Classical Mechanics - Homework 5 and 6

Ying-Lun Kao(B03202072)
Department of physics, National Taiwan University

November 7, 2016

1. Inertia tensor
Express the angular momentum and kinetic energy of a rigid body in terms
of its inertia tensor and angular velocity ωb in the body frame. Compute
the inertia tensor for (1) a stick, (2) a disk, (3) a ball and (4) a sphere
with uniform mass distribution about their center of mass.

Figure 1: The space and body frame

Proof. The origins of space frame and body frame are at the same point,
but the body frame rotates in the way how the rigid body rotates. Here,
I want to derive the angular momentum which is measured in the space
frame, but represented or expressed in the body frame. The first thing
is how to expressed the velocity of mass point i in the body frame but
measured in the space frame? From the Eqs.(4.86) in textbook(Goldstein),
I know that    
d d
= +ω×. (1)
dt s dt b
Therefore,    
dri dri
vi ≡ = + ωb × ri , (2)
dt s dt b

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where ri is the position vector of the mass point i and expressed in the
body frame. Since it is a rigid body,
 
dri
= 0 =⇒ vi = ωb × ri . (3)
dt b

Note that the velocity measured in the body frame must be zero because
it is a rigid body. In this derivation, the velocity vi is measured in the
space frame but expressed in the body frame. That is why it is nonzero.
Similarly, I will use the position vector and velocity vector which are
expressed in the body frame—but measured in the space frame—to express
the angular momentum of the rigid body in the body frame.
X
L= mi ri × vi
i
X (4)
= mi ri × (ωb × ri )
i

Using this identity,

A × (B × C) = (A · C)B − (A · B)C, (5)

therefore, X
L= mi [ri2 ωb − (ri · ωb )ri ]. (6)
i

Its components are:

X
Lx = mi [(x2i + yi2 + zi2 )ωbx − (xi ωbx + yi ωby + zi ωbz )xi ]
i
X (7)
= mi [(yi2 + zi2 )ωbx − xi yi ωby − xi zi ωbz ]
i
X
Ly = mi [(x2i + yi2 + zi2 )ωby − (xi ωbx + yi ωby + zi ωbz )yi ]
i
X (8)
= mi [−xi yi ωbx + (x2i + zi2 )ωby − yi zi ωbz ]
i
X
Lz = mi [(x2i + yi2 + zi2 )ωbz − (xi ωbx + yi ωby + zi ωbz )zi ]
i
X (9)
= mi [−xi zi ωbx − yi zi ωby + (x2i + yi2 )ωbz ]
i

Let me rearrange the right hand side of these three components.

2 2
  P P P  
Lx Pi (yi + zi ) P− i m2i xi yi2
im − Pi mi xi zi ωbx
Ly  =  − i mi xi yi m i
i P i (x + zi ) − i m i yi zi
  ωby 
2 2
P P
Lz − i mi xi zi − i mi yi zi i mi (xi + yi ) ωbz
(10)

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Then, the inertia tensor of this rigid body is defined as
2 2
P P P 
Pi (yi + zi ) P− i m2i xi yi2
im − Pi mi xi zi
I ≡  − Pi mi xi yi Pi (xi + zi ) P− i m2i yi zi2 .
im
 (11)
− i mi xi zi − i mi yi zi i mi (xi + yi )

Therefore,
L = I · ωb (12)
The kinetic energy expressed in the body frame is
X1
T = mi vi2
i
2
X1
= mi (ωb × ri ) · (ωb × ri )
i
2
X1
= mi ωb · [ri × (ωb × ri )]
2
i (13)
1 X
= ωb · mi [ri × (ωb × ri )]
2 i

1
= ωb · L
2
1
= ωb · I · ωb
2
The final question is find the inertia tensor of the following items. Before
solving that, let me write down the general formula of inertia tensor:
Z
Iij = d3 r ρ(~r) (r2 δij − xi xj ) (14)
V

(a) The inertia tensor for a stick

Figure 2: The stick and its body frame with the principal axis

Obviously, this stick is symmetric about the xz-plane. And since it

is an one-dimensional object, its density distribution is
M
ρ(~r) = δ(x)δ(z), (15)
L

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 where M and L are its total mass and the length respectively. There-
fore, Z
M
Ixx = dxdydz δ(x)δ(z)(y 2 + z 2 )
V L
Z L/2
M 2
= dy y (16)
−L/2 L
L/2
M 3  M L2
= y  =
3L −L/2 12
Similarly,
M L2
Iyy = 0, Izz = . (17)
12
As for the off-diagonal terms,
Z
M
Ixy = − dxdydz δ(x)δ(z)xy = 0. (18)
V L

Similarly,
Ixz = Iyx = Iyz = Izx = Izy = 0. (19)
Therefore, the inertia tensor of a stick with mass M and length L
expressed with the principal axis of body frame is
 M L2 
12 0 0
I= 0 0 0 . (20)
M L2
0 0 12

(b) The inertia tensor for a disk

Figure 3: The disk and its body frame with principal axis

Since it is a two-dimensional disk, its density distribution is

M
ρ(~r) = δ(z), (21)
πR2
where M and R are its total mass and radius respectively. Therefore,

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 its moment of inertia coefficients are
Z
M
Ixx = dxdydz δ(z)(y 2 + z 2 )
V πR2
Z 2π Z R
M
= r2 sin2 θ rdrdθ
πR2 0 0

M R4 1 (22)
= × π × = M R2
πR2 4 4
Z
M
Iyy = dxdydz δ(z)(x2 + z 2 )
V πR2
1
= M R2
4
Z
M
Izz = dxdydz 2
δ(z)(x2 + y 2 )
V πR
Z 2π Z R
M
= r2 rdrdθ (23)
πR2 0 0

M R4 1
= 2
× 2π × = M R2
πR 4 2
And, its products of inertia is
Ixy = Ixz = Iyx = Iyz = Izx = Izy = 0, (24)
for its cylindrical symmetry. Therefore, its inertia tensor is
1 2

4MR 0 0
1 2
I= 0 4MR 0 . (25)
1
0 0 2 M R2
(c) The inertia tensor for a ball

Figure 4: The ball and its body frame with principal axis

The density distribution is

M 3M
ρ(~r) = 3
= . (26)
4πR /3 4πR3

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 Therefore, its moments of inertia coefficients are:
Z
3M
Ixx = dxdydz (y 2 + z 2 )
V 4πR3
Z 2π Z π Z R
3M
= r2 (sin2 θ sin2 φ + cos2 θ)r2 sinθdrdθdφ
4πR3 0 0 0

5 Z 2π Z π
3M R
= 3
× (sin3 θ sin2 φ + sinθ cos2 θ)dθdφ
4πR 5 0 0
Z 2π Z π Z 2π Z π
3M R2

= sin2 φ dφ sin3 θ dθ + dφ sinθ cos2 θdθ
20π 0 0 0 0
2
 
3M R 4 2 2
= π × + 2π × = M R2
20π 3 3 5
(27)
Similarly,
2
Iyy = Izz = M R2 (28)
5
Due to the spherical symmetry,

Ixy = Ixz = Iyx = Iyz = Izx = Izy = 0 (29)

Therefore, the inertia tensor of a ball is

2 2

5MR 0 0
2 2
I=  0 5MR 0 . (30)
2 2
0 0 5MR

(d) The inertia tensor for a sphere

Figure 5: The (hollow) sphere and its body frame with principal axis

The density distribution is

M
ρ(~r) = δ(r − R). (31)
4πR2

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 Therefore, its moments of inertia coefficients are:
Z
M
Ixx = dxdydz δ(r − R)(y 2 + z 2 )
V 4πR2
Z
M
= δ(r − R)(r2 sin2 θ sin2 φ + r2 cos2 θ)r2 sinθ drdθdφ
4πR2 V
Z 2π Z π
M
= R4 (sin3 θ sin2 φ + cos2 θ sinθ)dθdφ
4πR2 0 0

2
Z 2π Z π Z 2π Z π 
MR 2 3 2
= sin φ dφ sin θ dθ + dφ cos θ sinθ dθ
4π 0 0 0 0

M R2 M R2
 
4 2 8π 2
= π × + 2π × = × = M R2
4π 3 3 4π 3 3
(32)
Similarly,
2
Iyy = Izz = M R2 (33)
3
As for the products of inertia, due to the spherical symmetry,

Ixy = Ixz = Iyx = Iyz = Izx = Izy = 0. (34)

Therefore, its inertia tensor is

2 2

3MR 0 0
2
I= 0 3 M R2 0 . (35)
2
0 0 3 M R2

2. Euler’s equation
Derive the differential equation for the angular velocity vector ωb for a
rigid body called Euler’s equation. Describe the motion of ωb using the
geometric notions called inertial ellipsoid and invariable plane. Solve the
Euler’s equation explicitly for symmetric rigid body.

Proof. The rates of the change of vector between space and body frame is
related by    
d d
= +ω×. (36)
dt s dt b
Therefore, for the angular momentum L which is measured in the space
frame but expressed in the body frame,
   
dL dL
= + ωb × L. (37)
dt s dt b
 
dLi
=⇒ + ijk ωj Lk = Ni (38)
dt b

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 If now the body axes are taken as the principal axes relative to the refer-
ence point, then
Ii ω̇i + ijk ωj Ik ωk = Ni (39)

I1 ω̇1 + ω2 ω3 (I3 − I2 ) = N1

=⇒ I2 ω̇2 + ω1 ω3 (I1 − I3 ) = N2 (40)

I3 ω̇3 + ω1 ω2 (I2 − I1 ) = N3


For the torque-free motion of a rotating rigid body,

I1 ω̇1 = ω2 ω3 (I2 − I3 )
I2 ω̇2 = ω1 ω3 (I3 − I1 ), (41)
I3 ω̇3 = ω1 ω2 (I1 − I2 )

we can use Poinsot’s construction to visualize the change of the ω

vector. Since there is no torque, we have the conservation of kinetic energy
and the total angular momentum.
X1 1
T = mi vi2 = ω · L, (42)
i
2 2

where ω and L are expressed in the body frame, and

|L|2 = I1 ω12 + I2 ω22 + I3 ω33 , (43)

when the body axes are taken as the principal axes of the body frame.
From Eqs.(42), I know that, in the body frame, the angle between ω and
L is constant. From Eqs.(43), I know that, in the body frame, it is an
ellipsoid for certain total angular momentum.

Figure 6: The inertia ellipsoid and the space axes(x,y,z) and the principal
axes(x’,y’,z’) in the body frame.

From fig.(6), we know that the three axial length of the ellipsoid are
|L|2 /I1 , |L|2 /I2 and |L|2 /I3 respectively. Since the total angular momen-
tum |L|2 is conserved (angular momentum L ~ is not a constant vector in
body frame) and it is a rigid body, these three length is fixed. That is, the

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shape of this ellipsoid is fixed. Besides, although the angular momentum
~ is not a constant vector in body frame, it is indeed a constant vector in
L
space frame(i.e., inertial reference frame).

Figure 7: The initial angular momentum and initial angular velocity

As we can see from fig.(7), the conservation of kinetic energy means the
angle between angular momentum and angular velocity is fixed. As time
moves on, angular velocity ω rotates about the constant angular momen-
tum L expressed (seen) in the space frame. Therefore, the trajectory of
ωs forms an immovable plane, which is called the invariable plane. But,
how does ω moves on the surface of the inertia ellipsoid? Let me find the
property of the point where ω situates at. The equation of inertia ellipsoid
is
F (ω) = I1 ω12 + I2 ω22 + I3 ω32 . (44)
Its gradient at the ω ∗ when L = I · ω ∗ ≡ Lb is

∇ω F (ω ∗ ) = 2I · ω ∗ = 2LkLb . (45)

Therefore, the inertia ellipsoid is tangent with the invariable plane. That
is, the ellipsoid of inertia of any rigid body under free rotation always
touches a fixed plane, known as the invariable plane, perpendicular to
the angular momentum. As time goes on, the change of angular velocity
implies the point of contact on the surface of inertia ellipsoid ought to
change with time. However, the invariable plane is fixed. Thus, the inertia
ellipsoid itself change its orientation with time while keeping its origin
fixed.

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 Figure 8: The invariable plane, the polhode and the herpolhode

Finally, since the body frame is fixed in the inertia ellipsoid and it rotates
with the ω, being along the instantaneous axis of rotation, and the ω
vector passes through the contact point and the origin, the ellipsoid is
rolling without slipping on the invariable plane when we see the motion
of ellipsoid in the space frame.

For symmetric rigid body, let I1 = I2 , then ω3 is constant. Therefore,

I1 ω̇1 = (I1 − I3 )ω2 ω3
I2 ω̇2 = (I3 − I1 )ω1 ω3 (46)
I3 ω̇3 = 0
Let
I3 − I1
Ω≡ ω3 , (47)
I1
therefore, (
ω̇1 = −Ωω2
=⇒ (48)
ω̇2 = Ωω1
(
ω̈1 = −Ω2 ω1
=⇒ (49)
ω̈2 = −Ω2 ω2
(
ω1 = A cos(Ωt)
=⇒ (50)
ω2 = A sin(Ωt)
∵ ωb2 = ω12 + ω22 + ω32 (51)
That means, in the body frame, the angular velocity rotates about the
z-axis with the angular frequency Ω.
q
∴ ωb2 = A2 + ω32 =⇒ ω3 = ωb2 − A2 (52)

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3. Double pendulum
Obtain the normal modes of vibration for the double pendulum shown in
the figure on the right, assuming equal lengths but unequal masses M ,
m. Show that, when the lower mass is small compared to the upper one,
the two resonant frequencies are almost equal. In such a situation, under
suitable initial condition the subsequent motion is such that at regular
time intervals one pendulum is at rest while the other has its maximum
amplitude. This is the familiar phenomenon of “beats”.

Figure 9: The double pendulum

Figure 10: The double pendulum

Proof. From fig.(10), the general coordinate is

xM = l sinθ
yM = −l cosθ
(53)
xm = l sinθ + l sinφ
ym = −l cosθ − l cosφ
Therefore, the kinetic energy is
1 1
T = M l2 θ̇2 + ml2 (θ̇2 + φ̇2 + 2θ̇φ̇ cos(θ − φ)), (54)
2 2
and the potential energy is
U = −M gl cosθ − mgl(cosθ + cosφ) (55)

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Since we’re interested in the motion of the system within the immediate
neighborhood of a configuration of stable equilibrium, the departures from
equilibrium are too small:
1 1
T ≈ (M + m)l2 θ̇2 + ml2 θ̇φ̇ + ml2 φ̇2
2 2
(56)
1 1
U ≈ (M + m)glθ2 + mglφ2
2 2
Therefore, the Lagrangian is given by

L = T − U =⇒ Vij aj − ω 2 Tij aj = 0, (57)

where
∂2V
 
Vij ≡
∂qi ∂qj 0
X ∂rk ∂rk
Tij ≡ mk
∂qi ∂qj (58)
k

θ = Ca1 e−iωt

φ = Ca2 e−iωt

Therefore,
 
V11 − ω 2 T11 V12 − ω 2 T12 
V21 − ω 2 T21 V22 − ω 2 T22  = 0
 

 
(M + m)gl − ω 2 (M + m)l2 −ω 2 ml2 
=⇒  =0
−ω 2 ml2 mgl − ω 2 ml2 

=⇒ [(M + m)gl − ω 2 (M + m)l2 ](mgl − ω 2 ml2 ) − ω 4 m2 l4 = 0

=⇒ [(M + m)m − m2 ]l4 ω 4 − 2(M + m)mgl3 ω 2 + (M + m)mg 2 l2 = 0

=⇒ M l2 ω 4 − 2(M + m)glω 2 + (M + m)g 2 = 0

p
2 2(M + m)gl ± 2gl m(M + m)
=⇒ ω± =
2M l2
(59)
Let ρ ≡ m/M , ω02 = g/l
2
p
ω± = [(1 + ρ) ± ρ(1 + ρ)]ω02 (60)

If ρ → 0, then
2 √
ω± → (1 ± ρ)ω02 (61)
For ω = ω± ,
 √ √
∓ ρ(1 + ρ)ω02 ρ(1 ± ρ)ω02
   
a11/12 0
√ = (62)
ρ(1 ± ρ)ω02 ∓ρ3/2 ω02 a21/22 0
 1/2    
∓ρ ρ a11/12 0
=⇒ ≈ (63)
ρ ∓ρ3/2 a21/22 0

12
 (
a11 ≈ ρ1/2 a21
=⇒ (64)
a12 ≈ −ρ1/2 a22
If we use the original generalized coordinates, θ and φ, then we have
   1/2   1/2 
θ ρ −ρ
= C1 cos(ω+ t + δ+ ) + C2 cos(ω− t + δ− ) (65)
φ 1 1
If C1 = C2 = 1, and δ± = 0, then
√
ρ !
−2ρ1/2 sin(ω0 t) sin( 2 ω0 t)
 
θ
= √ (66)
φ 2 cos(ω0 t) cos(
ρ
2 ω0 t)

Therefore, when one pendulum is at rest, the other has its maximum
amplitude. To find the normal coordinates, we need to determine those
coefficients. We have the following definitions.
   1/2 
a11 a12 ρ a21 −ρ1/2 a22
A≡ = (67)
a21 a22 a21 a22
(M + m)l2 ml2
     
T11 T12 2 1 ρ
T ≡ = ≈ M l (68)
T21 T22 ml2 ml2 ρ ρ
In order to remove the indeterminacy of a, we require that
AT T A = I (69)
Therefore,
ρ1/2 a21
     1/2 
a21 1 ρ ρ a21 −ρ1/2 a22
AT T A = M l2
−ρ1/2 a22a22 ρ ρ a21 a22
 1/2
(1 + ρ1/2 )ρ1/2 a21 (−1 + ρ1/2 )ρ1/2 a22
 
2 ρ a21 a21
= Ml
−ρ1/2 a22 a22 (1 + ρ1/2 )ρa21 (1 − ρ1/2 )ρa22
 1/2   1/2 
2 ρ a21 a21 ρ a21 −ρ1/2 a22
≈ Ml
−ρ1/2 a22 a22 ρa21 ρa22

2ρa221
   
0 1 0
= M l2 ≈
0 2ρa222 0 1
(70)
Therefore,
1
a21 = a22 ≈ √ (71)
2ml
Since the normal coordinates are defined by ζ,
!  !
√1 √1 √ 1 (ζ1 − ζ2 )
 
θ 2M l 2M l ζ1 2M l
= √1 √1
= √1 (72)
φ 2ml 2ml
ζ2 2ml 1
(ζ + ζ2 ),

therefore,
 r r r
M m M
l(θ + ρ1/2 φ)

ζ 1 = lθ + lφ =


2 2 2
r r r . (73)

 M m M
ζ 2 = lθ − lφ = l(θ − ρ1/2 φ)

2 2 2

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Therefore,
 r
M
l(θ + ρ1/2 φ) = C10 cos(ω+ t + δ+ )

 ζ =
 1

 2
r (74)
M
l(θ − ρ1/2 φ) = C20 cos(ω− t + δ− )

ζ 2 =


2


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