Proceedings of the ASME 2011 International Mechanical Engineering Congress & Exposition
IMECE2011
November 11-17, 2006,
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ULTRASOUND HYPERTHERMIA SIMULATOR FOR
THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS
Esteban Echeverria
University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland, USA
ABSTRACT
In recent times, Ultrasound for therapeutic applications is
becoming increasingly popular due to its high practicality and
efficiency. However, determination of adequate dosages
presents a great challenge due to the difficulty of measuring
tissue temperatures during the process. Further, accurate
calculation of temperature field induced by ultrasound within
the tissue is difficult to develop because of the time-scale
differences between pressure and temperature analyses. In order
to overcome this issue, practical and accurate methods to
couple both analyses are needed. In the present study,
Westervelt’s nonlinear wave equation is used to simulate
ultrasonic propagation driven by an unfocused piston source in
an axisymmetric biological tissue phantom. Using the Finite
Difference Time Domain (FDTD) method, a pressure field was
calculated for different sinusoidal bursts, frequencies, and
source pressures. Average heat generation fields were
calculated from the pressure field within an adequate time
range for practical purposes. The Pennes bioheat transfer
equation with the calculated heat generation fields were used to
acquire transient temperature distributions. Effect of source
pressure, frequency, source radius, and trial duration on the
temperature profiles was examined. It can be observed from the
simulations that continuous wave signals increase temperature
at a focus in shorter times, while discrete pulses with adequate
duty factors can be useful in maintaining required temperatures
constant while diffusing heat along the tissue. The methodology
presented here can be of use in many applications such as
increasing necrotic volume for tissue ablation purposes.
INTRODUCTION
Interest in the use of ultrasound in biological applications
has been increasing in the past few decades, mostly due to its
characteristic noninvasiveness and lack of post-treatment side
effects. Several applications have made use of this method,
including treatment of brain, prostate and breast cancer,
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IMECE 2011
2011, Denver, Colorado, USA
IMECE2011-64205
IMECE2011-64
Chandrasekhar Thamire
University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland, USA
Parkinson’s disease, glaucoma and retinal tears, and benign
prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), among many others [1].
A substantial amount of research in the area of
hyperthermia has been performed during the past decades [2-5].
In particular, several experimental results regarding pressure
and heat generation due to ultrasound have been published [6-
16]. However, adequate information regarding the relationship
between ultrasound delivery and resulting temperature rise is
not yet available. This is needed to further understand and
effectively manipulate the method for therapeutic applications
at a greater level. Further, in vivo and in vitro experiments
suffer from the difficulty of accurately measuring necrotic
regions [16]. Numerical simulations offer an attractive
alternative solution.
Real time and space calculations are difficult to conduct
due to the difference in time scales between ultrasound and
thermal simulations. Effective ultrasound numerical analysis in
the time domain requires small time steps, typically in the order
of nanoseconds, due to the high frequencies required. Several
time steps are needed for proper sampling within a time period,
which is small in this case.
Several authors have published results from numerical
studies, describing pressure fields through a medium [6-23].
Some included results for heat generation and temperature
fields [6-8, 13-16, 18, 19, 22]. Many of these studies couple the
pressure and temperature fields in an inefficient manner. This is
due to the use of identical time steps for both analyses, which
leads to high computational cost and time requirements in order
to get proper results.
In this study, a model that effectively couples these
simulations is presented. For simplicity purposes, a non-
focused “piston-like” source is used. Pressure field results are
presented and validated with past studies. The validation of the
analyses and concepts developed in this study apply for any
type of source geometry, as long as it is adequately defined and
driven by a monochromatic frequency.
In the following sections, the development of the pressure
field will be presented, followed by the development of the
1 Copyright © 2011 by ASME
 1 0 % 0
 0  
temperature field. A method to evaluate the volumetric heat
generation is proposed. Results are validated utilizing past ∇  − + + =0 (1)
numerical, analytical, and experimental results.
  0" 
 2 0"
)
 2 0" 
For this equation,
 is the signal wave speed, ) is the
NOMENCLATURE density of the medium, is the nonlinearity coefficient, and
Roman based Symbols: % is the diffusivity of sound in the medium, as shown in eq. (2).

 Small Signal Speed /

 Volumetric Heat Capacity  /
 2


%= (2)
 Ordinary Frequency 

L Length of Tissue (Spatial Domain) 
n Iteration Number
 Number of Cycles (Pulse Width)
 Source Driving Pressure 
 Pressure 
 Heat Generation / 
r Radial Coordinate 
R Radius of Tissue (Spatial Domain) 
 Source Radius 
T Temperature °
T Time 
z Propagation Coordinate 
 Rayleigh Distance 
Greek-Based Symbols
 Acoustic Absorption Coefficient   
Nonlinearity Coefficient
∆" Time Step for Pressure Computations 
∆"# Time Step for Pressure Computations 
∆ Discrete Spatial Value in Direction of Propagation 
∆$ Discrete Spatial Value in Radial Direction 
% Diffusivity of Sound  /
& Divergence Angle '
( Wavelength 
) Mediums Uniform Density *+/

, Monochromatic Angular Frequency $'/
Ultrasonic Pressure Computations
Several wave models and equations have been used to
describe both ultrasonic linear and nonlinear propagation
through a medium. For high frequencies and pressures (such as
High Intensity Focused Ultrasound, also known as HIFU),
nonlinear propagation has to be taken into account [13, 18, 21,
24-26]. A popular equation used for modeling ultrasonic
propagation is the Khokhlov-Zabolotskaya-Kuznetsov (KZK)
equation. It takes into account the characteristic wave-effects of
nonlinearity, absorption, and diffraction. This model has been
widely used for focused sources [10-13, 17, 25]. However, for
piston (planar) sources, it has been shown that this equation has
its limitations in the near field [6, 9]; it only works for
directional beams with parabolic approximation, meaning that
its validity decays significantly for wide angles far off axis [6,
7]. Another popular equation to describe ultrasonic propagation
is the Westervelt’s wave equation. It has been well validated
with experimental and analytical results [6]. Its general form is
given below:
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, 
In this equation,  is the acoustic absorption coefficient
and , is the monochromatic angular frequency. The
Westervelt’s equation also takes into account nonlinearity,
absorption, and diffraction effects; moreover, it can be
discretized and solved using finite difference methods in the
time domain (FDTD). The main advantage in using FDTD is
that accurate results in space and time are obtained relatively
easily; it is therefore easy to analyze heat generation and
temperature rise at specific points in time.
Geometry
Geometry considered in this study involves a circular
cylinder with propagation axis z and radial axis r. It is assumed
that the wave propagation is symmetric about the axis of
propagation. An ultrasound source is placed at the center of the
propagation axis at z = 0. It is assumed to provide ultrasonic
pulses at predefined pressure and a monochromatic frequency
for prescribed durations.
The dimensions of the medium are the length L and radius
R. Tissue was considered as the medium and representative
thermal and acoustic properties for this medium were obtained
from [18].
TABLE 1 ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF TISSUE
Property Value

 1500 7 9
8

) :;
1050 7 < 9
8
5.5
 4.5 7
=
9
8 >?@
The spatial domain is discretized into a finite set of nodes
separated by a distance ∆ and ∆$ along the z and r axes,
respectively. The selection of these values is important for
stability and reduction in computational costs, as described
later.
Boundary Conditions
Because of the assumed axisymmetry along the
propagation axis, the radial pressure gradient dP/'$ is set to
zero. This requires using “dummy or virtual” variables located
outside of the computational domain [9]. The values of these
variables are the same as those of the mirrored or “real” values
located inside the computational domain. The same approach is
2 Copyright © 2011 by ASME
 used at the circumferential and propagation boundaries if these with a CW source pressure of 500 kPa and a monochromatic
are assumed to be large [9]. Moreover, by following the same frequency of 1 MHz and a source radius of 3.5mm. Ratio of the
approach at the application of a perfectly matched layer (PML) length to radius of the domain, R/L, was defined as a function
an increase in the absorption coefficient is applied at these of the beam divergence half angle & [26] as shown in eq. (7):
boundaries in order to evade reflection of the waves [6, 7, 18, . 61( 
& = sin T W = tan T W (7)
 Z
28].
The source boundary for continuous wave (CW) signals is
described through eq. 3, in terms of pressure P being a function It was found that L depends on an analytical parameter
of source pressure  and angular frequency C : given as the Rayleigh distance  ;  is the location where the
pressure has decayed by half of its maximum value in the
" =  sin C ", z = 0; 0 ≤ r ≤  ; t ≥ 0 (3) domain and defined in eq. (8) [24-26].
For finite pulses of pressure, a Gaussian envelope in time
is usually used and is defined by using the number of cycles  [ 
 = (8)
that a particular pulse emits [18, 20, 25, 26]. (
Length of the computational domain was varied from 0.5Zr
H J
7 I 9
" =  G K LM sin C " (4) to 5Zr and the maximum pressures and location of focal points
were noted. Results are shown in table 2. It was found that a
length corresponding to L = 1.5 gives an acceptable error of
Discretization ~5% (table 2), within an acceptable computational time.
By using the Taylor series expansion, terms in eq. (1) are
discretized. Time derivatives are discretized to second order TABLE 2 MAXIMUM PRESSURE AND FOCAL DISTANCE
accuracy; fourth order accurate approximations are used for the FOR A RANGE OF LENGTHS
spatial derivatives. Significant reduction in numerical
dispersion effects can be seen by using this approach [18,20]. Length Maximum Focal Error in
The resulting nodal equations are explicitly solved for Pressure at Distance Maximum
prescribed times. Focal Point (mm) Pressure
The first time derivative shown in eq. (1) is approximated (bar) With respect
using a central difference scheme; the second time derivative is to L = 5
approximated by a “quasi-backwards” approximation. The third (%)
term is nonlinear. This nonlinearity is addressed by 0.5 11.08 6.9 28.38
approximating the first time derivative with a central difference 1 9.15 8.0 6.02
scheme and the second with a backward difference scheme. 1.5 9.09 7.7 5.36
Discretization of the spatial derivatives in the interior is based 2 8.81 8.4 2.11
on central difference. 5 8.63 8.5 0
Stability Criterion The number of iterations for each run was chosen until a
∆ and ∆$ were kept as fractions of the wavelength ( for fully developed pressure field was calculated. For CW signals,
good sampling. For the parameter values used in this study, pressure field was assumed to be fully developed when the
values shown below in eq. (5) below worked well. wave has traveled the entire length of the domain. For Gaussian
( (
pulses, the same assumption was assumed to hold for each
∆ = , ∆$ = (5) pulse. Thus the number of iterations depended on the wave
20 15 speed and length of the domain.
The value for ∆ is kept smaller since wave propagation Thermal Computations
mainly occurs in the z direction. For higher frequencies, denser Eq. (9) shows the Pennes bio-heat transfer equation in
grids were needed, requiring larger computation times. Size of cylindrical coordinates, with the axisymmetry assumption.
the time step was dictated by eq. 6, based on Neumann analysis Blood perfusion effects are assumed to be negligible in
[6]. comparison with the volumetric heat generation effects and
√3
omitted in the equation.
Δ" ≤ (6) 1 0 0\ 0 0\ 0\
2
 √Δ  + Δ$  T*$ W + T* W +  = )
 (9)
$ 0$ 0$ 0 0 0"
Computational Parameters In the above equation, k is the coefficient of thermal
To determine the size of the computational domain needed conductivity, T is the temperature,  is the heat generation rate
to produce acceptable results, an experiment was conducted per unit volume and
 is the coefficient of volumetric heat

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 -5
capacity. Boundaries are assumed to be insulated, to examine 0.03
x 10

how ultrasound affects the temperatures within the tissue.

Initial temperature was assumed to be uniform at 38oC. Central
1
difference schemes were used for both internal and boundary 0.025
nodes; first order difference scheme was used for the time
derivative [29]. ∆ and ∆$ were kept the same as those used in
pressure computations, while the time step, Δ"# , was larger and
0.8
0.02

was of the order of ∆$  . Thermophysical properties used are

typical of prostatic tissue. The coefficients of thermal

z (m)
0.6
0.015
conductivity and specific heat capacity used were taken to be
0.6 W/m.K and 3800 J/kg.K, respectively.
0.01 0.4

Volumetric Heat Generation

Volumetric heat generation rate  in eq. 9 depends on the
0.005 0.2
local intensity and the medium’s absorption coefficient and is
defined as follows [8, 19, 24-26]:

2 0  0 0

 = T W
(10)

 ) ,  0"
In order to determine how frequently  needs to be
computed, sample calculations were performed for a CW
source with a pressure of 500 kPa and a monochromatic
frequency of 1 MHz. Source radius was 3.5mm and the tissue
length was assumed to be ~40 mm.  values were computed
after every Δ" using eq. 10 and resulting temperatures were
calculated using eq. 9. Resulting isotherms when the wave has
reached the end of the tissue (at t = 26.5 ]s) are shown in fig. 1.
As shown in the figure, temperatures are higher close to the
source for the assumed boundary conditions, and are not much
affected away from the source.
It would be ideal to evaluate  after each Δ" and compute
-5 0 5
r (m) -3
x 10
FIGURE 1 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION (°°C)
WITH  COMPUTED AFTER EVERY ∆"
To determine a suitable value for ∆" in eq. 11,  values
were computed using different ∆" values. Since the wave can
be considered to be fully developed just before it reaches the
far-end boundary, the last acoustic period was assumed to
provide a reasonable value and  was first estimated using this
value for ∆". For other computations, " was taken to be the
time when the wave reaches the end, while " was taken as
25%, 50%, 75%, and 90% of " , thus making ∆" to be the last
75%, 50%, 25%, and 10% of the travel time.
x 10
6

3
the temperature field for the entire time of application. One Cycle
However, due to the large times of application needed in Last 10%
medical applications, such computations require large times to Last 25%
2.5
Last 50%
run and can also accrue numerical errors. To address these
issues,  at each node is taken as the average of the  values
Last 75%
100%
computed at that node over a certain duration, as shown in eq. 2
11. Temperatures are then computed using these  values.

 

1 J_ 2 0    

1.5
 = ^ T W '" (11)
∆" J`
 ) ,  0"




∆" in the above equation, taken as " − " , may not

1

merely be taken as one acoustic period, as it would imply that

the propagating acoustic wave consists of only one fundamental 0.5
frequency. Because of the self-demodulation effect [25, 26, 30],
even when the pressure source produces a monochromatic high
frequency (as in the current study), a low frequency signal 0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
would be generated during propagation [24-26] and a larger z (m)
time span would need to be considered. Further, for CW FIGURE 2 VOLUMETRIC HEAT GENERATION RATE OVER
signals, transient effects during the development phase must be DIFFERENT TIME INTERVALS
carefully evaluated and  values computed during this initial
phase omitted, if necessary. For Gaussian pulses, however, it is Figure 2 shows the  values along the propagation axis. As can
important to include the  values during this phase. be seen from this figure, ramping effect causes  to be lower,
when computations were performed over the entire travel time.

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 Further, significant noise reduction appears when the last 25%
of the travel time was considered. Since the wave would not
have reached the far-end boundary for ramping to be avoided,
an error occurs in the results; however, since temperatures in
the far end will not significantly rise due to distance and
magnitude of the volume, we have not further tried refining the
procedure, but have considered  to be computed from last 25%
of the travel time. For Gaussian pulses,  values were averaged
over the entire travel time considered.

Results and Discussion

With the aforesaid assumptions, computations were
performed for a range of source amplitudes, frequencies, and
the durations. Results from validation are provided first,
followed by specific sample results.

Validation
Results from the current procedure are validated by
comparing with results from an analytical solution based on the FIGURE 4 NORMALIZED PEAK PRESSURE PLOTS FOR
KZK equation, a numerical FDTD method, and experimental a = b ALONG r AT z = 5.5MM
results [6]. When comparing with the analytical solution of the
Nonlinearity effects were considered next with a planar
linearized governing equation, nonlinearity is removed by
source of 6.9 mm radius, providing a CW signal with an
setting the coefficient of nonlinearity and diffusivity of sound
% to zero. A planar source of 1.5 mm radius with an amplitude
amplitude of 500 kPa and a frequency of 1 MHz. Results are
shown in figures 5 and 6, and agree well with results for the
of 50 KPa and a frequency of 1 MHz was used. The pressure fundamental frequency from numerical and experimental
source was modulated by a Gaussian envelope with a pulse
studies [6].
width of 6 cycles. Resulting normalized pressures along the z
and r axes are shown in figure 3 and figure 4, respectively. 6

4
4

2
2
0
P (db)

0
-2
P (db)

-2
-4

-4 -6

-8
-6 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
z (m)

-8 FIGURE 5 NORMALIZED PEAK PRESSURE

0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 DISTRIBUTION FOR a = c. c
z (m)

FIGURE 3 NORMALIZED PEAK PRESSURE Case Study

DISTRIBUTION FOR a = b
These results compare well with those from published
studies [6]. There are minor discrepancies at z = 0.005 m and
0.007 m (fig. 3), which appear to be due to reflections in the r
direction. These are smaller than 2%, however, and therefore,
have not been further investigated.
The fact that pulses decay quickly can be developed to
maintain a target area at the required temperature. For example,
a CW signal can be used to raise the temperature to a certain
level and then a series of Gaussian pulses can be applied to
maintain constant temperature at a given location.
Hyperthermia applications [1-5] can benefit from such a
concept.

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 Figure 7 shows the transient temperature distribution at
0 different locations along the propagation axis. It can be seen
that the temperature of region near the focus point (z = 0.45*L),
-5 stays relatively constant; while temperatures at other locations
increase at different rates.
Figures 8 and 9 show the isotherms after 20s and 30s,
-10
respectively. Both show the focal point being at 50oC.
Depending on the location of the target, parameters can be
P (db)

-15 adjusted to achieve the target temperature at that location. If

temperatures at the surface cannot exceed a threshold
-20 temperature, local convective cooling can be applied at the
surface, between the source and the tissue.
-25

-30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Angle (degrees)
FIGURE 6 NORMALIZED PEAK PRESSURE
DISTRIBUTION ALONG r FOR a =
c. c AT z = 5.5MM

To illustrate this concept, a case study was performed.

Source was taken to be of 5 mm radius, with a pressure
amplitude of 2 MPa and a monochromatic frequency of 1 MHz.
Tissue was considered to be of 70 mm in length and 50 mm in
radius. Pressures were first computed for CW and Gaussian
Pulse with a pulse width of 10 cycles with the above mentioned
source parameters.  values were computed next and stored.
In the current study, maximum temperature within the
tissue was limited to a prescribed value of 50°C. To achieve
this,  for CW was applied until this temperature was achieved,
starting from an initial temperature of 38°C. Gaussian pulses
with a defined duty factor were then applied in place of the
CW. Simulations were terminated when t equaled 20s (case FIGURE 8 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION (°°C)
FOR t = 20 S
study 1) or 30s (case study 2).

FIGURE 7 TEMPERATURE HISTORY (°°C) FOR POINTS

ALONG z FIGURE 9 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION (°°C) AT t = 30 S

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 Pressure-Temperature Relationship for CW signals Rs=3mm Rs=5mm Rs=7mm
1 1 1
To determine the pressure dose required to raise the
maximum temperatures to prescribed values, calculations were 0.9 0.9 0.9
performed for various CW pressures and radii. Frequency was
0.8 0.8 0.8
kept constant at 1MHz; pressures were 0.1, 0.5, 0.75, and
1MPa; Source radii were 3, 5,and 7 mm. Initial temperature 0.7 0.7 0.7

was 38 °C.
0.6 0.6 0.6
Peak temperatures after 10, 20, 30, and 40s of heating are

(C)
(-)

(-)
shown in figure 10. It can be seen that the maximum 0.5 0.5 0.5

max

max
max
T

T
temperature increases monotonically. Further, higher source

T
0.4 0.4 0.4
radius leads to higher maximum temperatures.
0.3 0.3 0.3
Rs=3mm Rs=5mm Rs=7mm
75 75 75
10s 10s 10s 0.2 0.2 0.2
20s 20s 20s
70 30s 70 30s 70 30s
40 s 40s 40s 0.1 0.1 0.1

65 65 65
0 0 0
0 5 10 0 5 10 0 5 10
Pressure (Pa) 5 Pressure (Pa) 5 Pressure (Pa) 5
x 10 x 10 x 10
60 60 60

FIGURE 11 PRESSURE VS. NORMALIZED TEMPERATURE

Tmax (C)

Tmax (C)
Tmax (C)

55 55 55
PLOTS FOR t=10,20,30,40 s; Rs=3 (LEFT),
5 (CENTER), AND 7 (RIGHT) mm
50 50 50

t=10 s Rs=3 mm t=10 s Rs=3 mm

45 45 45 58 1
1 MHz
1.5 MHz
40 40 40 56 0.9
2 MHz
2.5 MHz
54 0.8
35 35 35
0 5 10 0 5 10 0 5 10
Pressure (Pa) 5 Pressure (Pa) x 105 Pressure (Pa) 5 52 0.7
x 10 x 10

Normalized Temperature
Max. Temperature (C)

FIGURE 10 PRESSURE VS. TEMPERATURE PLOTS FOR 50 0.6

t=10,20,30,40 s;Rs = 3 (LEFT), 5 (CENTER), AND 7 (RIGHT)

48 0.5
mm
46 0.4
If the temperature were normalized according to eq. 12 and
44 0.3
plotted against pressure (fig. 11), it can be seen that the
behavior of the normalized temperature at different pressures is 42 0.2
the same regardless of the time and source radius.
40 0.1

##I 
\ ∗ = # (12) 38 0
efg #I 
0 5 10 0 5 10
Pressure (Pa) 5 Pressure (Pa) 5
x 10 x 10

A second test with varying monochromatic frequencies FIGURE 12 PRESSURE VS. MAX. TEMPERATURE (LEFT) /
was performed next. Frequencies tested were 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 PRESSURE VS. NORMALIZED TEMPERATURE (RIGHT)
MHz, while the pressures were 0.1, 0.5, 0.75, and 1MPa;. FOR t=10s, Rs=3 mm, AND f=1,1.5, 2, 2.5 MHz
Source radius was kept constant at 3 mm. Results from the
calculations are shown in figure 12. Once again, maximum Concluding Remarks
temperatures can be seen to be increasing steadily with pressure In the present study, solutions for the Westervelt’s
(fig. 12 (left)) and that all curves collapse into one, when nonlinear wave equation and Pennes bio-heat transfer equation
normalized temperatures are used. are presented. A method of estimating volumetric heat
This relationship shows the potential use of simplified generation rate for CW and Gaussian pulse signals is presented
methods to generalize this behavior. Normalized temperature and validated. It was shown that constant temperature doses at
and pressure relationships are not dependent on the source prescribed magnitudes and locations can be obtained using
radius, frequency, or time. Future examination of this concept is combinations of CW and Gaussian pulse signals. Such results
needed to provide a better understanding of this relationship. illustrate the potential of this concept.
In this study, we assumed that the acoustic and thermal
properties of the medium were constant; further, volumetric
heat generation rates calculated were based on the time the
wave takes to reach the far end of the tissue. The latter was

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 primarily due to the limitations in handling the boundary
conditions. Further analysis is required to examine the effect of
variations in properties and boundary conditions on the results.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks to Andrew Oles, a colleague in the
Department of Mechanical engineering, for his insight during
development of the code.
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