave the convoy.

He took the opposite way and drove directly to the hospital with increasing acceleration
from 0 km/h to 80 km/h. Unfortunately, there was a traffic jam that forces him to drive at a
constant velocity, 80 km/h for 30 minutes. He arrived to the hospital half and hour later with a
reduced velocity from 80 km/h to 0 km/h.
PART 3.
Diagram 2 shows a parabolic satellite disc which is symmetrical at the y – axis. Given that the
diameter of the disc is 8 m and the depth is 1 m.

8m

1m
y = f(x)

x
0
Diagram 2

(a) Find the equation of the curve y = f(x).

y = a(x - p)2 + q

Minimum point = (0 , 4)

y = a(x - 0)2 + 4

y = ax2 + 4

8
x – axis, = 4 y – axis, 4 + 1 = 5
2

At point = (4 ,5)

5 = a(4)2 + 4

5 – 4 = 16a

1
=a
16
 1 2
∴f(x) = x +4
16

(b) To find the approximate area under a curve, we can divide the region into several
vertical strips, and then we add up the areas of all the strips.Using a scientific
calculator or any suitable computer software, estimate the area bounded by the
curve y = f(x) at (a), the x– axis, x = 0 and x= 4.
y = f(x)
(i) y

A B C D E F G H

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 x

Diagram 3 (i)
1
Area of region = (value of x× value of y) + [2 (value of 𝑥 × value of y)]
1 2 1
Area of region A, y = x +4 Area of region E, y = 16(2)2+ 4
16
1
= (0)2 + 4 = 4.25
16
1
=4 Thus, area = (0.5)(4.25) + 2 (0.5)(0.14)
1
Thus, area = (0.5)(4) + (0.5)(0.02) = 2.17
2
1
= 2.00 Area of region F, y = 16 (2.5)2 + 4
1
Area of region B, y = 16(0.5)2 + 4 = 4.39
1
= 4.02 Thus, area = (0.5)(4.39) + 2 (0.5)(0.17)
1
Thus, area = (0.5)(4.02) + (0.5)(0.04) = 2.24
2
1
= 2.02 Area of region G, y = 16 (3)2 + 4
1
Area of region C, y =16(1)2 + 4 = 4.56
1
= 4.06 Thus, area = (0.5)(4.56) + 2 (0.5)(0.21)
1
Thus, area = (0.5)(4.06) + (0.5)(0.08) = 2.33
2
1
= 2.05 Area of region H, y = 16(3.5)2 + 4
1
Area of region D, y = 16(1.5)2 + 4 = 4.77
 1
= 4.14 Thus, area = (0.5)(4.77) + 2 (0.5)(0.23)
1
Thus, area = (0.5)(4.14) + (0.5)(0.11) = 2.46
2
= 2.10
∴ Total area under the curve = Sum of all areas
= 2.00 + 2.02 + 2.05 + 2.10 + 2.17 + 2.24 + 2.33 + 2.46
= 17.37 m2
(ii)
y = f(x)

Diagram 3 (ii)
1
Area of region = (value of x× value of y) – [2 (value of 𝑥 × value of y)]

Based on the values of y obtained in the calculations at Diagram 3 (i),

Area of region A, = 0.5 × 4

=2
1
Area of region B, =(0.5 × 4.02) – [2 (0.5)(0.04)]
=2
1
Area of region C, = (0.5 × 4.06) – [2 (0.5)(0.08)]
= 2.01
1
Area of region D, = (4.14 × 0.5) – [2 (0.5)(0.11)]
= 2.04
1
Area of region E, = (0.5 × 4.25) – [2 (0.5)(0.14)]
= 2.09
1
Area of region F, = (0.5 × 4.39) – [2 (0.5)(0.17)]
= 2.16
 1
Area of region G, = (0.5 × 4.56) – [2 (0.5)(0.21)]
= 2.23
1
Area of region H, = (0.5 × 4.77) – [2 (0.5)(0.23)]
= 2.34

∴ Total area under the curve = Sum of all areas

= 2 + 2 + 2.01 + 2.04 + 2.09 + 2.16 + 2.23 + 2.34
= 16.87 m2

(iii)
y
y = f(x)

A B C D E F G H

x
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Diagram 3(iii)
1
Area of region = (value of 𝑥 × value of y) + [2 (value of 𝑥 × value of y)]

Based on the values of y obtained in the calculations at Diagram 3 (i),

Area of region A = 0.5 × 4

=2
1
Area of region B, = (0.5 × 4.02) +[2 (0.5)(0.04)]
= 2.02
1
Area of region C, = (0.5 × 4.06) – [2 (0.5)(0.08)]
= 2.01
1
Area of region D, = (4.14 × 0.5) +[2 (0.5)(0.11)]
= 2.10
1
Area of region E, = (0.5 × 4.25) – [2 (0.5)(0.14)]
 = 2.09
1
Area of region F, = (0.5 × 4.39) +[2 (0.5)(0.17)]
= 2.24
1
Area of region G, = (0.5 × 4.56) – [2 (0.5)(0.21)]
= 2.23
1
Area of region H, = (0.5 × 4.77) +[2 (0.5)(0.23)]
= 2.34

∴ Total area under the curve = Sum of all areas

= 2 + 2.02 + 2.01 + 2.10 + 2.09 + 2.24 + 2.23 + 2.46
= 17.15 m2
(c)(i) Calculate the area under the curve using integration.
4 1
Area = ∫0 𝑥 2 + 4 d𝑥
10

1
= 17 x2
3

(c) (ii) Compare your answer in c (i) with the values obtained in (b). Hence, discuss which
diagram gives the best approximate area.

Based on question (b) Diagram 3 (i), the values obtained is 17.37, in Diagram 3 (ii)
is 16.87 while in Diagram 3 (iii) is 17.15. However, when we calculate using integration
method, the values obtained is 17.33.
In a conclusion, the best approximate area among the three diagrams is Diagram
3 (i) with the values obtained 17.37 which are almost same with the calculation using
integration method.

(iii) Explain how you can improve the value in (c) (ii).

The closer the stripes are located and the more the stripes are, the more
approximate value will be obtained.

(d) Calculate the volume of the disc.

 1 2
y= x +4
16

16y = x2 + 64

16y – 64 = x2

∴ v = π ∫ 𝑥 2 dy
5
=π ∫4 16y − 64 dy

22 16y2
= [ − 64y] 54
7 2

22
= [8y2 − 64y] 54
7
1
= 25 7 m3
FURTHER EXPLORATION.
A gold ring in Diagram 4 (a) has the same volume as the solid of revolution obtained when
the shaded region in Diagram 4 (b) is rotated 360° about the x-axis.

y y

f(x) = 1.2 – 5x2

0 x x
-0.2 0 0.2

Diagram 4 (a) Diagram 4 (b)

Find
(a) the volume of gold needed.

y = 1.2 – 5x2
y2 = (1.2 – 5x2)2
= 1.44 + 25x4 – 12x2

0.2
∴ Volume =π ∫−0.2 y 2 𝑑𝑥

22 0.2
= ∫−0.2 1.44 + 25𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 2
7
= 1.619
(b) the cost of gold needed for the ring.
(Gold density is 19.3 gcm-3. The price of gold can be obtained from the goldsmith)
mass
Density =
volume
mass
19.3 =
1.619

mass = 19.3 ×1.1619

= 31.25g
On 29th May 2014, 1g of gold costs RM 155.00
∴ The cost of gold needed for the ring = mass of gold × RM 155
= 31.25 × RM 155
= RM 4843.75
 OBJECTIVE
We, as the students taking Additional Mathematics are required to carry out a project work
while we are in Form 5. This year the Curriculum Development Division, Ministry of Education has prepared
for tasks for us with one choices. This project can be done in groups or individually, but each
of us are expected to submit an individually written report. Upon completion of the Additional
Mathematics Project Work, we are to gain valuable experiences and able to:

1.Apply and adapt a variety of problem solving strategies to solve routine and non-routine
problems

2.Experience classroom environments which are challenging, interesting and meaning fuland
hence improve their thinking skills

3.Experience classroom environments where knowledge and skills are applied in meaningful ways in solving
real-life problems

4.Experience classroom environments where expressing ones mathematical thinking,reasoning

and communication are highly encouraged and expected

5.Experience classroom environments that stimulates and enhances effective learning

6.Acquire effective mathematical communication through oral and writing, and to use the
language of mathematics to express mathematical ideas correctly and precisely

7.Enhance acquisition of mathematical knowledge and skills through problem- solving in ways
that increase interest and confidence

8.Prepare ourselves for the demand of our future undertakings and in workplace

9.Realises that mathematics is an important and powerful tool in solving real-life problems and
hence develop positive attitude towards mathematics.

10.Train ourselves not only to be independent learners but also to collaborate, to cooperate and
to share knowledge in an engaging healthy environment

11.Use technology especially the ICT appropriately and effectively

12.Train ourselves to appreciate the intrinsic values of mathematics and to become more creative
and innovative

13.Realises the importance and the beauty of mathematics.

 REFERENCES

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus
2. http://rossacalla.blogspot.com/2014/05/contoh-tugasan-kerja-projek-matematik.html
3. http://www.wyzant.com/resources/lessons/math/calculus/introduction/applications_of_cal
culus
 CONCLUSION

As a conclusion, with this Additional Mathematics Project, I know what is calculus and I
know how to apply and adapt a variety of problem solving stratergies to solve routine and non-
routine problems. I also had experienced classroom environment where knowledge and skills are
applied in meaningful ways in solving real-life problems. Besides, I had experience classroom
environment which are challenging,interesting, and can improve my thinking skills. After doing
this project, I know how useful log in my daily life. It make me become more appreciate with
calculus and the main thing is additional mathematics.