B.

CLEGG
B.E., A.M.I.E.Aust., Senior Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Western Australia.

KNEADING COMPACTION

This paper deals with kneading compaction and its significance in

relation to the strength of compacted soil specimens and the reproduction
of more realistic test specimens in the laboratory. I,t describes the main
features of various kneading compaction machines and presents results of
some tests on Perth soils. The method is discussed in relation to ,the
physical characteristics of compacted specimens and soil compaction theor-
ies. The main conclusions are that kneading compactors are satisfactory
devices for preparing test specimens, and that research has shown the use-
fulness of kneading compaction as a basis for comparing compaction
methods and in the development of an effective stress soil compaction theory.

INTRODUCTION originally proposed by PROCTOR (Ref. 1),

1.
The preparation in the laboratory of
re-moulded soil test specimens adequately
reproducing the subsequent in-place condi-
tions is an essential first step in the design
of embankments and pavements. The test
specimens should exhibit, to a sufficient
degree of accuracy, the strength characteris-
tics the material is likely to have after hav-
ing been compacted in the field. Field com-
paction is generally performed with rollers
that have intensities of contact pressures
varying from a few to several hundred
pounds per sq. in. In most cases the action is
that of a gradual build-up of pressure, the
holding of this pressure for a short time and
its gradual release. At the same time there
is a reversal of the direction of the shearing
action due to the forward movement. The
resulting effect on the soil may be described
as 'kneading action'.
2. The standard laboratory compaction
tests are used mainly to provide a basis for
specifying the degree of compaction to be
obtained in the field, and to give some indi-
cation of the most suitable moisture content
at which the compaction should be carried
out. With minor exceptions these tests are
still performed in the same manner as
i.e., using a falling weight to provide com-
pactive effort. This essentially dynamic pro-
cedure can be so adjusted in energy input
that it produces the same order of optimum
density and moisture content as that obtained
in the field by rolling equipment. However,
experience has shown that different com-
paction curves are likely to result, depending
on the type of soil and the roller used (Ref.
2). On large earthworks it is therefore not
uncommon to establish roller compaction
curves for the particular job.
Proctor type dynamic compaction is
3.
also commonly used in the preparation of
test specimens for tri-axial or direct shear
testing. The specimens are either compacted
with the same effort, in a similar mould as
for the Proctor compaction or rammed to
a specified density in thinner layers. Some-
times a so-called static compaction is em-
ployed, whereby the material is compressed
in a confined condition in a mould under a
press. It is not too difficult to appreciate that
some soils will behave quite differently and
have quite different strength characteristics
depending on the compaction method em-
ployed. Coherent soils which form aggre-
gates and clods are likely to be particularly

34 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH

 KNEADING COMPACTION
susceptible to the various wetting and shear-
ing actions of the different compaction
processes.
4. A great deal of research has been
carried out in order to compare the results
of the different types of compaction com-
monly employed in the laboratory, i.e.,
static, dynamic, vibratory, kneading. The
Harvard Miniature Compactor (Ref. 2)
and the Tri-Axial Institute or California
Highways Kneading Compactor (Ref. 3)
are said to reproduce field conditions and
are now in common use in the U.S.A. In
view of the apparent relationship between
compactors of this type and the field com-
paction under rollers, the University of Wes-
tern Australia purchased a `Soiltest' electro-
hydraulic compactor in 1959, and has used
this machine on a number of research pro-
jects. Some experiences with this compactor,
together with discussions on compaction
theories, and the relationship between the
strength characteristics and the compaction
method emloyed, comprise the remainder of
this paper.
KNEADING COMPACTORS
5. Mechanical devices for compacting
soils with a kneading action have been in
use for some years. One of the earliest and
simplest devices is the Harvard Miniature
Compactor previously referred to. This
device employs a spring-loaded plunger to
apply a predetermined pressure, but a recent
improvement seen by the author at the
University of California at Berkeley is the
incorporation of an air bellows system in
place of the coil spring. For the larger more
usual 4-in. diameter specimens the Califor-
nia Compactor (Ref. 4) is widely used, par-
ticularly for paving materials. This machine
is basically a mechanical system with
hydraulic damping to produce time pres-
sure curves such as those illustrated in Fig.
1 degrees at each tamp. Fig. 2 shows the
March, 1964
035 036 015
DIRECTION
OF sec sec sec
TRACE - --
7 1500 lb
ONE CYCLE 2 SECONDS - FOOT AREA
32 sq. in.
CALIFORNIA COMPACTOR
DWELL I
.10.4 sec I- DIRECTION
OF
TRAVEL 350
/ LOAD
APPLICATION L.
1 SECOND I FOOT AREA
— ONE CYCLE 2 SECONDS 3-2 sq. in.
ELECTRO -HYDRAULIC COMPACTOR
Fig. 1—Typical foot-pressure time diagrams for kneading
compactors.
6. The so-called kneading action can
also be reproduced with completely hydrau-
lic or pneumatic devices such as the Idaho
(Ref. 5) and North-Western (Ref. 6) com-
pactors. These machines, while the least
expensive to construct, have certain disad-
vantages such as high air consumption (up
to 40 cu. ft/min) when high foot pressures
are required, and they are inclined to be
excessively noisy.
7. With the machine used at the Uni-
versity of Western Australia economy of air
consumption is achieved together with the
convenience of easy adjustment to a wide
range of foot pressures and duration of foot
application. High foot pressures are obtained
by a booster action which consists of forcing
a small piston into the hydraulic system. A
typical pressure cycle obtained from this
machine is shown in Fig. 1. Foot pressures
can be adjusted while the machine is in oper-
ation to give values from 30 to 700 p.s.i. with
dwell times from 0.1 to 6 sec. It can be set
to give automatically any number of
tamps from 1 to 99,999, while some adjust-
ment to the speed of pressure application is
also possible. Its air consumption can be
supplied with a 9 cu.ft/min service station
type compressor. The compacting foot is a
segment of a circle and covers about 40 per
cent of the cross-sectional area of the mould
while the mould is rotated through 45
35
 KNEADING COMPACTION

tion, and that particle interference is signifi-

cant with the coarser grained soils.

SOIL STRENGTH AND COMPACTION

METHOD
10. The relationship between strength
and the compaction method attracts more
and more attention (Ref. 7). While it is
difficult to generalize when so many vari-
ables contribute to the relationship, it does
appear that static compaction produces
widely different results and dynamic com-
paction slightly different results from
kneading compaction.
11. The development of kneading com-
pactors arose out of the need to reproduce
field compaction conditions, particularly with
bituminous mixes for road pavements. The
continual kneading action of trafl•'ic is known
to increase gradually the degree of satur-
ation by adjusting the particle arrangement,
which is particularly noticeable when a high
Fig. 2—Electro-hydraulic kneading compactor showing an
automatic feed and a mould for compacting beams.

compactor with an attachment for continu-

ously feeding in the material and a mould
for compacting beams replacing the usual
cylindrical moulds. Fig. 3 shows the com-
pactor viewed from the rear with the cover
removed. The attachments were made in the
Department's workshop.

KNEADING COMPACTION CURVES

8. There does not appear to be any

clearly defined relationship between com-
paction curves obtained by kneading and
those obtained by other methods. The
results of some comparative tests on typical
soils from the Perth area are shown in Fig.
4. The effect of varying the foot pressures on
gravel is also shown in this Figure.
9. Other investigators have made simi-
lar comparisons and it is generally agreed
that higher degrees of saturation at optimum Fig. 3—Electro-hydraulic kneading compactor, rear view,
density are obtained by kneading compac- cover removed.

36 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH

 KNEADING COMPACTION

OPTIMUM
160
MOISTURE CONTENT
\ KNEADING COMPACTION —
\ 400 p.s.i. PRESSURES AS INDICATED "DRY" OF "WET" OF
200ps.i.
DRY 140 \\- \-1
- N.00 p.s.i. OPTIMUM I OPTIMUM
DENSITY B.S. COMPACTION - - -- RELATIVE
0 4
N •
7 - ,N - N.0
0. HEAVY WHERE INDICATED STRENGTH
(p.c.f.) _..- ..,-•., -... STATIC COMPACTION
-- -1---- :-400p.s.i. AT
120
5 PER CENT
- - - -, _ _,,HEA‘;Y
'`- .9 2 3
-.20 STRAIN
-100 p.s.i. -...,
.100 p.s.i. VIBRATION COMPACTION
......,
100
___.--
------- 1-----
'•"C,.
2

IMPACT COMPACTION
80 0
4 8 12 16 20 24 28
KNEADING COMPACTION
MOISTURE CONTENT ( PER CENT) ( BASE FOR COMPARISON;
1 Clay.
( FROM REF 8)
2 Uniform Fine Sand.
0
3 Silty Sand. 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
4 Well Graded Laterite Gravel. MOULDING MOISTURE CONTENT (PER CENT)

Fig. 4—Typical compaction curves for Perth soils. Fig. 5—The effect of compaction method on strength of
a silty clay at low strain.
percentage of flat and elongated particles
are present. The resulting reduction in degree influenced by the shear strains pro-
stability is known to be quite significant and duced in the soil by the compaction process.
has led to the incorporation of some form The effect of these strains is to disperse
of kneading as the basis for design proce- mechanically the soil, and this needs to be
dures. The Texas Wobbly Mould Compac- further considered in relation to the original
tor and the California Compactor are soil structure. When the soil is weakly
examples of attempts to produce more bound it will disperse readily under the
realistic test procedures. induced shear strains, while other soils may
12. SEED and CHAN of the University of have such strong interparticle forces that the
California at Berkeley have undertaken a compaction strains are relatively ineffective.
comprehensive investigation into the prob- The greater the shear strain induced by the
lem of strength in relation to compaction method of compaction the greater the degree
method (Refs. 8 and 9). Fig. 5 illustrates of particle orientation with consequent lower
some of their findings for silty clay. In this strengths at low strains, greater shrinkage
case the tests were performed on soil and less swelling. However, moulding moi-
re-moulded without saturation prior to the sture content does not produce any great
test. The process of saturation before test-
variations in samples compacted dry of the
ing adds further complexity to the problem,
involving the swelling characteristics of the
soil and the external restraint, such as the 10
surcharge in the CBR tests. A typical effect
SWELL 8 STATIC COMPACTION ,,,,
of compaction method on swell pressure
PRESSURE
is shown in Fig. 6. 6
(p.s.i.)
4
13. The work of Seed and Chan demon-
KNEADING
strates that soil structure is one of the most 2 COMPACTION
important factors contributing to such soil N\
0
properties as shrinkage, swell pressures, 105 109 113 117 121
DRY DENSITY (p c f )
permeability, induced pore pressures and
undrained strength. The resulting structure
Fig.6—The effect of method of campaction on the swell
in the compacted soil specimens is to a high pressure for a silty clay at a high degree of saturation.

March, 1964
 KNEADING COMPACTION
optimum, while the major differences
become evident in the wet of optimum con-
dition. The particle orientation is found to
decrease for compaction in the following
order: kneading, impact, vibratory, static.
14. It has been found that the soil struc-
ture has little effect on soil strength charac-
teristics (expressed in terms of effective
stresses) but applies its effect on pore pres-
sures during the test. Some soils, when
compacted, have a flocculated type structure
and develop characteristically low pore
pressures at low strains (in undrained tests)
compared with the more usual dispersed
structure at the same density and moisture
content. However, at high strains the shear-
ing during the test becomes sufficient to
produce very similar characteristics. As
mentioned previously, saturating the com-
pacted specimens introduces complications
because of swelling effects, which can be
attributed to internal physical phenomena
and external restraints placed on the speci-
men. The introduction of these additional
variables leads to a wide variety of relation-
ships.
15. An important result of the work of
Seed and Chan is that it illustrates the sig-
nificance of the stress-strain relationships for
soil samples prepared wetter than optimum
by kneading compaction, as a possible indi-
cation of the significance of the method of
compaction. Two basic forms of the stress-
strain diagram are recognized (Fig. 7). Soils
having these forms have clearly different
properties with respect to such factors as
compaction method, strength at different
strains, the relation between density and
moisture content, and swelling. Soils with
type b stress-strain curves will be least
susceptible to the effects of the compaction
method.
SOIL COMPACTION THEORIES
16. A proposed effective stress theory
for soil compaction was recently presented
38
TYPE 'B'
"NON-REACTIVE"
STRESS
TYPE 'A'
"COMPACTION
REACTIVE"
STRAIN
Fig. 7—Types of stress strain curves indicating reaction
of soils to compaction method.
by OLSON at the University of Illinois (Ref.
10). The purpose of this compaction theory
is to explain the effect of moulding moisture
content on dry density with a certain weight
and type of compactive effort. As sum-
marized by Olson the existing theories are
Proctor's capillarity and lubrication theory,
Hogentogler's viscous water theory and
Lambe's physio-chemical theory.
17. PROCTOR considers that moisture has
the effect of providing both capillary tension
and lubrication (Ref. 1). The reduction in
shear strength due to lubrication causes the
dry density to increase with increasing moi-
sture content. This lubrication is, in effect,
a reduction in the capillary tension. More
recent work has suggested that mineral sur-
faces are likely to be fully lubricated in the
range of moisture contents used for com-
paction.
18. HOGENTOGLER in his ViSCOUS water
theory takes into account the highly cohesive
nature of the water absorbed onto the par-
ticle surface (Ref. 11). When the particles
are in contact they are assumed to be separ-
ated by this viscous water film, and the
thickness of this film, which depends on the
moisture content, determines the shear resis-
tance between the grains and hence the com-
paction characteristics. More recent studies
have suggested that the moisture content at
which most soils are compacted greatly
AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH
 KNEADING COMPACTION
exceeds that at which these viscosity effects
may be significant.
19. More recently LAMBE introduced
surface chemical theories (Ref. 12). These
theories are based on the effects of changes
in the electrolyte concentration of the pore
water, which are considered to be sufficiently
strong to change the soil structure from
flocculated to dispersed, thus providing lubri-
cation effect. OLSON objects to this theory on
the basis that, while these phenomena are
undoubtedly significant in certain soils, the
theory is not applicable to soils in general.
Olson's effective stress concept attempts to
make use of Skempton's pore pressure coef-
ficients A and B and Bishop's x coefficient
for partly saturated soils. The theory is
presented in a qualitative manner for the
particular case of kneading compaction. It
is designed to provide an insight into the
kneading compaction process, and, what is
perhaps more important, to lead to a more
basic understanding of shear strength, com-
pressibility and permeability of compacted
soils.
21. Briefly stated, the concept is that
by applying pressure to a loose soil, the
developed shearing stresses cause the par-
ticle contacts to yield and create a tendency
towards densification of the mass. At the
same time total stresses and pore pressures
increase. The pore pressures increase
less than the total stresses, thus producing
an increase in the effective stress between
particles which eventually becomes sufficient
to support the pressure. On release of the
pressure the vertical total stress becomes
zero, the soil expands vertically and, at the
same time, the lateral stresses are reduced.
The tendency for the soil to expand is resis-
ted by the development of negative pore
water pressures. These pressures together
with residual lateral total stresses are con-
sidered to be sufficient to provide enough
compressive effective stresses to hold the
soil in its compacted state. The changes that
March, 1964
take place in the effective stress during the
compaction can be described in terms of the
pore pressure coefficients, and it is the inter-
play of these various parameters as func-
tions of foot pressure, moisture content and
deformation conditions that controls the dry
density.
22. The extension of the theory to
dynamic, Proctor type compaction is pos-
sible and may be helpful in assessing any
differences in the strength characteristics of
soils prepared by the two methods. The
process in the case of the dynamic compac-
tion requires enough viscosity in the soils to
stop the hammer and enough shearing resis-
tance to support its weight. In this method
a relatively deep penetration into the soil
takes place and the soil is compacted rather
more by being trapped under the foot than
squeezed into place.
23. The important implications of the
effective stress theory for compaction are
that the strength of the resulting compacted
material is governed by dry density which
is preserved by the development of negative
pore water pressures and by residual lateral
pressures, and that increasing dry density
has the same general effect as over-consoli-
dation. The strength of compacted speci-
mens will be governed, to some extent, by
effective stresses produced during the com-
paction process and by the restraint placed
on lateral movement. This restraint is
determined by such factors as the ratio of
foot area to mould cross-sectional area and
the thickness of layer being compacted.
24. Considering this theory together with
the work on soil structure and its effect on
the strength of the compacted specimen as
presented in the previous section, it follows
that soil structure is a further factor to be
taken into account. The soil structure con-
tributes to the variations in the induced pore
pressures, and is in turn governed by a dis-
persion caused by shear strains which are
39
 KNEADING COMPACTION

produced by the compaction process. The considerable attention by research workers

initial 'structural condition' in the soil prior
to wetting and compaction is also significant,
as well as the swelling reaction of the soil
aggregates to water.
CONCLUSIONS
25. Kneading compactors appear to be
suitable devices for reproducing field con-
ditions in the laboratory.
26. The problem of soil strength in rela-
tion to compaction methods is being given
particularly in the U.S.A.
27. Kneading compaction has been
proposed as a basis for evaluating the effects
of the compaction method, and it is also the
basis for the effective stress theory of com-
paction.
28. The significance of kneading com-
paction, as a basic test method designed to
produce realistic laboratory specimens
exhibiting the same structure as soils com-
pacted in the field and retaining similar
residual interparticle stresses, is apparent.

REFERENCES

1. PROCTOR, R. R. Fundamental principles of soil compaction, Eng. News Record, 111

(1933).
2. D.S.I.R. The compaction of soil: a study of the performance of plant, R.R.L., Tech.
Paper No. 17.

3. WILSON, S. D. A small soil compaction apparatus duplicates field results closely, Eng.
News Record, 145 : 18 (1950).

4. HVEEM, F. N. and DAVIS, H. E. Some concepts concerning fri-axial compression test-

ing of asphaltic paving mixtures and subgrade materials, A.S.T.M. Special Pub. 106
(1951).

5. ERICKSON, L. F. Flexible pavement design in Idaho, H.R.B. Bull. No. 210 (1959).
6. McRAE, J. L. and RUTLEDGE, P. C. Laboratory kneading of soils to simulate field
compaction, Proc. H.R.B., 50 (December, 1951).

7. JOHNSON, A. W. and SALLBERG, J. R. Factors influencing compaction test results,

H.R.B. Bull. No. 319 (1962).

8. SEED, H. B. and CHAN, C. K. Structure and strength characteristics of compacted clays,

Proc. A.S.C.E. 85 : S.M.5 (October, 1959).

9. SEED, H. B. and CHAN, C. K. Undrained strength of compacted clays after soaking,

Proc. A.S.C.E., 85 : S.M.6 (December, 1959).

10. OLSON, R. E. Effective stress theory of soil compaction, Proc. A.S.C.E., 89 : S.M.2
(March, 1963).

11. HOGENTOGLER, C. A. Essentials of soil compaction, Proc. H.R.B., 15 (1936).

12. LAMBE, T. W. Structure of compacted clay, A.S.C.E. Transactions, 125 (1960).

40 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH