History of Freemasonry

Main article: Freemasonry of England, James Anderson was commissioned to digest

these “Gothic Constitutions” in a palatable, modern form.
The resulting constitutions are prefaced by a history more
The history of Freemasonry encompasses the origins,
evolution and defining events of the fraternal organisation extensive than any before, again tracing the history of
what was now freemasonry back to biblical roots, again
known as Freemasonry. It covers three phases. Firstly,
the emergence of organised lodges of operative masons forging Euclid into the chain. True to his material, An-
derson fixes the first grand assembly of English Masons
during the Middle Ages, then the admission of lay mem-
bers as “accepted” or speculative masons, and finally the at York, under Athelstan’s son, Edwin, who is otherwise
evolution of purely speculative lodges, and the emergence unknown to history.[4] Expanded, revised, and repub-
of Grand Lodges to govern them. The watershed in this lished, Anderson’s 1738 constitutions listed the Grand
process is generally taken to be the formation of the first Masters since Augustine of Canterbury, listed as Austin
Grand Lodge in London in 1717. The two difficulties the Monk.[5] William Preston’s Illustrations of Freema-
facing historians are the paucity of written material, even sonry enlarged and expanded on this masonic creation
down to the 19th century, and the misinformation gen- myth.[6]
erated by masons and non-masons alike from the earliest In France, the 1737 lecture of Chevalier Ramsay added
years. the crusaders to the lineage. He maintained that Cru-
A complete history of Freemasonry is beyond the scope sader Masons had revived the craft with secrets re-
of a single article. This article traces the early develop- covered in the Holy Land, under the patronage of the
ment of Freemasonry from organised bodies of operative Knights Hospitaller. At this point, the “history” of the
stonemasons to the modern system of speculative lodges craft in Continental
[7]
Freemasonry diverged from that in
organised round regional or national “Grand Lodges”. England.
Notable events and developments of the modern period
are also briefly described. The history of specific sub-
jects, rites and jurisdictions within the general heading 1.2 Speculative Histories
of Freemasonry is dealt with in detail elsewhere, in their
own articles. Anderson’s histories of 1723 and 1738, Ramsay’s roman-
ticisation, together with the internal allegory of masonic
ritual, centred on King Solomon’s Temple and its archi-
tect, Hiram Abiff, have provided ample material for fur-
1 Origin Myths and Theories ther speculation.
The earliest known ritual places the first masonic lodge
1.1 Early Masonic Sources in the porchway of King Solomon’s Temple.[8] Fol-
lowing Anderson, it has also been possible to trace
The earliest masonic texts each contain some sort of a Freemasonry to Euclid, Pythagoras, Moses, the Essenes,
history of the craft, or mystery, of masonry. The oldest and the Culdees.[9] Preston started his history with the
known work of this type, The Halliwell Manuscript, or Druids,[6] while Anderson’s description of masons as
Regius Poem, dating from between 1390 and 1425, has "Noachides", extrapolated by Albert Mackey, put Noah
a brief history in its introduction, stating that the “craft into the equation.[10]
of masonry” began with Euclid in Egypt, and came to Following Ramsay’s introduction of Crusader masons,
England in the reign of King Athelstan.[1] Shortly after-
the Knights Templar became involved in the myth, start-
wards, the Cooke Manuscript traces masonry to Jabal soning with Karl Gotthelf von Hund's Rite of Strict Ob-
of Lamech (Genesis 4: 20-22), and tells how this knowl-servance, which also linked in the exiled House of Stu-
edge came to Euclid, from him to the Children of Israelart.[11] The murder of Hiram Abiff was taken as an al-
(while they were in Egypt), and so on through an elaborate
legory for the death of Charles I of England. Oliver
path to Athelstan.[2] This myth formed the basis for subse-
Cromwell emerges as the founder of Freemasonry in
quent manuscript constitutions, all tracing masonry back
an anonymous anti-masonic work of 1745, commonly
to biblical times, and fixing its institutional establishment
attributed to Abbé Larudan. Mackey states that “The
in England during the reign of Athelstan (927-939).[3] propositions of Larudan are distinguished for their ab-
Shortly after the formation of the Premier Grand Lodge solute independence of all historical authority and for

1
2 2 FROM ORIGIN TO GRAND LODGE FREEMASONRY

the bold assumptions which are presented to the reader 2.1 Origin of the term “Freemason”
in the place of facts.”[12] The anti-masonic writings of
Christoph Friedrich Nicolai implicated Francis Bacon
The earliest official English documents to refer to masons
and the Rosicrucians,[13] while Christopher Wren's con-
are written in Latin or Norman French. Thus we have
nection with the craft was omitted from Anderson’s first
“sculptores lapidum liberorum” (London 1212), “mag-
book of constitutions, but appeared in the second when
ister lathomus liberarum petrarum” (Oxford 1391), and
Wren was dead.[14]
“mestre mason de franche peer” (Statute of Labourers
The German pioneer in Masonic history Joseph Gabriel 1351). These all signify a worker in freestone, a grainless
Findel, and others since, have sought the origins of or- sandstone or limestone suitable for ornamental masonry.
ganised masonry in the lodges of the medieval German In the 17th century building accounts of Wadham Col-
cathedrals, although no link has been found to the devel- lege the terms freemason and freestone mason are used
opment of the Freemasonry that later spread from Eng- interchangeably. Freemason also contrasts with “Rough
land to Germany.[15] Similarly, attempts to root Freema- Mason” or “Layer”, as a more skilled worker who worked
sonry in the French Compagnonnage have produced no or laid dressed stone.[26]
concrete links.[16] Connections to the Roman Collegia
The adjective “free” in this context may also be taken
and Comacine masters are similarly tenuous, although
to infer that the mason is not enslaved, indentured or
some Freemasons see them as exemplars rather than
feudally bound. While this is difficult to reconcile with
ancestors.[17][18] Thomas Paine traced Freemasonry to
medieval English masons, it apparently became impor-
Ancient Egypt,[19] as did Cagliostro, who went so far as
tant to Scottish operative lodges.[27]
to supply the ritual.[13]
More recently, several authors have linked the Templars
to the timeline of Freemasonry through the imagery of
the carvings in Rosslyn Chapel in Scotland, where the
Templars are rumoured to have sought refuge after the 2.2 Master Masons in Medieval England
dissolution of the order.[20] In The Hiram Key, Robert Lo-
mas and Christopher Knight describe a timeline starting
in ancient Egypt, and taking in Jesus, the Templars, and A medieval Master Mason would be required to undergo
Rosslyn before arriving at modern Freemasonry.[21] what passed for a liberal education in those days. In Eng-
land, he would leave home at nine or ten years of age
already literate in English and French, educated at home
or at the petty (junior) school. From then until the age of
1.3 The Emergence of Modern Masonic fourteen, he would attend monastery or grammar school
Studies to learn Latin, or as a page in a knightly household would
learn deportment in addition to his studies. Between the
The first rational study of masonic history was published ages of fourteen and seventeen he would learn the ba-
in Germany, but Georg Kloss's 1847 work, Geschichte sic skills of choosing, shaping, and combining stone and
Freimaurerei in England, Irland und Schottland was never then between the ages of 17 and 21, be required to learn
translated.[22] When Findel’s History of Freemasonry was by rote a large number of formal problems in geometry.
translated from German to English in 1866, Woodford Three years as a journeyman would often finish with the
in England and Murray-Lyon in Scotland were already submission of a masterwork dealing with a set problem in
active writers on the subject. Woodford was Findel’s construction or design. At this point, he was considered
guide when he visited York to inspect manuscripts, and qualified, but still had a career ladder to climb before at-
would shortly collaborate with Hughan in collecting, dat- taining the status of Master Mason on a large project.[28]
ing and classifying the old manuscript constitutions.[23] In his function as architect, the Master Mason proba-
Albert Mackey was no less active in America. The list bly made his plans for each successive stage of a build
of his published works start in 1844 with “A Lexicon of in silverpoint on a prepared parchment or board. These
Freemasonry”, and extend to his monumental Encyclope- would be realised on the ground by using a larger compass
dia of Freemasonry in 1874.[24] Increasing interest, and than the one used for drafting. Medieval architects are
participation, in masonic studies led, in 1886, to the for- depicted with much larger compasses and squares where
mation in London of Quatuor Coronati Lodge, the first they are shown on a building site. Fine detail was trans-
lodge dedicated to masonic research.[25] ferred from the drawing board by means of wooden tem-
plates supplied to the masons.[28]
The Master Masons who appear in record as presiding
2 From origin to Grand Lodge over major works, such as York Minster, became wealthy
and respected. Visiting Master Masons and Master Car-
Freemasonry penters sat at high table of monasteries, dining with the
abbott.[28]
2.3 From the Middle Ages to the Reformation 3

2.3 From the Middle Ages to the Reforma- tions as to the manner in which a new mason should swear
tion to them.[33]
Also around 1450 the will of a mason from Beverley gives
The historical record shows two levels of organisation in a tantalising glimpse into the emergence of masonic re-
medieval masonry, the lodge and the “guild”. The original galia. An inventory of John Cadeby’s possessions men-
use of the word lodge indicates a workshop erected on the tions several zonas, or girdles. Two were silver mounted,
site of a major work, the first mention being Vale Royal and one of these had the letters B and I in the middle,
Abbey in 1278. Later, it gained the secondary meaning indicating Boaz and Jachin,the twin pillars of Solomon’s
of the community of masons in a particular place. The Temple.[34] He also owned a writing table and six English
earliest surviving records of these are the laws and ordi- books, making him comfortably well-off and literate.[35]
nances of the lodge at York Minster in 1352. It should be
The following century and a half produced few new
noted that these regulations were imposed by the Dean
manuscripts. The Dowland manuscript, whose original is
and Chapter of the Minster.[26]
now lost, and Grand Lodge No 1, for the first time locate
Nineteenth-century historians imposed the term "Guild" Edwin’s assembly of Masons at York. The Lansdowne,
on the “fellowships” of medieval tradesmen as an analogy originally dated to this period, is now thought to date from
with the merchant guilds. The masons were late in form- the 17th century.[30]
ing such bodies. The major employer of masons in me-
It was during this period that the Reformation occurred.
dieval England was the crown, and the crown frequently
It was at one time assumed that the church was the ma-
employed masons by impressment. In other words, they
jor employer of masons, and with the Dissolution of the
were forcibly recruited when the need arose. In 1356, the
Monasteries the lodges disappeared.[36] It was also be-
preamble to regulations governing the Trade of Masons
lieved that the craft “guilds” were abolished in England in
specifically states that, unlike the other trades, no body
1547.[37] On the death of Henry VIII, Archbishop Cran-
existed for the regulation of masonry by masons. Finally,
mer sought to advance the reformation by the abolition of
in 1376, four representatives of the “mystery” or trade
Guilds and fellowships. In 1548, “The bill of conspiracies
are elected to the Common Council in London. This also
of victuallers and craftsmen” was passed, revoking their
seems to be the first use of the word “freemason” in En-
monopolies. In 1549 it was repealed, presumably because
glish. It was immediately struck out, and replaced with
they were too useful to the government.[38] The govern-
the word “mason”.[26]
ment continued to be a major employer of masons, who
The Halliwell Manuscript, or Regius Poem is the oldest in London, had moved from a fellowship to an incorpo-
known document of masonic origin. It was published in ration. While this was not chartered until 1666, the state
1840 by Shakespearean scholar and collector James Hal- used it in the sixteenth century to procure and indent ma-
liwell who dated it to 1390. A. F. A. Woodford, the pio- sons for building projects. In addition, masons were in-
neering Masonic scholar and founder of Quatuor Coro- creasingly employed by private individuals.[26] The Saints
nati Lodge, agreed with this dating.[29] More recently, day parades by the various crafts, enacting plays about
historian Andrew Prescott has dated the text to the sec- their various Patron Saints, were however suppressed.
ond quarter of the fifteenth century.[30] The poem may be Robert Cooper, the archivist of the Grand Lodge of
seen as a response to a stream of legislation dating back Scotland, believes that the lost mystery play of the ma-
to the Black Death, and the Statute of Labourers of 1351, sons may survive in the ritual of contemporary masonic
in which Edward III attempted to fix wages at pre-plague lodges.[27]
levels.[31] The earlier date follows the 1389 ordinance of
An early continental history quotes a 16th-century source
Richard II requiring the guilds and fellowships to lay be-
[31] that by 1535, there were two Scottish masonic lodges
fore him their Charters and Letters Patent, and the sec-
recorded in France, one in Paris and the other in Lyon.[39]
ond follows the more serious legislation of 1425 banning
At home, the lodges of masons were brought under the
the annual assemblies of masons.[32] The poem claims
control of two crown appointed officials, the Warden
that these assemblies were ordained by King Athelstan
General and the Principal Master of Work to the Crown,
and that he also linked the wages of a mason to the cost
the latter being in existence from 1539 at the latest. To-
of living.[29]
wards the end of the century, William Schaw held both
The Cooke Manuscript, dating from about 1450, set the these posts.[26] In 1598, in conference with the masters of
pattern for what Anderson called the “Gothic Constitu- lodges in south east Scotland, he produced a set of reg-
tions”, the older histories and regulations of the craft.[2] ulations for the governance of masons and their lodges
After a brief blessing, these documents describe the now known as the Schaw Statutes. These state “They
seven Liberal Arts, assigning predominance to Geometry, shall be true to one another and live charitably together as
which is equated with Masonry. They then proceed to a becometh sworn brethren and companions of the Craft.”
history of masonry/geometry, finishing with King Athel- They mention wardens, deacons, entered prentices and
stan, or Edwin, his brother or son depending on source, cowans.[40] The second Schaw statutes, a year later, in-
assembling England’s masons to give them their charges. cluded in their negotiations a representative of the Lodge
The regulations or charges follow, usually with instruc-
4 3 EARLY GRAND LODGE PERIOD

of Kilwinning (now Lodge Mother Kilwinning No 0) in tober 1646 was mainly or entirely composed of spec-
Ayrshire, which was assigned jurisdiction over the west ulative or accepted masons.[26] In 1686 Robert Plot's
of Scotland. Edinburgh became the “first and principal” “Natural History of Staffordshire” contains a passage
lodge and Kilwinning the “second and head” lodge of about persons of quality being admitted to the society
Scotland, attempting to appease all parties.[27] Since nei- of free-masons, whose history Plot finds invented and
ther the King nor the master of Kilwinning was present, ridiculous.[45] At the start of the Grand Lodge period,
the document was not regarded as final or binding. It was there appears to have been a predominance of purely
assumed that the King’s warrant for the regulations would speculative lodges in the south of England, with opera-
be obtained.[41] In 1602, Schaw wrote a Charter granting tive and mixed lodges still in the majority in the north
to Sir William St. Clair of Rosslyn the right to purchase and in Scotland.[26]
patronage over the masons of Scotland. Kilwinning is
In 1716, four lodges and “some old Brothers” met at the
noticeably absent from the list of lodges appending their Apple Tree Tavern in Covent Garden and agreed to meet
endorsement. The charter seems to have lapsed when St.
again the next year to form a “Grand Lodge”. These
Clair fled following a scandal,[27] and a second charter were the Goose and Gridiron, the Crown, the Apple Tree,
was granted to his son, also William St. Clair, in 1628.[42] and the Rummer and Grapes. The “old Brothers” were
This patronage was surrendered by their descendant, an- probably from the Cheshire Cheese and at least one other
other William St. Clair, on the formation of the Grand lodge.[26]
Lodge of Scotland in 1736,[43] in spite of the fact that
it never won the royal approval that would have made it
valid.[27]
3 Early Grand Lodge Period
2.4 The Emergence of Speculative Ma- 3.1 First Grand Lodge
sonry
The early history of Grand Lodge is uncertain, since no
The lasting effect of the Schaw Statutes arose from the minutes were taken until 1723. It is known that the four
1599 directive that the lodges should employ a reputable lodges mentioned above held an assembly at the Goose
notary as secretary, and that he should record all im- and Gridiron, in St. Paul’s Churchyard, on, 24 June 1717
portant transactions. The Scottish lodges began to keep (the Feast of St. John the Baptist). They agreed to restore
minutes, and therefore the appearance of “accepted” or their “Quarterly Communications”, four meetings a year
non-operative masons is better recorded than in England, for the transaction of masonic business, and an annual
where there are no known internal records of lodge pro- assembly to elect the next Grand Master. At this meet-
ceedings. The first recorded admission of non-masons ing, they elected Anthony Sayer, Master of the lodge at
was on 3 July 1634, in the persons of Sir Anthony Alexan- the Apple Tree, of whom little else is known, and the
der, his elder brother, Lord Alexander, and Sir Alexan- Grand Lodge of London and Westminster was born. At
der Strachan of Thornton. Sir Anthony was the King’s this stage, it is unlikely that they saw themselves as any-
Principal Master of Work, and the man who had effec- thing more than an association of London lodges. This
tively blocked the second St. Clair charter, the lodges perception was to change very rapidly.[26]
of Scotland being his own responsibility. The reasons
The next year, George Payne became Grand Master. He
that his brother and their friend were also admitted are was a career civil servant with the commissioners of taxes.
unclear.[27]
In 1719, they elected John Theophilus Desaguliers, a cler-
The reasons and mechanisms for the transition of ma- gyman, an eminent scientist, and a Fellow of the Royal
sonic lodges from operative communities to speculative Society. The last commoner to serve as Grand Mas-
fellowships remain elusive. As the responsibility for de- ter was George Payne in his second term of office in
sign shifted from the Master Mason to the architect in 1720/21, when he wrote “The General Regulations of a
the sixteenth century, it is probable that architects started Free Mason” which were later incorporated in Anderson’s
to join the lodges of the masons they worked with.[26] It Constitutions. Thereafter, in what appears to be a delib-
is also possible that, along with other professional bod- erate attempt to raise the profile of the organisation, all
ies (including the East India Company[44] ), operative ma- the Grand Masters have been members of the nobility.[26]
sonic lodges began to raise money by charging the gen- Desaguliers is often described as the “father” of modern
try for admission to their “mysteries”.[27] Another opin-
freemasonry. It was Desaguliers who inscribed the ded-
ion states that masonic lodges deliberately recruited the
ication to Anderson’s Constitutions,[4] headed the com-
rich and powerful in an attempt to improve their pay and
mittee which directed and approved them, and supplied
working conditions.[30] the “Gothic Constitutions” from which they were formed.
While lodge records show a gradual development of Although he only served one term as Grand Master, he
mixed lodges in Scotland, it is evident that the lodge was twice Deputy Grand Master under figurehead Grand
which initiated Elias Ashmole at Warrington on 16 Oc- Masters, and at other times behaved as if he was Grand
3.3 The Degrees and Rituals of Freemasonry 5

Master, forming irregular lodges to conduct initiations. songs.[4] For the first time, the old hand-written charges
It seems to have been Desaguliers who insisted that rit- and constitutions was replaced by an accessible, printed
ual be remembered rather than written down, leading to condensation of all there was to being a Freemason, only
a dearth of material on the development of English ritual omitting the ritual. Although the historical section was
until after the formation of United Grand Lodge.[26][46] attacked at the time, and ever since, as being a work of
These considerations cause many masonic historians to obvious fiction, the work remains a milestone in masonic
see him as the guiding intelligence as the new Grand history.[27] The “Antient Charges” published in the cur-
Lodge embarked on an era of self-publicity, which saw rent Book of Constitutions of the United Grand Lodge of
England have altered little from those originally published
the sudden expansion of speculative masonry, with a cor-
responding rise in anti-masonic groups and publications. by Anderson.[48]
Initiations began to be reported in newspapers. The no-
ble grand masters were often fellows of the Royal Soci-
ety, but the Duke of Wharton (1722–23) had just had his
3.3 The Degrees and Rituals of Freema-
Hell-fire club shut down by the government, and joined, sonry
or possibly formed, an anti-masonic group called the
Gormagons almost as soon as he left office. From 1721 In common with other trades or mysteries, medieval ma-
the installation of the new Grand Master was the occa- sonry recognised three grades of craftsman;- the appren-
sion for a parade, originally on foot, later in carriages. tice, the journeyman, and the master. An apprentice
This became the subject of some ridicule, until starting in who had learned his craft became a journeyman, qual-
1740 there were also mock processions by anti-masonic ified to do all manner of masonic work. The master
groups, leading to the discontinuation of the practice in was also qualified as a project manager, often function-
1747. The rapid expansion of freemasonry also led to ing as architect as well. He would sketch the day’s
many new lodges failing after only a year or two. In addi- work on a tracing board for execution by the journey-
tion to attacks from outside the craft, there were now dis- men and apprentices.[26] The Schaw Statutes of 1598
illusioned ex-masons willing to make money out of “ex- show how this had evolved in the lodge system of Scot-
posures” of freemasonry.[26] tish masonry. An apprentice, after serving his term of
seven years, could elect to pay to join a lodge, becoming
an “entered apprentice”. (Alternatively, he could elect
to freelance on the lower grades of building work as a
3.2 Anderson’s Constitutions “Cowan”.) The journeymen were referred to as “fel-
lows” or “fellows of the craft”, which accords with the
The Constitutions of the Free-Masons, “For the Use of Regius poem’s injunction (line 51) that masons should
the Lodges” in London and Westminster, was published “calle other felows by cuthe”. The members of the lodge
in 1723. It was edited by the presbyterian clergyman, were “Brithers” (brothers), a Scottish legal term for those
James Anderson, to the order of John Theophilus Desag- bound to each other by oath. The Master was simply the
uliers, and approved by a Grand Lodge committee under mason in charge of the lodge, or one that had held that
his control. This work was reprinted in Philadelphia in distinction.[27]
1734 by Benjamin Franklin, who was that year elected
Grand Master of the Masons of Pennsylvania. It was also While the swearing of some sort of oath goes back to the
translated into Dutch (1736), German (1741), and French earliest records of organised masonry, the first recorded
(1745).[4] ritual is not until 1696, in the Edinburgh Register House
manuscript. From this, and from other documents of
Anderson was minister of the Presbyterian church in the same period, such as the Trinity College, Dublin
Swallow Street, London, which had once been Huguenot manuscript of 1711, we can form an idea of the ritual
church, and whose pastor in the 1690s was Desagulier’s of an operative lodge at the end of the 17th century. On
father.[47] At the time of his meeting with Desaguliers, he taking of the oath of an Entered Apprentice a mason was
seems to have passed himself off as a Talmudic scholar. entrusted with appropriate signs, a “Mason’s Word”, and
His reward for his labours was the copyright on the work. a catechism. This was accompanied by much horseplay,
In time, and to Anderson’s dismay, it was condensed into which was probably excised as the craft became more
“pocket” editions over which he had no control and from gentrified. The fellowcraft was made to take a further
which he received no income. It was expanded, updated, oath, and entrusted with two further words and the “five
and re-published in 1738.[27] points of fellowship”, which in 1696 were foot to foot,
The historical section, which comprises almost half the knee to knee, heart to heart, hand to hand, and ear to
book, has already been described. This is followed by ear. The distinction between a fellowcraft and a master
the “Charges”, or general rules for the conduct of Freema- is unclear, and in many documents they appear to be syn-
sons, and Payne’s Regulations, the specific rules by which onymous. As accepted masons became initiated, where
Grand Lodge and the lodges under its control were to be the various words and signs could no longer be regarded
governed. The ceremony for dedicating a new lodge was as professional qualifications, the entered apprentice rit-
briefly outlined, and the work finished with a section of ual and the fellowcraft/master were sometimes condensed
6 3 EARLY GRAND LODGE PERIOD

into one ceremony.[27] 3.4 The Spread of Grand Lodges 1725-

In Pritchard’s “Masonry Dissected”, an exposure of ma- 1750
sonic ritual written in 1730 by a disillusioned ex-mason,
we see for the first time something recognisable as the
three degrees of modern Freemasonry.[49] On being ad-
mitted to a lodge, a new mason naturally progresses
through the degrees of Entered Apprentice, Fellowcraft,
and Master Mason. There still remains the rank of In-
stalled Master, which comprises the Master in charge of
the lodge and its past masters, and involves its own rit-
ual, words and signs, but entails being elected to take
charge of the lodge for a year.[50] These are the regu-
lar degrees and ranks of “craft” masonry, common to all
constitutions. Other, “higher” degrees are optional and
require a mason to join a side-order. (see main article,
Freemasonry) Initiation Paris 1745
Anderson’s 1723 constitutions seem to recognise only Retinted to resemble Moderns Lodge 1805
the grades of Entered Apprentice, and the Fel-
lowcraft/Master. Hence the third degree emerged some- Even in London, there were many lodges that never af-
time between 1723 and 1730, and took some time to filiated with the new Grand Lodge. These unaffiliated
spread within the craft. The fact that it did spread seems Masons and their Lodges were referred to as “Old Ma-
to many scholars to indicate that the tri-gradal system was sons,” or “St. John Masons”, and “St. John Lodges”.[54]
not so much innovation, as the re-organisation of pre- Nonetheless, the influence of the new central body spread
existing material.[26] The Mason word, once given to the quickly, and the 1725 minutes mention lodges in ten
Entered Apprentice, was now conferred in the third de- provincial towns as far north as Salford, with Provincial
gree with the five points of fellowship, and the two linked Grand Lodges in South Wales and Cheshire.[26]
words formerly bestowed on a fellowcraft were split be-
In the same year, a second Grand Lodge was founded in
tween the first two degrees. The new Master Mason de-
Ireland, which took several decades to bring all the Irish
gree was centred on the myth of Hiram Abiff, which it-
lodges under its wing. Rival Grand Lodges quickly ap-
self consists of three parts. The first is the biblical story
peared in Munster and Cork.[55] It was in Ireland that the
of the Tyrian artisan with a Northern Israelite mother
practice of recognising the regularity of a lodge by the
who became a master craftsman involved in the construc-
issue of a warrant began, the first known example dat-
tion of King Solomon’s Temple. The second is the story
ing from 1731.[56] The Grand Lodge of Scotland was not
of his murder by subordinates, which is similar to one
formed until 1736.[27]
of the legends of the French Compagnonnage. Lastly,
the story of the finding of his body, and the derivation Also in 1725 “The Ancient and Honourable Society and
therefrom of the five points of fellowship, which appears Fraternity of Freemasons meeting since time immemorial
in the Graham Manuscript of 1725, where the body be- in the City of York” assumed the title, " The Grand Lodge
ing sought and exhumed is that of Noah.[51] The origin of All England meeting in the City of York.” This should
of this re-organisation is unknown. The earliest refer- not be interpreted as rivalry, as there was no overlap in
ence to the conferment of a third degree is from London, the two jurisdictions. Indeed, Anderson’s history would
from the minutes of “Philo Musicae et Architecturae So- have produced the expectation of an older Grand Lodge
cietas Apollini”, a short-lived musical society composed at York, and the London Lodges were duly furnished with
entirely of Freemasons. These minutes record the initia- minutes going back some twenty years. Anderson’s 1738
tion and passing to the degree of Fellowcraft of Charles Constitutions recognised the independence of “the Old
Cotton. Then, on 12 May 1725, the society took it upon Lodge of York City. and the Lodges of Scotland, Ireland.
[57]
itself to “pass” Brother Cotton and Brother Papillion Ball France, Italy, etc”.
as Master Masons. This would nowadays be regarded as However, in 1735, the Master and Wardens of an Irish
highly irregular. In March 1726 Gabriel Porterfield re- lodge were refused admission to Grand Lodge because
ceived the same degree in lodge Dumbarton Kilwinning they did not have the written authority of the Grand Mas-
in Scotland. That he was not the first is attested by the ter of Ireland. It seems that they hoped to be recognised
minutes of the lodge’s foundation, only two months ear- as a deputation from Lord Kingston, then Grand Master
lier, where Apprentices, Fellowcrafts, and Master Ma- of Ireland, and Past Grand Master of the London Grand
sons are recorded as attending. In December of 1728, Lodge. They were offered, and refused, the English au-
Greenock Kilwinning recorded separate fees for initia- thorisation. This has been interpreted as evidence of a
tion, passing and raising.[52][53] split between the two constitutions.[58]
Responding to the popularity of Pritchard’s and other ex-
3.5 Rival Grand Lodges
posures of masonic ritual, Grand Lodge, about this time,
made changes to ritual and passwords to make it more
difficult for outsiders to pass themselves off as masons.
These changes were not universally accepted by affiliated
lodges. The Goose and Gridiron (now Lodge of Antiq-
uity No. 2), one of the original and most senior lodges
of the constitution, never adopted them. For the unaf-
filiated, the innovations simply deepened the division. At
the time, London was absorbing many economic migrants
from Ireland. Those who were already Freemasons felt
that they could not work with the new ritual, and the
lodges they formed swelled further the numbers of un-
affiliated lodges in the capital.[59]
In the same period, Freemasonry as practiced by the En-
glish, Irish and Scottish lodges began to spread to Europe.
The establishment of the first Grand Lodge in France
is particularly problematic. Freemasonry itself appears
to have been established in France by exiled Jacobites.
The Grand Lodge of France dates its foundation to 1728,
when it claims the Grand Master was the Duke of Whar-
ton.[60] Some Grand Orient seals date the first Grand
Lodge to 1736 (the split between the Grand Lodge and
the Grand Orient occurred in 1773).[61] French histories
date the first Grand Lodge to 24 June 1738.[62] The sit-
uation seems confused, as other histories state that the
first legitimate Grand Lodge was formed on 11 Decem-
ber 1743 as “The English Grand Lodge of France” with
the Count of Clermont as Grand Master.[63] Although the
government of the craft was in the hands of a series of
deputies, the protection of the Count until his death in
1771 afforded French masonry a period of stability and
growth. As masonry was persecuted in other catholic
states, the moral and egalitarian nature of the French
lodges accorded with the spirit of the age.[64]
Although Anderson seems to imply the existence of an
Italian Grand Lodge, no such body existed until the
creation of the Grand Orient of Italy in 1805.[65] The
first lodge was the English Lodge (“La Loggia degli In-
glesi”) in Florence, founded in 1731,[66] and Freemasonry
quickly spread, in spite of a series of Papal bans.[65]
The first appearance of the many German Grand Lodges
dates from the 1740s, notably “Of the Three Globes”,
founded in Berlin in 1744, which became the “Grand Na-
tional Mother Lodge” in 1772. Frederick the Great be-
came a Freemason while he was still Crown Prince and
personally sanctioned the Berlin Lodge.[63] Although a
few authors cite the existence of German operative grand
lodges as far back as that formed at Cologne Cathedral in
1250,[67] continuity of tradition has been hard to prove,
and most sources believe the Eighteenth-century Ger-
man speculative lodges show descent from the English
model.[15][63]
Freemasonry was brought to the Russian Empire by for-
eign officers in the Russian service. For instance, James
Keith is recorded as being master of a lodge in Saint
Petersburg in 1732-34.[68] Several years later his cousin
7
John Keith, 3rd Earl of Kintore was appointed Provin-
cial Grand Master of Russia by the Grand Lodge of
England.[68] In the early 1770s, Ivan Yelagin succeeded
in reorganizing Russian Freemasonry into a far-reaching
system that united some 14 lodges and about 400 gov-
ernment officials. He secured English authorization of
the first Russian Grand Lodge and became its Provin-
cial Grand Master.[69] Most Russian lodges were attracted
to the Swedish Rite. In 1782, Ivan Schwarz represented
Russia at the masonic congress in Wilhelmsbad (a health
resort in Hanau), where Russia was recognized as the 8th
province of the Rite of Strict Observance.[70] See History
of Freemasonry in Russia for further details.
3.5 Rival Grand Lodges
Third degree ceremony, Paris, 1745, retinted in 1812 to resemble
a Moderns Lodge in London
On 17 July 1751, representatives of six Lodges gath-
ered at the Turk’s Head Tavern, in Greek Street, Soho,
London. Five were unaffiliated lodges of mainly Irish
membership, and the sixth appears to have been formed
shortly beforehand for the business of the evening. On
that night, they established the “Most Ancient and Hon-
ourable Society of Free and Accepted Masons accord-
ing to the Old Constitutions”, now commonly known as
the Grand Lodge of the Antients. The first Grand Sec-
retary, John Morgan, obtained a position in the Navy,
and resigned after seven months. His successor, Laurence
Dermott, presided as Grand Secretary for almost twenty
years, being deputy Grand Master on three occasions af-
ter that, and exercised considerable influence until his
death in 1791.[59]
Dermott’s immediate impact was in replacing the regu-
lations that Morgan had written with those of his own
lodge in Dublin. In 1756 he published the Antient’s own
book of constitutions, entitled the "Ahiman Rezon", for
which no meaning is known. Modeled on Spratt’s Irish
Constitutions,[71] the regulations are comprehensive and
well written, and are followed by an extended section de-
voted to songs. At the beginning, instead of Anderson’s
history, is an extended introduction attacking the origi-
nal Grand Lodge, now calling itself the Grand Lodge of
8 3 EARLY GRAND LODGE PERIOD
England, but saddled by Dermott with “the Moderns” in
contrast to the “Ancient” usages of the new Grand Lodge.
This name remains in use to the present day. His main
weapon was satire. He started with an account of how
he attempted to write a history which would better the
others by describing masonry before Adam, but towards
the end of the first volume, he fell asleep. He dreamed
of a conversation with Ahimon, one of four sojourners
from Jerusalem, about the futility of masonic histories,
after which an ancient in a shining breastplate perused his
first volume and pronounced, “Thou hast div'd deep into
the water, and hast brought up a potsherd”. He was wo-
ken by his neighbour’s puppy eating his manuscript. Der-
mott then proceeded to a reasoned explanation of why
a new Mason should not join a “Moderns” lodge, since
their amended passwords would not be recognised by any
of the other Grand Lodges which at that time existed.
There follows a humorous account of their “unconsti-
tutional fopperies”, including Dermott’s belief that their
greatest masonic symbols were the knife and fork.[72]
Under Dermott’s influence, penmanship, and oratory, the
new Grand Lodge grew to be a serious challenge to the
original. The Antient’s lodges were warranted from 1752,
a practice not taken up by the Moderns for another two
decades. As the unaffiliated lodges increasingly saw the
sense of belonging to a larger organisation, they usually
found that the Antients practice was closer to their own,
although it was known for lodges to change allegiance
from the Antients to the Moderns. The fact that the
practices eventually adopted by the United Grand Lodge
largely reflect those of the Antients is attributable to Der-
mott’s industry.[59]
While the emergence of the Antients simply consolidated
a division in English Freemasonry, a schism occurred
within the Moderns in 1777/78. While this only involved
one lodge, it was the oldest and most prestigious in the
constitution, and its Master the Moderns’ most respected
author and historian. William Preston was already in dis-
pute with the Grand Secretary over the royalties to the
new Book of Constitutions he had just written. Some
members of his Lodge of Antiquity (formerly the Goose
and Gridiron, or the Old Lodge of St. Pauls), having at-
tended church as masons, walked back to the lodge in
their regalia. Three brethren saw fit to report this to the
Moderns Grand Lodge as an unauthorised masonic pa-
rade. Preston, the Master of Antiquity, sided with the ac-
cused, arguing that since the lodge was one of the original
four, it had only subscribed to the original constitutions,
and did not require any other authority to hold a parade.
For this, he was promptly expelled. Antiquity responded
by expelling the three who had complained. At least half
of the lodge seceded to the Grand Lodge of All England
at York, quoting Article 39 of Payne’s regulations, that
the Landmarks of the order must be preserved in any
new regulations of Grand Lodge (alluding to their own
rights and privileges). Antiquity became, for the period
of separation, “the Grand Lodge of All England South
of the River Trent”, warranting at least two lodges in its
own right. The dispute was not resolved until May 1789,
when Preston and his brethren were received back into
the Moderns with much feasting and fanfare.[73]
A similar situation arose in Scotland. Seniority was as-
signed according to the dating of lodge minutes, and due
to a fire, Kilwinning records started at 1642, somewhat
later than the Lodge of St. Mary’s Chapel in Edinburgh.
Offended by being recognised as only the second lodge
in the constitution, Lodge Mother Kilwinning withdrew
from the Grand Lodge of Scotland in 1743, and did not
rejoin until 1807. During this period, Kilwinning func-
tioned as yet another Grand Lodge, chartering about 70
lodges in Scotland and abroad. While the two Grand
Lodges ignored each other at an official level, there does
not appear to have been any real animosity, with no bar on
masons visiting lodges in the competing jurisdiction. One
Kilwinning member became Grand Master of the Grand
Lodge of Scotland.[74] The Lodge at Melrose, claiming an
antiquity at least as great as Kilwinning, simply ignored
the Grand Lodge of Scotland, again chartering daughter
lodges, with the Master being addressed as “Grand Mas-
ter”. They finally joined the national body on 25 February
1891 as The Lodge Of Melrose St. John No 1 bis.[75]
In the wake of the French Revolution, the British Govern-
ment became uneasy about possible revolutionary con-
spiracies. Amongst other repressive measures, Pitt’s gov-
ernment proposed to introduce the Unlawful Societies
Act in 1799, which declared that any body which admin-
istered a secret oath was illegal. Acting quickly, a delega-
tion representing the Ancients, Moderns and the Grand
Lodge of Scotland arranged a meeting with the Prime
Minister. The delegation included the Duke of Atholl,
Grand Master of the Ancients, and Past Grand Master
Mason of the Grand Lodge of Scotland, and the Earl of
Moira, Acting Grand Master of the Moderns (the Grand
Master being the Prince of Wales). As a result of this
meeting, Freemasons were specifically excluded from the
act, although lodges were obliged to return a list of mem-
bers to the local Clerk of the Peace, a practice which con-
tinued until 1967. It also demonstrated that the two rival
Grand Lodges could act together.[76]
3.6 The Establishment of Freemasonry in
North America
Main article: History of Masonic Grand Lodges in North
America
Main article: Prince Hall Freemasonry
In 1733, Henry Price, the Provincial Grand Master over
all of North America for the Grand Lodge of England,
granted a charter to a group of Boston Freemasons. This
lodge was later named St. John’s Lodge and was the first
duly constituted lodge in America.[77] Between 1733 and
1737 the Grand Lodge in England warranted Provincial
Grand Lodges in Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylva-

Henry Price, “Provincial Grand Master of New England and Do-
minions and Territories thereunto belonging”
nia and South Carolina. Benjamin Franklin re-issued
Anderson’s 1723 constitutions as Provincial Grand Mas-
ter of Pennsylvania.[4] Franklin had written in the Penn-
sylvania Gazette of 8 December 1730 of the several
lodges of freemasons already in the “province”, joined
St. John’s Lodge in Philadelphia the following year, and
in 1732 was Junior Grand Warden of the Grand Lodge
of Philadelphia. All this before the “first” lodge in North
America.[78][79]
Correspondence from John Moore, the collector for the
port of Philadelphia and himself a Mason, indicate that
Masonic Lodges were meeting in Philadelphia in 1715.
The present Grand Lodge has the Carmick manuscript,
a handwritten copy of the ancient charges dating from
1727, and headed “The Constitutions of St. John’s
Lodge”. Colonel Daniel Coxe was made Provincial
Grand Master of New York, New Jersey and Pennsylva-
nia by the Grand Lodge of England in 1730, with effect
from 24 June (St. John the Baptist’s day) for two years.
It is unclear whether he was in America or England at the
time, but he was present at Grand Lodge, at the Devil Tav-
ern in London, on 29 January 1731, where he is minuted
as Provincial Grand Master of North America. There is no
record of his chartering any lodges, but he arranged for St.
John’s Lodge to double as a Provincial Grand Lodge, and
appointed his successor in 1731, a year early. Notwith-
standing the acceptance of Coxe as their first Provincial
9
Grand Master, it has been suggested that the formation of
the new Grand Lodge by consenting pre-existing lodges
makes it a Grand Lodge by “Immemorial right”, and a sis-
ter lodge to the Grand Lodges of England Scotland and
Ireland.[80][81]
North America would have many independent lodges in
the 18th century. Authorisation, which later would be-
come a Warrant, took time and expense, especially in
the period when the nearest Grand Lodge was on the
other side of the Atlantic. Many lodges became “self
starters”, and only applied for Grand Lodge authorisation
when they were reasonably confident that the lodge would
survive for more than a few years. George Washington
was initiated into the Lodge of Fredericksburg in 1752.
The same lodge was chartered by the Grand Lodge of
Scotland in 1758.[27] The first properly chartered “Scot-
tish” lodge was only two years earlier, being the Lodge of
St. Andrews in Boston. Members included Paul Revere
and Joseph Warren, and later lodge outings included the
Boston Tea Party.[79]
Many lodges were attached British Army regiments. The
Moderns may have been wary of warranting lodges with-
out a permanent address, so there was only one Grand
Lodge of England warrant in the continental army from
1775-1777. The Antients and the Grand Lodge of Scot-
land were slightly better represented, but the overwhelm-
ing majority of regimental lodges held warrants from the
Grand Lodge of Ireland.[79] Thus it was that a group of
African Americans, having been rejected by the lodges
in Boston, were initiated into Lodge No 441 on the regis-
ter of the Grand Lodge of Ireland, which was attached to
the 38th Foot (later the 1st Staffordshire). These 15 men
formed African Lodge No 1, as the British departed, leav-
ing them a permit to do almost everything but admit new
masons. Two of the members were seafarers, and ob-
tained entrance to a lodge in London, being recognised
as regularly initiated Masons. This enabled their master,
Prince Hall, to apply to the Moderns for a charter, which
was duly granted on 29 September 1784, now as African
Lodge No 459. Such was the success of the lodge that
it became a Provincial Grand Lodge, and Prince Hall the
Provincial Grand Master. After his death, the provincial
lodges reconstituted themselves as a grand lodge (African
Grand Lodge), becoming Prince Hall Grand Lodge in
1847.[82]
4 The Royal Arch
Main article: Holy Royal Arch
The majority of this article deals with craft, or “blue
lodge” masonry, the three degrees that are common to
all masonic lodges and jurisdictions. Further degrees are
usually outside of the jurisdiction of Grand Lodges, in-
volve separate ceremonies, and are regulated by different
10
Masonic bodies. The number and names of the “chival-
ric” orders and degrees depend on the local tradition of
Freemasonry, and have varied greatly over the years.[27]
The oldest of these, and the most universal, is the Royal
Arch Chapter (the Holy Royal Arch in England).
Although some masonic writers have attempted to see
Royal Arch symbolism in material from the 1720s, the
earliest definite reference is to a Royal Arch in a proces-
sion in Dublin preceding the master and held aloft by two
“Excellent Masons”. In 1744 it is mentioned as a degree
in Dr. Dassigny’s “Serious and Impartial Inquiry”.[26]
Laurence Dermott, the guiding force behind the Ancients
Grand Lodge, claimed to have been made a Royal Arch
Mason in Dublin in 1746. He referred to it as the fourth
degree, and campaigned to have it recognised as such.
This happened just after he died, and only twenty years
before the union of the Ancients and Moderns. The Mod-
erns, on the other hand, had created a separate Grand
Chapter in 1765 to deal with the degree, and wished to
keep it separate from pure craft masonry. This would be
a point of contention as the two jurisdictions moved to-
wards union. The second of the articles of union stated
that there were but three degrees in “pure Ancient Ma-
sonry”, but included the Royal Arch in the third degree.
The degree continues to be administered by a separate
Grand Chapter, and until a revision in 2004,[83] English
Master Masons were simply told that the degree of the
Holy Royal Arch completes their third degree.[84][85]
The oldest Irish records of the ritual indicate that Royal
Arch Chapters originally administered three degrees.
The first was based on the refurbishment of the first
temple by King Josiah. The second was a short bridge to
the third, which was based on the rebuilding of the tem-
ple after the exile. Most jurisdictions base the modern
Royal Arch ritual on the post-exilic legend. In 1864, the
Grand Chapter of Ireland decided to base their ritual on 5.2
the reign of Josiah, the main practical difference being
the names of the officers.[26]
5 19th Century Freemasonry
5.1 The Union of 1813
In 1809, the Grand Lodge of England (the Moderns) set
up a “Lodge of Promulgation”. Its purpose was to “re-
vert to the Ancient Land Marks of the Society” and to
promulgate those landmarks amongst the brethren. One
of its members was the Duke of Sussex, the Master of
the Lodge of Antiquity, No 2, and sixth son of George
III.[86] The result of their labours was a reply to the An-
cients in 1811 that the Grand Lodge had resolved to “re-
turn to the Ancient Landmarks...when it should be as-
certained what those ancient landmarks and obligations
were.” Both Grand Lodges moved visibly towards union,
forming committees to negotiate the precise terms. The
5 19TH CENTURY FREEMASONRY
main sticking point was the inability of the Ancients’
committee to decide anything without reporting back to
a quarterly meeting of their own Grand Lodge. In Oc-
tober 1812, the Ancients allayed the frustration of the
Moderns by granting their commissioners full powers.[87]
Shortly after this, the Earl of Moira resigned as acting
Grand Master of the Moderns, due to his appointment as
Governor General of India. His successor was the Duke
of Sussex, who became Grand Master the next January on
the resignation of his brother, the Prince of Wales. On 1
December 1813, the Duke of Atholl ceded the leadership
of the Ancients to the Duke of Kent, the older brother of
Sussex and the father of Queen Victoria. Kent had al-
ready presided over the union of the Ancients and Mod-
erns in Canada, accomplished by the brutally simple ex-
pedient of merging the lodges of the Moderns with the
nearest lodge of the Ancients. The Moderns in Canada
had simply ceased to exist.[88] These two men oversaw
the union in 1813 to form the United Grand Lodge of
England, with the Duke of Sussex appointed as Grand
Master of the new body.
The actual process of unification continued for some
years, first with the Lodge of Reconciliation (1813-
1816), made up of two lodges, one of each constitution,
which ironed out some sort of ritual acceptable to the two
parties. The work of this lodge was spread by the Stability
Lodge of Instruction (1817) and fleshed out by the Em-
ulation Lodge of Improvement (1823 onwards).[86] The
new Grand Lodge essentially ended up with the ritual
of the Ancients and the infrastructure of the Moderns.
While the “Emulation Ritual” became the standard, many
variations still exist which, while mutually recognisable,
present many flavours of Masonic ritual within the En-
glish Constitution.[59]
The Morgan Affair and Decline in
American Freemasonry (1826–c.1850)
Main article: William Morgan (anti-Mason)
In 1826, William Morgan disappeared from Batavia,
New York, after threatening to expose Freemasonry’s se-
crets, causing some to claim that he had been murdered
by Masons. What exactly occurred has never been con-
clusively proven. However, Morgan’s disappearance –
and the minimal punishment received by his kidnappers –
sparked a series of protests against Freemasons through-
out the United States, especially in New York and neigh-
boring states. The protracted backlash led to many ma-
sons leaving the craft. The Grand Lodge of New York
controlled 227 lodges in 1827, but only 41 in 1835.[89]
Under the leadership of Thurlow Weed, an anti-Masonic
and anti-Andrew Jackson (Jackson was a Mason) move-
ment grew to become the political party and made the bal-
lot for the presidency in 1828, while gaining the support
of such notable politicians as William H. Seward. Its in-
5.5 Great Schism 11

fluence was such that other Jackson rivals, including John Rumors were rife, especially in conservative circles, that
Quincy Adams, denounced the Masons. In 1847, Adams the order secretly ran the government, and was the
wrote a widely distributed book titled “Letters on the Ma-main source of materialistic and anti-clerical propaganda.
sonic Institution” that was highly critical of the Masons.Zeldin concludes that was a “vast exaggeration.” The
In 1832, the party fielded William Wirt as its presidentialdetails are known because the Vichy regime in 1941
candidate. This was rather ironic because he was, in fact,seized the archives, and failed to find significant evidence.
a Freemason, and even gave a speech at the Anti-Masonic While the order did support anti-clerical campaigns, it
convention defending the organization. The party only re- did not initiate them. Its primary role was to serve as
ceived seven electoral votes. Three years later, the partya social club which the members could rise in the world,
had disbanded in every state save Pennsylvania, as other and get 10% discounts in shops owned by fellow Masons.
issues such as slavery had become the focus of national The chapters provided some charity and life insurance.
attention.[90] In 1904 a scandal erupted because the Grand Orient de
France lodges were asked by the Radical government to
secretly collect information about the religious and polit-
5.3 American Freemasons during the Civil ical affiliations of army officers, with a view to blocking
War the promotion of Catholics. When the news leaked out,
the government was forced to resign. The concern with
The fortunes of American Freemasonry declined sharply Radical politics gradually declined, and it disappeared af-
[94][95]
following the Morgan Affair, only to rebound as the force ter 1945.
of the Anti-Masonic movement sputtered out in the mid- According to Ernest Belfort Bax, Freemasons were re-
1830s. By the late 1850s, masonry in America was the sponsible for the last serious attempt at conciliation be-
subject of renewed popular interest and lodge member- tween Versailles and the Paris Commune on 21 April
ship, which had bottomed out during the anti-Masonic 1871. They were received coldly by Adolphe Thiers, who
period began to rise. By the time of the American assured them that, though Paris was given over to de-
Civil War, U.S. freemasonry tripled its membership from struction and slaughter, the law should be enforced, and
66,000 to 200,000 members in over 5000 lodges nation- he kept his word. A few days after they decided, in a
wide. This surge in membership helps explain, at least public meeting, to plant their banner on the ramparts and
in part, the many stories of Masonic fraternization dur- throw in their lot with the Commune. On the 29th, ac-
ing the American Civil War, which include accounts of cordingly, 10,000 of the brethren met (55 lodges being
Masonic soldiers and sailors rescuing enemy combatants represented), and marched to the Hôtel de Ville, headed
who identified themselves as members of the fraternity. by the Grand Masters in full insignia and the banners of
Masonic incidents are also recorded involving Freema- the lodges. Amongst them the new banner of Vincennes
sons burying their own with Masonic formalities during was conspicuous, bearing the inscription in red letters on
battle, as well as aid and special treatment given to Ma- a white ground, “Love one another.” A balloon was then
sonic POWs.[91] sent up, which let fall at intervals, outside Paris, a mani-
festo of the Freemasons. The procession then wended its
way through the boulevards and the Champs Elysées to
5.4 France the Arc de Triomphe, where the banners were planted at
various points along the ramparts. On seeing the white
In France, the number of Freemasons grew from 10,000 flag on the Porte Maillot the Versaillese ceased firing,
in 1802, when Napoleon gave it semi-official status, to and the commander, himself a Freemason, received a
20,000 in 1889, 32,000 in 1908, 40,000 in 1926, and deputation of brethren, and suggested a final appeal to
about 60,000 in 1936. At an early stage, nearly all the Versailles, which was agreed to. The “chief of the ex-
lodges were affiliated with the Radical party.[92] Zeldin ecutive” hardly listened to the envoys, and declined to
argues that in 19th century France: further discuss the question of peace with anyone. This
last formal challenge having been made and rejected, the
Freemasonry appealed first of all to people Freemasons definitely took their stand as combatants for
who liked mystic ritual, esoteric symbolism the Commune.[96]
and fancy uniforms, and to those who like to
have somewhere to discuss ideas and meet like-
minded friends. Increasingly however it be- 5.5 Great Schism
came an organization which politicians used
for electoral purposes in which civil servants See also: Regular Masonic jurisdictions and Continental
joined in order to further their chances of pro- Freemasonry
motion, which hotel-keepers found useful as a
way of enlarging their clientele and where busi- The schism between French and English Freemasonry is
nessmen could make deals and find jobs for popularly supposed to originate at a general assembly of
their sons.[93] the Grand Orient de France in September 1877. Accept-
12 5 19TH CENTURY FREEMASONRY

ing a recommendation in a report by a Protestant minis- 5.5.1 Legacy of the Schism

ter, Frédéric Desmons, the assembly, on a majority vote,
amended its constitutions to read “Its principles are ab- During the First World War, many American lodges re-
solute liberty of conscience and human solidarity”. The laxed their opposition to the Grand Orient de France to
words “Its principles are the existence of God, the im- allow servicemen to engage with other masons while in
mortality of the soul and human solidarity” were struck France. Many of these continue to allow their members
out. The United Grand Lodge of England's (UGLE) re- to associate with continental Freemasons.[100]
sponse was a resolution in March 1878 that “That the In December 1913, UGLE recognised a new Grand
Grand Lodge, whilst always anxious to receive in the most Lodge in France. The basis of this recognition was the
fraternal spirit the Brethren of any Foreign Grand Lodge series of obligations that the Independent and Regular Na-
whose proceedings are conducted according to the An- tional Grand Lodge of France (later the Grande Loge Na-
cient Landmarks of the Order, of which a belief in T. G. tionale Française) imposed on its lodges. These were -
A. O. T. U. (the Great Architect of the Universe) is the
first and most important, cannot recognise as ‘true and
genuine’ Brethren any who have been initiated in Lodges • 1. While the Lodge is at work the Bible will always
which either deny or ignore that belief”. Relations be- be open on the altar.
tween the two governing bodies effectively ceased, pur-
portedly because the French body had removed the re- • 2. The ceremonies will be conducted in strict con-
quirement for a belief in a supreme being. However, formity with the Ritual of the “Regime Rectifié"
UGLE had just entered into fraternal relations with the which is followed by these Lodges, a Ritual which
Grand Orient of Belgium, which had removed the Great was drawn up in 1778 and sanctioned in 1782, and
Architect from its constitutions in 1872, a relationship with which the Duke of Kent was initiated in 1792.
which lasted until 1921. The reasons for the split are ob-
viously deeper and more complex than the official records • 3. The Lodge will always be opened and closed with
suggest.[97] invocation and in the name of the Great Architect of
Mutual distrust between English and French Freema- the Universe. All the summonses of the Order and
sons was apparent in the 1850s, when French Masonic of the Lodges will be printed with the symbols of
refugees were appalled at the relationship between UGLE the Great Architect of the Universe.
and the Monarchy, aristocracy, and the Anglican church.
The English distrusted the mysticism of French Masonry, • 4. No religious or political discussion will be per-
and its ideals of Fraternity and Universality.[98] mitted in the Lodge.
Desmons’ review had been prompted by the Lausanne
Congress of Supreme Councils of 1875. Eleven countries • 5. The Lodge as such will never take part officially in
were represented at an attempt to unify the Ancient and any political affair but every individual Brother will
Accepted Scottish Rite. An agreement on colonial lodges preserve complete liberty of opinion and action.
would have seen the UGLE as the only recognised ma-
sonic grand lodge in British colonies, in spite of the Scot- • 6. Only those Brethren who are recognised as true
tish and Irish lodges already flourishing there. The Scot- Brethren by the Grand Lodge of England will be re-
tish delegate, Mackersy, who also represented Greece, ceived in Lodge.
withdrew. His letter of withdrawal cited his jurisdiction’s
disagreement with any shift from the requirement for a
These “basic principles” were accepted by UGLE itself in
member to believe in a personal god. He said that he
1929, and written into its constitutions.[97]
believed the congress would agree to a non-requirement,
or the specification of a vague universal principle. In
avoiding ratifying a treaty which would obliterate Scot- 5.6 Taxil hoax
tish lodges in the colonies, Mackersy sparked a debate
that led to the removal of a requirement for an open vol- Main article: Taxil hoax
ume of scripture in French lodges. The English inter-
pretation of this as a slide towards atheism was probably
partly prompted by the difficult political relationship be- Between the years 1885 and 1897, Léo Taxil maintained
tween Britain and France at that time.[99] a hoax against both Freemasonry and the Roman Catholic
Church, by making increasingly outlandish claims re-
The gulf between UGLE and GOdF widened due to the garding Freemasonry. On 19 April 1897, Taxil called a
French body’s active engagement in politics, on a personal press conference at which he claimed he would introduce
and organisational level. All discussion of politics and the “author” of his books to the press. He instead an-
religion is expressly banned from English lodges.[100] nounced that his revelations about the Freemasons were
fictitious.[101] Nevertheless, the material is still used on
some anti-Masonic websites today.[102]

6 20th Century Freemasonry
6.1 Freemasonry under Totalitarian
Regimes (1900– current)
Main article: Suppression of Freemasonry
Many twentieth century totalitarian regimes, both Fascist
and Communist, have treated Freemasonry as a potential
source of opposition due to its secret nature and interna-
tional connections (not to mention its promotion of reli-
gious and political tolerance through its symbolism). It
has been alleged by Masonic scholars that the language
used by the totalitarian regimes is similar to that used by
some modern critics of Freemasonry.[103][104]
7 Historical political impact
In long-term historical perspective, Norman Davies has
argued that Freemasonry was a powerful force on be-
half of Liberalism in Europe, from about 1700 to the
twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of
Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Eu-
rope, as well as the European colonies in the New World
and Asia.[105] It was especially attractive to royalty, aris-
tocrats and politicians and businessmen, as well as intel-
lectuals, artists (most famously Mozart) and political ac-
tivists. Bullock notes that in the late 18th century, En-
glish lodges were headed by the Prince of Wales, Prussian
lodges by king Frederick the Great, and French lodges by
royal princes. Emperor Napoleon selected as Grand Mas-
ter of France his own brother.[106]
The Vatican saw Freemasonry as an enemy. Start-
ing in 1738 it repeatedly ordered the Roman Catholic
Church to oppose the movement.[107] In countries with
a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain,
and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles
of the 19th century involved the confrontation between
the Church and Freemasonry.[108][109] In Britain it be-
came a mainstay of the imperialist movement supporting
the British Empire.[110] In France, nearly all the lodges
were affiliated with the Radical party, but they disen-
gaged from politics after 1945.[111] In the United States,
the opponents organized an anti-Masonic movement and
it had little political role.[112] Twentieth century totalitar-
ian movements, especially the Fascists and Communists,
made it a priority to denounce the Freemasonry and sup-
press it when they came to power.[113][114]
8 See also
• Masonic manuscripts
• List of Freemasons
13
• Masonic Appendant Bodies
• Scottish Rite
• Stonemason
• York Rite
9 Notes
[1] Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon The Halli-
well Manuscript, retrieved 22 June 2012
[2] Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon The
Matthew Cooke Manuscript with Translation, retrieved 22
June 2012
[3] G. W. Speth, Quatuor Coronatorum Antigrapha, Vol I,
1888, part III, vi-vii
[4] Anderson’s Constitutions Franklin’s reprint, retrieved 22
June 2012
[5] J. Anderson, The New Book of Constitutions, p140,
Quatuor Coronatorum Antigrapha, Vol VII, 1900
[6] Preston’s Illustrations of Freemasonry on Google Books
retrieved 22 June 2012
[7] Pietre-Stones Biography of Ramsay retrieved 22 June
2012
[8] Edinburgh Registry House MS, see Robert L.D. Cooper,
Cracking the Freemason’s Code, Rider 2006, p215
[9] Coil, Henry W. (1967). Freemasonry Through Six Cen-
turies. 2 vols., Vol. I, pg. 6. Richmond, Va: Macoy Publ.
Co.
[10] Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon Anti-
masonry Frequently Asked Questions, VIII Religion, re-
trieved 4 February 2013
[11] Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon Karl Got-
thelf Hund, retrieved 4 February 2013
[12] A. G. Mackey, The History of Freemasonry, Chapters
XXX-XXXII
[13] Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon Anti-
masonry Frequently Asked Questions, III People, re-
trieved 5 February 2013
[14] Pietre Stones Martin I. MacGregor, The Life and Times
of Sir Christopher Wren, 2005, retrieved 5 February 2013
[15] The Steinmetz Theory Critically Examined, G. W. Speth,
Ars Quatuor Coronatorum, Vol 1, 1888, p 17-25
[16] Masonic World Oliver D. Street, Continental Freema-
sonry before A. D. 1723, The American Freemason, Feb.
1914, retrieved 5 February 2013
[17] Freemasonry and the Roman Collegia by H.L. Haywood,
The Builder, 1923 – Freemasonry and the Roman Collegia
14
[18] Freemasonry and the Comacine masters by H.L. Haywood,
The Builder, 1923 – Freemasonry and the Comacine Mas-
ters
[19] Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon Thomas
Paine, The Origins of Freemasonry, New York, 1818
[20] See, for instance, Michael Baigent and Richard Leigh, The
Temple and the Lodge, Arrow Books, 1998
[21] Christopher Knight and Robert Lomas. The Hiram Key.
London, 1996.
[22] Wilhelm Stricker (1882), "Kloß, Georg Franz Burkhard",
Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB) (in German) 16,
Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 227–228
[23] 1911 Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica article on
Freemasonry, 1911
[24] Wikisource Appletons’ Cyclopædia of American Biogra-
phy/Mackey, John, 1900
[25] Quatuor Coronati website Article on foundation of
Quatuor Coronati, partially taken from Ars Quatuor Coro-
natorum, vol 1, pp1-3, 1888
[26] Douglas Knoop, “The Genesis of Freemasonry”, Manch-
ester University Press, 1947
[27] Robert L.D. Cooper, Cracking the Freemason’s Code,
Rider 2006
[28] Revd Neville Barker Cryer, York Mysteries Revealed, Ian
Allen Printing, 2006, pp 71-74
[29] Pietre-Stones The Regius Poem, retrieved 22 June 2012
[30] Pietre-Stones Masonic Papers The Old Charges Revis-
ited, Andrew Prescott, from Transactions of the Lodge of
Research No. 2429 (Leicester), 2006, retrieved 22 June
2012
[31] Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon List of Or-
dinances of Laborers, retrieved 14 July 2012
[32] Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon Statutes of
Henry VI, retrieved 22 June 2012
[33] Masonic World The Old Charges, Wallace Mcleod, re-
trieved 22 June 2012
[34] John Yarker, The Arcane Schools, Manchester 1909,
pp341-342
[35] British History Online K J Allison (Editor), A P Baggs, L
M Brown, G C F Forster, I Hall, R E Horrox, G H R Kent,
D Neave, A History of the County of York East Riding:
Volume 6: The borough and liberties of Beverley, 1989,
pp57-62
[36] R. F. Gould, On the Antiquity of Masonic Symbolism,
Ars Quatuor Coronatorum 3, 1890, p7
[37] For instance: G. W. Speth, Scottish Freemasonry before
the Era of the Grand Lodges, Ars Quatuor Coronatorum,
vol 1, p139, 1889
[38] Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon Statutes of
Edward VI, retrieved 22 June 2012
9 NOTES
[39] Histoire des francs-maçons, J.-P. Dubreuil, H I G Fran-
cois, Brussels, 1838, vol 2, p94
[40] The Masonic Trowel The Schaw Statutes, retrieved 22
June 2012
[41] “bot be ressone of the absence of his Maitie out of the toun
and yt thair was na mrs bot the ludge of Edr convenit at this
tyme, We culd not get ane satlat order (as the privileges of
the craft requyris) tane at this tyme, bot heirefter quhan
occasioun sal be offerit we sall get his Maities warrand”
[42] RGLE website Full text of both St. Clair Charters, re-
trieved 22 June 2012
[43] William Saint Clair of Roslin bio page on the Grand
Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon website
[44] Giles Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, Sceptre, 1999, p200
[45] Pietre-Stones The Importance of Plot’s Natural History of
Staffordshire, Yasha Beresiner, retrieved 22 June 2012
[46] Masonic Dictionary Article on Desaguliers sourced from
Mackey’s Encyclopedia, retrieved 22 June 2012
[47] John Theophilus Desaguliers French Wikipedia entry for
Desaguliers retrieved 22 June 2012
[48] United Grand Lodge of England Constitutions 2001, p
137
[49] Pritchard’s Masonry Dissected pdf retrieved 16 July 2012
[50] United Grand Lodge of England Constitutions
[51] Pietre Stones The Hiramic Legend, C. S. Madhavan re-
trieved 25 June 2012
[52] Freemason Information 600 Years of Craft Ritual, Harry
Carr, originally from Ars Quatuor Coronatorum, vol 81
(1968), pp. 153-180 retrieved 9 September 2012.
[53] Pocket History The Pocket History of Freemasonry, Fred
L. Pick and G. Norman Knight
[54] Coil, Henry W. (1961). Two articles: “England, Grand
Lodge of, According to the Old Institutions,” pp. 237–
240; and “Saints John,” pp. 589–590. Coil’s Masonic
Encyclopedia. (rev. ed. 1996). Richmond, Va: Macoy
Publ. & Masonic Supply Co. Inc.
[55] Pietre-Stones Quote from Cementaria Hibernica, W. J.
Chetwode-Crawley, retrieved 26 June 2012
[56] Irish Masonic Jewels The Story of the Lost Archives of
the Grand Lodge of Ireland, W. J. Chetwode-Crawley, re-
trieved 26 June 2012
[57] Web Of Hiram Historical notes concerning the York
Grand Lodge, C. J. Scott, retrieved 26 June 2012
[58] The Minutes of the Grand Lodge of Freemasons of Eng-
land, 1723-1739, Quatuor Coronatorum Antigrapha,Vol
10, 1913, p 259
[59] Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon The For-
mation of the Grand Lodge of the Antients, I. R. Clarke,
Ars Quatuor Coronatorum, vol 79 (1966), p. 270-73, re-
trieved 28 June 2012

[60] Franc-Maçonnerie Française La Grande Loge de France,
retrieved 8 July 2012
[61] Franc-Maçonnerie Française Le Grand Orient de France,
retrieved 8 July 2012
[62] French Wikipedia entry retrieved 8 June 2012
[63] Pietre-Stones Various Grand Lodges, H. L. Haywood, re-
trieved 8 July 2012
[64] Grand Orient de France Histoire, retrieved 9 July 2012
[65] Masonic Network Freemasonry in Italy, Giovanni Lom-
bardo, retrieved 12 July 2012
[66] Museum of Freemasonry, Florence retrieved 12 July 2012
[67] Pietre Stones The Formation of the First Grand Lodge of
Freemasons, Germany 1250, Henning A. Klövekorn, re-
trieved 13 July 2012
[68] Andrew MacKillop, Steve Murdoch. Military Governors
and Imperial Frontiers C. 1600-1800: A Study of Scotland
and Empires. Brill Academic Publishers, 2003. Page 103.
[69] Lelliĭ Petrovich Zamoĭskiĭ. Behind the façade of the Ma-
sonic Temple. Progress Publishers, 1989. Page 90.
[70] Raffaella Faggionato. A Rosicrucian Utopia in Eighteenth-
Century Russia: The Masonic Circle of N.I. Novikov.
Springer, 2005. Page 251.
[71] Ahiman Rezon, Ray Sheppard, retrieved 8 July 2012
[72] Google books Ahiman Rezon (pdf) retrieved 30 June
2012
[73] Pietre Stones Various Grand Lodges, H. L. Haywood re-
trieved 1 July 2012
[74] Grand Lodge of Scotland Lodge Mother Kilwinning no.
0, retrieved 2 July 2012
[75] The Lodge of Melrose No 1 bis P. J. Titley, retrieved 18
July 2012
[76] Pietre Stones The Unlawful Societies Act of 1799, Dr An-
drew Prescott, from M. D. J. Scanlan, ed., The Social Im-
pact of Freemasonry on the Modern Western World The
Canonbury Papers I (London: Canonbury Masonic Re-
search Centre, 2002), pp. 116-134, retrieved 13 July 2012
[77] American Freemasons: Three Centuries of Building Com-
munities Mark A. Tabbert, New York University Press,
New York: 2005, pp. 33–47.
[78] Masonic World BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, FREEMA-
SON, from SHORT TALK BULLETIN, Vol.XI October,
1933 No.10, retrieved 16 July 2012
[79] The Temple and the Lodge, M. Baigent and R. Leigh, Ar-
row 1998
[80] Pietre-Stones An Overview of Early Freemasonry in
Pennsylvania, Francis Vicente, retrieved 15 July 2012
[81] Early Freemasonry in Pennsylvania, Harry S. Borneman,
1933, reprinted 2010, Kessinger Pub.
15
[82] Prince Hall History Education Class by Raymond T. Cole-
man(pdf) retrieved 17 July 2012
[83] On 10 November 2004, after deliberations by a special
working party, the Supreme Grand Chapter of Royal Arch
Masons of England at its regular meeting in London for-
mally overturned the compromise position of 1813, and
declared the Holy Royal Arch to be a separate degree in
its own right, albeit the natural progression from the Third
Degree, and the completion of "pure ancient Masonry",
which consists of the three Craft degrees and the Holy
Royal Arch. Words in the ritual which propounded the
earlier compromise position and led to misinterpretations
were removed by mandatory regulation. There are many
public-domain documents verifying these changes (e.g.
here is merely one example of many which demonstrate
the requirement for removal of all references to the former
compromise linking the Royal Arch with the Third De-
gree). The official position of the Supreme Grand Chap-
ter today is that the "Royal Arch is the continuation of Craft
Freemasonry" in that sense, "“pure ancient Masonry” can
be seen as a journey of self-knowledge and discovery with
the Royal Arch completing the practical lessons of the Craft
by a contemplation of man’s spiritual nature.”
[84] Pietre-Stones The Fourth Degree in the Craft, Yasha
Beringer, retrieved 19 July 2012
[85] Pietre-Stones Facsimile of Articles of Union, retrieved 20
July 2012
[86] Pietre-Stones Lodges of Instruction, Yasha Beresiner, re-
trieved 17 July 2012
[87] UGLE Quarterly Communication, 14 December 2011 re-
trieved 17 July 2012
[88] Encyclopedia of Freemasonry retrieved 17 July 2012
[89] Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon The Morgan
Affair, Reprinted from The Short Talk Bulletin - Vol. XI,
March, 1933 No. 3, retrieved 17 July 2012
[90] Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon The Morgan
Affair aftermath, retrieved 17 July 2012
[91] Michael Halleran. The Better Angels of Our Nature:
Freemasonry in the American Civil War (Univ. of Al-
abama Press, 2010), 38, 90, 106, 136.
[92] Theodore Zeldin, France 1848–1945: volume II Intellect,
Taste and Anxiety (1977) p 1032
[93] Zeldin, France 1848–1945 (1977) 2:1032-33
[94] Zeldin, France 1848 - 1945' ' (1977) 2:1033-34
[95] Maurice Larkin, Church and state after the Dreyfus affair:
the separation issue in France (1974) pp. 138–41
[96] The Paris Commune – IX. The Freemasons, the Commit-
tee of Public Safety, and Rossel, byE. Belfort Bax. Found
at www.marxists.org.
[97] Pietre-Stones Alain Bernheim, My Approach to Masonry,
text of lecture delivered on 26 May 2011 in Sheffield be-
fore the members of the Manchester Association for Ma-
sonic Research. Retrieved 10 August 2013
 16
[98] Piette Stones Andrew Prescott, A Body without a Soul?
The Philosophical Outlookof British Freemasonry 1700-
2000, Paper given at conferences organised by the Free
University of Brusells, Cornerstone Society and Canon-
bury Masonic Research Centre, November-December
2003, retrieved 30 November 2013
[99] Pietre-Stones Jack Buta, The God Conspiracy, The Poli-
tics of Grand Lodge Foreign Relations.retrieved 25 Octo-
ber 2013
[100] see Masonic U.S. Recognition of French Grand Lodges
in the 20th century, Paul M. Bessel. retrieved 10 August
2013
[101] Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon Leo Taxil
A Hoax, Reprinted from an article by Edmond Frank in
l'Illustration, 1 May. 1897- No. 2827, Paris, France, re-
trieved 27 July 2012
[102] Masonic Info Leo Taxil, the Tale of the Pope and the
Pornographer, retrieved 17 July 2012
[103] Pietre Stones The Annihilation of Freemasonry, Sven G.
Lunden, The American Mercury , Volume LII, No. 206,
February 1941, retrieved 17 July 2012
[104] Scottish Rite Journal Freemasonry under the Commu-
nists, retrieved 17 July 2012
[105] Norman Davies, Europe: A History (1996) pp 634–635
[106] Steven C. Bullock, “Initiating the enlightenment?: recent
scholarship on European freemasonry,” p 88
[107] Charles H. Lyttle, “Historical bases of Rome’s conflict
with Freemasonry.” Church History (1940) 9#1 pp: 3-23
in JSTOR.
[108] Richard Weisberger et al., eds., Freemasonry on both sides
of the Atlantic: essays concerning the craft in the British
Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico (East Euro-
pean Monographs, 2002)
[109] Margaret C. Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Freema-
sonry and politics in eighteenth-century Europe (Oxford
University Press, 1991).
[110] Jessica Harland-Jacobs, Builders of Empire: Freemasons
and British Imperialism, 1717-1927 (2007) ch 1.
[111] Theodore Zeldin, France 1848 – 1945: volume II Intellect,
Taste and Anxiety (1977) p 1032
[112] William Best Hesseltine, The rise and fall of third parties:
from Anti-Masonry to Wallace (1948) ch 1
[113] Davies, Europe: A History (1996) pp 634–635
[114] Roland Clark, “Anti-Masonry as political protest: fascists
and Freemasons in interwar Romania.” Patterns of Preju-
dice (2012) 46#1 pp: 40-57 online
11 EXTERNAL LINKS
10 Bibliography
• Berger, Joachim: European Freemasonries, 1850–
1935: Networks and Transnational Movements,
European History Online, Mainz: Institute of Eu-
ropean History, 2010, retrieved: 14 June 2012.
• Bullock, Steven C. “Initiating the enlightenment?:
recent scholarship on European freemasonry,”
Eighteenth-Century Life (1996) 20#1 pp. 80-92
online, historiography
• Curl, James Stevens. “The Art and Architecture of
Freemasonry: An Introductory Study (Woodstock,
N.Y.: Overlook, 1993)
• Daniel, James W. Masonic Networks and Connec-
tions (2007)
• Harland-Jacobs, Jessica L. Builders of Empire:
Freemasonry and British Imperialism, 1717–1927
(2009)
• Hoffman, Stefan-Ludwig The Politics of Sociability:
Freemasonry and German Civil Society, 1840–1918
(2008)
• Jacob, Margaret C. Living the Enlightenment:
Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Eu-
rope (Oxford University Press, 1991) online edition
• MacNulty, W. Kirk Freemasonry: Symbols, Secrets,
Significance (2008)
• Mehigan, Tim; de Burgh, Helene. "'Aufklärung',
freemasonry, the public sphere and the question
of Enlightenment,” Journal of European Studies,
March 2008, Vol. 38 Issue 1, pp 5–25. downplays
role of Freemasonry in the Enlightenment
• Mirala, Petri. Freemasonry in Ulster, 1733–1813:
A Social and Political History of the Masonic Broth-
erhood in the North of Ireland (2007)
• Stevenson. David. The Origins of Freemasonry:
Scotland’s Century, 1590-1710 (Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1990)
• Stevenson. David. David Stevenson. The First
Freemasons: Scotland’s Early Lodges and Their
Members (Aberdeen University Press, 1988)
11 External links
• The Constitutions of the Free-Masons written by
James Anderson and published “For the Use of
the Lodges” in 1723 in London, and in 1734 by
Benjamin Franklin in Philadelphia. Contains a
mythical-biblical-historical account of the order, as
well as “charges” and general regulations for mem-
bers and lodges.
 17

• The Web of Hiram at Bradford University, an elec-

tronic database of the Masonic material held in
many of the University’s Special Collections

• Freemasons history of Freemasonry found on the

Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry website
18 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
• History of Freemasonry Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Freemasonry?oldid=664417286 Contributors: Mav, Bryan
Derksen, Zundark, Heron, Rbrwr, Tiles, Ahoerstemeier, Ping, Cimon Avaro, JASpencer, Zoicon5, Dimadick, Academic Challenger,
GreatWhiteNortherner, Alan Liefting, Fabiform, Everyking, Mboverload, Loremaster, MacGyverMagic, Tothebarricades.tk, WegianWar-
rior, Tirin, Spinboy, Bobo192, Bsktcase, Smalljim, Hanuman Das, Alansohn, DreamGuy, Wtmitchell, Mikeo, Ghirlandajo, Kosher Fan,
Toussaint, Qwertyus, Angusmclellan, Himasaram, Chtirrell, FlaBot, Gurch, Vidkun, Zef, Banaticus, Filippof, Leutha, Proyster, Rjensen,
Stijn Calle, Tony1, Zwobot, MSJapan, Nlu, Avraham, Faulty, Garion96, Katieh5584, Crystallina, SmackBot, Elonka, Grye, Hmains, Chris
the speller, Bluebot, VirtualSteve, PeRshGo, Riggwelter, NYKevin, Blueboar, Wandering Writer, ALR, Ardenn, Imacomp, Dl2000, JoeBot,
Lottamiata, Devourer09, JForget, Peter Gower, CmdrObot, PGNormand, Amalas, Liberal Freemason, JeffT~enwiki, Joshua BishopRoby,
Dadofsam, Bellerophon5685, Tawkerbot4, Bookgrrl, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Bobblehead, Mr pand, Top.Squark, NetDominus, BokicaK,
Seaphoto, Agrestis, SteveSims, Stonemad GB, Alexoneill, Cgingold, Pietre-stones, Pvosta, Fred.e, OttoMäkelä, ABVS1936, Marcsin, Bri-
cology, Macedonian, Mohabyn, Philip Trueman, OverSS, Maxim, Triglyph, The Devil’s Advocate, Pjetson, SieBot, Oculi, JohnSawyer,
Grandsecretary, Wfgh66, PJBEAR13, Niceguyedc, DumZiBoT, Camboxer, XLinkBot, Thebestofall007, Addbot, Captain-tucker, Tide
rolls, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Materialscientist, LilHelpa, Nicosia1, J04n, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, Canton Viaduct, Pinethicket,
Full-date unlinking bot, ActivExpression, Lotje, Vrenator, GI-fromAlaska, Aoidh, Stuart.weiner5, EmausBot, RA0808, Tricornio, ZéroBot,
Drewfontaine, Access Denied, Shushi9876, Mentibot, Hiumaru, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Herr Lennartz, Mark Arsten,
Klilidiplomus, Fiddlersmouth, Totefos, Minordam, Khazar2, Mogism, ImprovementUK, Nubicus, Beast63 and Anonymous: 125

12.2 Images
• File:Freimaurer_Erhebung.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Freimaurer_Erhebung.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Freimaurer_Initiation.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Freimaurer_Initiation.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Freimaurer_Initiation.jpg Original artist: User:Liberal Freemason
• File:Henry_Price.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Henry_Price.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: History of the Ancient and Honourable fraternity of Free and Accepted Masons, 1896 Original artist: Stillson and Hughan
• File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
• File:Square_compasses.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Square_compasses.svg License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: MesserWoland

12.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0