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Course: General Methods of Teaching (8601)

Level: B.Ed (1 ½ & 2½ Years)


Semester: Autumn, 2017
ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q.1 Give answers to the following short questions. (5x4=20)


i. The personal and professional qualities of teachers.
Answer:
Effective teaching requires well-rounded instructors who are confident in the material they teach as well as their
own skin. Students have a keen ability to sense if a teacher is nervous, unsure or lying. Being genuine is one of the
most important personal characteristics that a teacher can possess. There are other personal and professional
characteristics as well that are necessary for effective teaching.
1. Teachers must be knowledgeable about the subject they are teaching. They must understand the concepts
thoroughly and be able to explain and articulate them in detail. They must have the knowledge to engage
students and to judge where and how to be of assistance. They also ideally have practical, hands-on
experience with the subject matter.
2. The best teachers care about their students and are passionate about the material. If a teacher is bored with
the material, then the students will also be bored and less likely to learn. Passion and enthusiasm draw
students in to learning. It excites their minds, creates curiosity and inspires them to raise their energy levels
in class.
3. Humans have an innate sense of what is just and what is not. Favoritism and unfair treatment can scar
students for a lifetime. The best teachers do everything they can to ensure their classroom is fair and just.
Students can only grow and learn in an environment they feel is safe and honest.
4. Students quickly disrespect teachers who are unprepared. Being unprepared shows your lack of care about
the students and the material. It makes you appear incompetent. Be prepared for every class in order to win
and maintain your students' respect
5. Creativity lets teachers think outside the box and work around problems. Creativity helps teachers reach
students in enjoyable, memorable ways. It cures boredom and raises moral and enthusiasm in the
classroom.
6. Students learn best in a positive atmosphere. Humor is the best way to break the ice and dispel awkward or
negative situations. Teachers who are comfortable enough to laugh at their own mistake are strong
examples of confident, witty individuals. Humor is also an effective way to teach students difficult and dry
concepts.
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ii. What is a case method?
Answer:
The case method is a teaching approach that uses decision-forcing cases to put students in the role of people who
were faced with difficult decisions at some point in the past. In sharp contrast to many other teaching methods, the
case method requires that instructors refrain from providing their own opinions about the decisions in question.
Rather, the chief task of instructors who use the case method is asking students to devise and defend solutions to
the problems at the heart of each case.

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The case method described in this article should not be confused with the casebook method used in law schools.
While the case method calls upon students to take on the role of an actual person faced with difficult problem, the
casebook method asks students to dissect a completed case-at-law. In other words, where the case method asks
students to engage in acts of prospective synthesis, the casebook method requires them to engage in an exercise
in retrospective analysis.
The terms "case study method" and "case method" have long been used interchangeably. Of late, however, the
meanings of the two expressions have begun to part ways. One cause of this divergence is the popularity of an
approach, called the "case study method," in which the Socratic conversation is replaced by written reports and
formal presentations. In the course of replacing the Socratic conversation with written reports and formal
presentations, the "case study method" encourages students to augment the reading of case materials with their
own research. This is in sharp contrast to the hard-and-fast rule of the "case method", which asks students to
refrain from engaging in any sort of preparation that might "spoil" the case.
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iii. Define and compare active learning and Cooperative Learning.
Answer:
Active and Collaborative Learning
Students working independently are capable of learning deeply, and it is likely that those of us who teach
undergraduate students are well suited to this sort of intellectual method. Nevertheless, structuring learning so
that students are required to respond to one another’s ideas, create a product together, and, more to the point,
teach each other, can be an effective teaching strategy. Collaborative or cooperative learning (or, on occasion,
“group work”) has stimulated significant literature. Here are three definitions:
‘Collaborative learning’ is an umbrella term for a variety of educational approaches involving joint intellectual effort
by students, or students and teachers together”
“Cooperative learning is an educational approach that promotes interaction among students and shared
responsibility for academic achievement”
“Cooperative Learning procedures are designed to engage students actively in the learning process through inquiry
and discussion with their peers in small groups”
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iv. What is lesson planning? Write down the five merits of lesson planning for the teachers.
Answer:
A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction or "learning trajectory" for a lesson. A
daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class learning. Details will vary depending on the preference of
the teacher, subject being covered, and the needs of the students. There may be requirements mandated by the
school system regarding the plan. A lesson plan is the teacher's guide for running a particular lesson, and it
includes the goal (what the students are supposed to learn), how the goal will be reached (the method, procedure)
and a way of measuring how well the goal was reached (test, worksheet, homework etc.).
A well-developed lesson plan]
A well-developed lesson plan reflects the interests and needs of students. It incorporates best practices for the
educational field. The lesson plan correlates with the teacher's philosophy of education, which is what the teacher
feels is the purpose of educating the students.
Secondary English program lesson plans, for example, usually center around four topics. They are literary theme,
elements of language and composition, literary history, and literary genre. A broad, thematic lesson plan is
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preferable, because it allows a teacher to create various research, writing, speaking, and reading assignments. It
helps an instructor teach different literature genres and incorporate videotapes, films, and television programs.
Also, it facilitates teaching literature and English together. Similarly, history lesson plans focus on content (historical
accuracy and background information), analytic thinking, scaffolding, and the practicality of lesson structure and
meeting of educational goals. School requirements and a teacher's personal tastes, in that order, determine the
exact requirements for a lesson plan.
Unit plans follow much the same format as a lesson plan, but cover an entire unit of work, which may span several
days or weeks. Modern constructivist teaching styles may not require individual lesson plans. The unit plan may
include specific objectives and timelines, but lesson plans can be more fluid as they adapt to student needs
and learning styles.
Unit Planning is the proper selection of learning activities which presents a complete picture. Unit planning is a
systematic arrangement of subject matter. Samford "A unit plan is one which involves a series of learning
experiences that are linked to achieve the aims composed by methodology and contents". Dictionary of
Education:"A unit is an organization of various activities, experiences and types of learning around a central
problem or purpose developed cooperatively by a group of pupils under a teacher leadership involving planning,
execution of plans and evaluation of results".
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v. Define the term inquiry approach; enlist the methods that come under the umbrella of this approach.
Answer:
“Inquiry-based learning is an umbrella term, encompassing a range of teaching approaches which involve
stimulating learning with a question or issue and thereby engaging learners in constructing new knowledge and
understandings.” (p. 57) Teachers who use these approaches act as facilitators of learning. Students start becoming
more self-directed learners. A hodgepodge of approaches gets put under this umbrella, including case-based
learning; problem-based learning; and discovery-oriented learning, which involves undertaking original research.
In an effort to help categorize teaching methods in this area, the authors of this article propose several ways of
organizing these various approaches, including one that differentiates between three modes of inquiry: structured
inquiry, where teachers provide the issue or problem and some direction on how it should be addressed; guided
inquiry, where teachers stimulate the inquiry with questions but students decide how to explore the questions; and
open inquiry, where students formulate the questions, identify what needs to be known, collect and analyze the
data, offer findings, communicate the results, and evaluate the research.
A second scheme categorizes inquiry-based approaches by how they are framed and whether they are discovery
oriented or information oriented. “In discovery framing, students understand and experience research through
personal questioning, exploration and discovery in relation to new questions or lines of investigation. In an
information framing, students experience research through already existing answers, with the purpose of acquiring
a previously established body of knowledge.” (p. 58)
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Q.2 Define and explain the concept of effective teaching. Highlight the principles of effective teaching.
Answer:
Traditionally, teachers were the 'holders of information' and their role was to impart this knowledge and skill to
students. The internet has changed all that as information can now be obtained anywhere, any time on anything.
Thus the role of teachers has changed to developing the skills and tools to assist students in critically analysing the
plethora of information available.

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Effective teaching is more than just the successful transference of knowledge and skill or application around a
particular topic. Effective teaching ensures that this surface approach to learning is replaced by deeper, student
driven approaches to learning that analyse, develop, create and demonstrate understanding. Students need to
initiate learning and maintain engagement during learning in their development as independent lifelong learners.
Teachers and the instruction they give their students are only two of a complex set of factors that have an impact
on student learning. One of the fundamental truths in education is that the knowledge, skills, aptitudes, attitudes
and values with which students leave school or a particular teacher’s classroom are influenced to a great extent by
the knowledge, skills, aptitudes, attitudes and values that students possessed when they entered the school or
classroom. In addition, the knowledge, skills, aptitudes, attitudes and values that students possess when they enter
a school or classroom are the result of some intricate and complex combination of their genetic composition and
the environment to which they have been exposed in their homes.
In addition to these genetic and environmental factors which are beyond the control of any teacher, teachers are
powerless in terms of making learning occur; they cannot simply open up the tops of their students’ heads and
pour in the desired learning. The stimulus-response theory has long been dismissed as a viable theory for
understanding the link between teaching and learning (that is, teachers teach (stimulus) and students learn
(response)).
As Tyler pointed out over half a century ago, learning depends on the activities of the student: Students learn
according to what they do, not according to what their teacher does; they either pay attention or they do not; they
either construct their knowledge consistently with the teacher’s intended construction of knowledge, or they do
not. More than a quarter of a century later, Roth Kopf reinforced Tyler’s contention by emphasizing the negative
case: “The student has complete veto power over the success of instruction”. Teachers can neither make students
pay attention, nor can they construct meaning for them. So what can teachers do? What exactly is the role of the
teacher in student learning?
Teachers must create conditions that reduce the likelihood that students will use their veto power and increase the
probability that students will put forth the time and effort needed to learn what their teachers intend them to learn,
that is the teacher effectiveness.
CONCEPT OF TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS
Effective teachers are those who achieve the goals which they set for themselves or which they have set for them
by others such as ministries of education, legislators and other government officials, school / college
administrators. Effective teachers must possess the knowledge and skills needed to attain the goals, and must be
able to use that knowledge and those skills appropriately if these goals are to be achieved.
In Medley’s terms, the possession of knowledge and skills falls under the heading of ‘teacher competence’ and the
use of knowledge and skills in the classroom is referred to as ‘teacher performance’, Teacher competence and
teacher performance with the accomplishment of teacher goals, is the ‘teacher effectiveness’.
Four major assumptions are implicit in this definition of teacher effectiveness.
The first is that “Effective teachers tend to be aware of and actively pursue goals.” These goals, in turn, guide
their planning as well as their behaviours and interactions with students in the classroom. This assumption does
not mean that effective teachers are always aware of goals; in fact, awareness is particularly likely to be lacking
when goals have been established for teachers by others. Using current educational terminology, these ‘goals
established by others’ are referred to as ‘standards’ (sometimes ‘content standards’ or ‘curriculum standards’). That
is, standards are externally imposed goals that indicate what students should know and be able to do as a result of
the instruction that they receive.

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The second assumption is that “The teaching is an intentional and reasoned act.” Teaching is intentional
because we always teach for some purpose, primarily to facilitate learning. Teaching is reasoned because what
teachers teach their students is judged by them to be worthwhile.
The third assumption implicit in this definition of teacher effectiveness is that“The vast majority of teachers’
goals are, or should be, concerned either directly or indirectly with their students’ learning.” An example of
direct teacher concern with learning is a teacher who states that he or she intends to help students develop the
ability to differentiate facts from opinions, or reality from fantasy. An example of indirect teacher concern with
learning is a teacher who sets out to decrease the level of disruptive behaviour in the classroom because he or she
believes that learning cannot occur before the level of disruptive behaviour is reduced. It should be obvious that if
teachers’ goals are stated in terms of their students’ learning, then the “Teacher effectiveness must be defined, and
can only be assessed, in terms of behaviours and learning of students, not behaviours of teachers”.
A fourth assumption underlying this definition of teacher effectiveness is that“No teacher is effective in every
aspect of their profession”. For example a primary school teacher may be highly successful in teaching reading
comprehension to his or her students while struggling to teach them the elements of rudimentary problem-solving
in mathematics. Likewise a secondary literature teacher may be quite able to teach students an appreciation of
poetry, but have some difficulty in teaching them how to interpret the symbolism in a series of novels. Thus, the
degree to which a given teacher is effective depends, to a certain extent, on the goals being pursued by that
teacher.
Similarly, an elementary school teacher may be very gifted in dealing with less able students, while at the same
time feeling quite frustrated with his or her inability to render the work more challenging for the more able
students. A secondary mathematics teacher may be particularly adept with students who are well motivated to
learn mathematics, but have great difficulty motivating those who question why they have to learn mathematics in
the first place. Thus, the degree to which a teacher is effective also depends, to a large extent, on the
characteristics of the students being taught by the teacher.
Despite the underlying assumptions, it seems reasonable to assume that those who are referred to as being
‘effective teachers’ are more often than not effective in achieving specified learning goals. In other words, there is
some degree of consistency in these teachers’ effectiveness vis-à-vis classroom conditions, time and goals.
However, this effectiveness does not stem from rigid adherence to a standard set of behaviours, activities, methods
or strategies in all situations. Rather, teachers who are consistently effective are those who are able to adapt their
knowledge and skills to the demands inherent in various situations so as to best achieve their goals. Doing
whatever is necessary in order to achieve these goals, rather than doing certain things in certain ways or using
certain methods or techniques, is a hallmark of an effective teacher.
Finally, we can say that an effective teacher is one who quite consistently achieves goals – be they self-selected or
imposed – that are related either directly or indirectly to student learning.
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Q.3 What is Gagnes’ framework for instructional development?
Answer:
According to Robert Gagné (1985) there are nine events that provide a framework for an effective learning process:

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While Gagnés Nine Steps are often treated as iron clad rules, it has been noted for quite some time that the nine
steps are more like a framework or guidelines: “[Gagnés nine steps are] general considerations to be taken into
account when designing instruction. Although some steps might need to be rearranged (or might be unnecessary)
for certain types of lessons, the general set of considerations provide a good checklist of key design steps” (Good,
Brophy, 1977).
The Nine Steps
1. Gain attention: Present a story, problem, or a new situation that will grab the learners' attention. This can be
thought of as a interest device or teaser, such as the short segment often shown in a TV program right before the
opening credits that keeps you watching the program. The ideal is to grab the learners' attention so that they will
become involved in the learning process. You can use such interest devices as:
o Storytelling
o Demonstrations
o Presenting a problem to be solved
o Identifying why it is important to them
Wick, Pollock, Jefferson, and Flanagan (2006) describe how the research also supports extending the interest device
into the workplace in order to increase performance when the learners apply their new skills to the job. This is
accomplished by having the learners and their managers discuss what they need to learn and be able to perform
when they finish the training. This pre-class activity ends in a mutual contract between the learners and managers
on what is expected to be achieved from the learning process.
The reason this works is that workers often perform what their managers stress, and tend to ignore what their
managers ignore.
2. Provide a Learning Objective: This allows the learners to organize their thoughts on what they will learn and
perform. There is an old saying among presentation professionals to tell them what you're going to tell them, tell
them, and finally tell them what you told them. This works by helping to cue the learner on the goals of the
instruction and how they will be able to use their new skills in the workplace. The problem that some instructors
run into is telling the learners the formal Learning Objectives word for word, rather than breaking it down into a
less formalized statement. Learning Objectives are normally designed for the instructional designers and trainers,
rather than the learners, thus they must be transformed into a more causal language. Marzano (1998, p.94)
reported an effect size of 0.97 (which indicates that achievement can be raised by 34 percentile points) when goal
specification is used. When students have some control over the learning outcomes, there is an effect size of 1.21
(39 percentile points).
3. Stimulate recall of prior knowledge: This allows the learners to use two important learning processes:
o Retrieval Practice: Retrieval enhances learning by retrieval-specific mechanisms rather than by elaborative
study processes and is an effective tool to promote conceptual learning (Butler, 2010; Karpicke, Janell,
2011) .

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o Scaffolding is building upon the learners' previous knowledge and skills.
Taking practice tests allows learners to retrieve and reconstruct their knowledge. Remembering information we are
organizing allows us to create patterns, cues, and connections that our brains can recognize.
Scaffolding is the support that a skilled performer gives her apprentices in carrying out a task (Collins, Brown,
Holum, 1991). It is accomplished by building upon the student's prior learning. The basic steps
of scaffolding include:
1. Start by building on what the learners already know
2. Add more details and information over a period of time
3. Allowing the learners to perform on their own
4. Afterwards, the fading process begins by slowly removing the support in order to give the learners more
responsibility.
In addition, part of stimulating recall is having the learners take notes and drawing mind maps. Learning is
enhanced by encouraging the use of graphic representations when taking notes (mind or concept maps). While
normal note-taking has an overall effect size of .99, indicating a percentile gain of 34 points, graphic
representations (mind maps) produce a percentile gain in achievement of 39 points (Marzano, 1998). One of the
most effective of these techniques is semantic mapping or concept mapping. With this technique, the learner
represents the key ideas in a lesson by drawing nodes (circles) with spokes depicting key details emanating from
the node. Having the learners draw a semantic map produces an effect size of 1.48 (n=1), indicating a percentile
gain of 43 points (Toms-Bronowski, 1982).
4. Present the material: Sequence and chunk the information to avoid cognitive overload. Blend the information
to aid in information recall. This is directly related to Skinner's sequenced learning events by allowing the learners to
receive feedback on individualized tasks, thereby correcting isolated problems rather than having little idea of
where the root of the learning challenge lies. Bloom's Taxonomy and Learning Strategies can be used to help
sequence the lesson by helping you chunk them into levels of difficulty.
5. Provide guidance for learning: Provide coaching on how to learn the skill. The rate of learning increases
because learners are less likely to lose time and become frustrated by practicing the wrong way or using poorly
understood concepts. Coaching the learners to learn-to-learn also has the benefit of helping them to gain
metacognitive skills that will aid them with future performance initiatives.
6. Elicit performance: Practice by letting the learner do something with the newly acquired behavior, skills, or
knowledge.
In addition, demonstrate as required (modeling). Albert Bandura (1997) noted that observational learning may or
may not involve imitation. For example if you see someone driving in front of you hit a pothole, and then you
swerve to miss it, you learned from observational learning, not imitation (if you learned from imitation then you
would also hit the pothole). What you learned was the information you processed cognitively and then acted upon.
Observational learning is much more complex than simple imitation. Bandura's theory is often referred to as social
learning theory as it emphasizes the role of vicarious experience (observation) of people affecting people (models).
Modeling has several affects on learners:
o Acquisition - New responses are learned by observing the model.
o Inhibition - A response that otherwise may be made is changed when the observer sees a model being
punished.
o Disinhibition - A reduction in fear by observing a model's behavior go unpunished in a feared activity.
o Facilitation - A model elicits from an observer a response that has already been learned.

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7. Provide feedback: This can be a test, quiz, or verbal comments. The feedback needs to be specific, rather than
something similar to “you are doing a good job.” Tell them why they are doing a good job and/or provide specific
guidance.
8. Assess performance: Evaluate the learners to determine if the lesson has been learned and provide general
progress information.
9. Enhance retention and transfer: Inform the learners about similar problem situations, provide additional
practice, put the learners in a learning transfer situation, and review the lesson.
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Q.4 Why is outlining of goals/objectives necessary before planning a lesson? How are objectives stated
in behavioral terms?
Answer:
Objectives are the first step in writing a strong lesson plan. After the Objective, you will define the Anticipatory Set.
The objective is also known as the "goal" of your lesson. Here you will learn what the "objective" or "goal" part of
your lesson plan is, along with a few examples and tips.
OBJECTIVE
In the Objectives section of your lesson plan, write precise and delineated goals for what you want your students to
be able to accomplish after the lesson is completed. Here is an example. Let's say that you are writing a lesson plan
on nutrition. For this unit plan, your objective (or goals) for the lesson are for students to name a few food groups,
identify the food groups, and learn about the food pyramid. Your goal is to be specific and to use numbers where
appropriate. This will help you after the lesson is over determine if you met your objectives or not.
WHAT TO ASK YOURSELF
In order to define your lesson's objectives, consider asking yourself the following questions:
 What will students accomplish during this lesson?
 To what specific level (i.e. 75% accuracy) will the students perform a given task in order for the lesson to be
considered satisfactorily accomplished?
 Exactly how will the students show that they understood and learned the goals of your lesson? Will this
occur through a worksheet, group work, presentation, illustration, etc?
Additionally, you will want to make sure that the lesson's objective fits in with your district and/or state educational
standards for your grade level.
By thinking clearly and thoroughly about the goals of your lesson, you will ensure that you are making the most of
your teaching time.
EXAMPLES
Here are a few examples of what an "objective" would look like in your lesson plan.
 After reading the book "Life in the Rainforest," sharing a class discussion, and drawing plants and animals,
students will be able to place six specific characteristics into a Venn diagram of the similarities and
differences of plants and animals, with 100% accuracy.
 While learning about nutrition, students will keep a food journal, create a balanced meal using the food
pyramid (or food plate as now call it), write a recipe for a healthy snack, as well as name all of the food
groups and the foods that correlate with them.

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 While learning about the local government, the goal of this lesson is to have students identify the
components of local government and be able to generate four to six sentences using local government
facts and vocabulary.
 While students learn about the pattern of digestion, by the end of the lesson they will know how to
physically point out areas of the digestive track, as well as tell specific facts about how the food we eat can
turn into the fuel that our bodies need.
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Q.5 Define and describe the term motivation. What are different types of motivation? Discuss in detail.
Answer:
Motivation is the reason for people's actions, desires, and needs. Motivation is also one's direction to behavior, or
what causes a person to want to repeat a behavior. A motive is what prompts the person to act in a certain way, or
at least develop an inclination for specific behavior. According to Maehr and Meyer, "Motivation is a word that is
part of the popular culture as few other psychological concepts are."
Types of theories and models:- Motivation theories can be classified on a number of bases:
 Natural vs. Rational: based on whether the underlying theory of human cognition is based on natural forces
(drives, needs, desires) or some kind of rationality (instrumentality, meaningfulness, self-identity).
 Content vs. Process: based on whether the focus is on the content ("what") motivates vs process ("how")
motivation takes place.
Motivation is literally the desire to do things. It's the difference between waking up before dawn to pound the
pavement and lazing around the house all day. It's the crucial element in setting and attaining goals—and research
shows you can influence your own levels of motivation and self-control. So figure out what you want, power
through the pain period, and start being who you want to be.
There are two types of motivation, Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation. It's important to understand that we are not
all the same; thus effectively motivating your employees requires that you gain an understanding of the different
types of motivation. Such an understanding will enable you to better categorize your team members and apply the
appropriate type of motivation. You will find each member different and each member's motivational needs will be
varied as well. Some people respond best to intrinsic which means "from within" and will meet any obligation of an
area of their passion. Quite the reverse, others will respond better to extrinsic motivation which, in their world,
provides that difficult tasks can be dealt with provided there is a reward upon completion of that task. Become an
expert in determining which type will work best with which team members.
Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation means that the individual's motivational stimuli are coming from within. The individual has the
desire to perform a specific task, because its results are in accordance with his belief system or fulfills a desire and
therefore importance is attached to it.
Our deep-rooted desires have the highest motivational power. Below are some examples:
 Acceptance: We all need to feel that we, as well as our decisions, are accepted by our co-workers.
 Curiosity: We all have the desire to be in the know.
 Honor: We all need to respect the rules and to be ethical.
 Independence: We all need to feel we are unique.
 Order: We all need to be organized.
 Power: We all have the desire to be able to have influence.
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 Social contact: We all need to have some social interactions.
 Social Status: We all have the desire to feel important.
Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation means that the individual's motivational stimuli are coming from outside. In other words, our
desires to perform a task are controlled by an outside source. Note that even though the stimuli are coming from
outside, the result of performing the task will still be rewarding for the individual performing the task. Extrinsic
motivation is external in nature. The most well-known and the most debated motivation is money. Below are some
other examples:
 Employee of the month award
 Benefit package
 Bonuses
 Organized activities
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