CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 7
DURABILITY OF
CONCRETE

M. Irfaan Mungroo

Civil Engineering Department

JSS ATE, Mauritius

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Unit 7 Durability of concrete

VTU SYLLABUS

 DURABILITY OF CONCRETE – DEFINITION & SIGNIFICANCE

 PERMEABILITY

 SULPHUR ATTACK

 CHLORIDE ATTACK

 CARBONISATION

 FREEZING AND THAWING

 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO CRACKS IN CONCRETE

i. Plastic Shrinkage

ii. Settlement Cracks

iii. Construction Joints

iv. Thermal Expansion

v. Transition Zone

vi. Structural Design Deficiencies

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DEFINITION
The durability of concrete is defined as its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack,
abrasion or any other process of deterioration. Durable concrete will retain its original form,
quality and serviceability when exposed to such environments.

For example, concrete exposed to aggressive exposure (sea water – Chlorine & Sulphate) will
require a low permeability concrete so as to prevent the rusting of steel raft. Hence the
requirements for a concrete exposed to sea water will be different to an indoor concrete.

SIGNIFICANCE
When designing a concrete mix or a concrete structure, the exposure condition at which the
concrete is supposed to withstand is to be assessed in the beginning with good judgement. In case
of foundations, the soil characteristics are also required to be investigated.

Day by day, the amount of pollution is increasing and the concrete that we used are more and more
exposed to severe conditions. Hence, it is vital the take the durability aspect into consideration
when designing concrete and even for repair works.

PERMEABILITY

Permeability of cement
Cement pastes consist of C-S-H (Calcium silicate hydrate) gel, Ca(OH)2 and capillary cavities either
empty or filled with water).

Although the gel is porous, the pores are so small that hardly any water can pass through under
normal conditions. The permeability of the gel pores is estimated to be 7 x 10 -16 m/s. Therefore, the
gel pores do not contribute to the permeability of cement paste.

The extent and size of capillary cavities depend on the water / cement ratio. This is one of the main
factors which affect the permeability of cement. A low W/C ratio, the amount of capillary cavities is
less and the diameter is also small. The capillary cavities formed at low W/C ratio will get filled up
within a few days by the hydration products of cement.
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Only large cavities resulting from a high W/C ratio (>0.7) will not get filled up by the products of
hydration and will remain as un-segmented cavities. These are responsible for the permeability of
the paste.

Age / Days Coefficient of Permeability / kms-1

Fresh 2 x 10-6
5 4 x 10-10

6 1 x 10-10
8 4 x 10-11

13 5 x 10-12

24 4 x 10-12

Ultimately 6 x 10-13 (calculated)

In actual practice, it is noticed that mortar and concrete exhibit appreciable permeability much
higher than values calculated or expected. This is due to the following reasons:

i) Formation of micro-cracks developed due to long term drying shrinkage and thermal
stresses.
ii) Large micro-cracks generated with time in the transition zones
iii) Cracks generated through higher structural stresses.
iv) Due to volume change and cracks produced on account of various minor reasons.
v) Existence of entrapped air due to insufficient compaction.

Permeability of concrete
Theoretically, the introduction of aggregates of low permeability into cement paste is expected to
reduce the permeability of the system because the aggregate particles intercept the channels of
flows and make it take a circuitous route. Compared to cement paste, concrete with the same W/C
ratio and degree of maturity should give a lower coefficient of permeability.

But in practice, this is not the case. The introduction of aggregates, particularly larger size ones
increase the permeability considerably. The explanation lies in the development of micro-cracks in
the transition zone. It is reported that the cracks present in the transition zones is much bigger than
most of the capillary cavities present in the cement paste.
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Reducing Permeability of concrete

i. The use of pozzolanic materials in optimum proportions reduces the permeability of
concrete. This is due to the conversion of calcium hydroxide from a soluble and leachable
form to a cementitious product.

ii. Air entrainment agents, although making the concrete porous, will make concrete
impervious when used up to 6%.

iii. High pressure steam cured concrete in conjunction with crushed silica decreases the
permeability of concrete. This is due to the formation of coarser C-S-H gel, lower drying
shrinkage and accelerated conversion of calcium hydroxide into cementitious products.

SULPHATE ATTACK
Most soils contain some sulphate in the form of calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium. They
occur in soil or ground water. Since the solubility of calcium sulphate is low, ground water will
contain more of other sulphate and less of calcium sulphate. Ammonium sulphate is frequently
present in agricultural soil and water due to the use of fertilisers or from sewage and industrial
effluents. Decay of organic matters in marshy land and shallow lake often leads to formation of H 2S,
which can be transformed into sulphuric acid by bacterial action. Hence, sulphate attack is a
common occurrence in natural or industrial situations.

Solid sulphates do not attack the concrete severely but when the chemicals are in solution, they find
entry into porous concrete and react with the hydrated cement products. Of all sulphates,
magnesium sulphate causes maximum damage to concrete.

Sulphate attack signifies an increase in the volume of the cement paste in concrete or mortar due to
chemical action between the products of hydration of cement and the sulphates solutions.

In hardened concrete, calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH) can react with sulphate from the outside.
The product of reaction is calcium sulphoaluminate, forming within the framework of the hydrated
cement paste. This causes an increase in volume of the solid paste (which can go up to 227 %),
leading to a gradual disintegration of concrete.
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The reaction of the various sulphates with hardened cement paste is shown below:

i) Sodium Sulphate attacking Ca (OH)2

Ca (OH)2 + Na2SO4.10 H2O CaSO4 . 2 H2O + 2 NaOH + 8 H2O

ii) Sodium Sulphate attacking Calcium Aluminate Hydrate

2(3CaO. Al2O3.12H2O) + 3(Na2SO4.10 H2O) 3CaO. Al2O3. 3CaSO4. 31H2O + 2Al(OH)3 + 6 NaOH + 17H2O

iii) Magnesium Sulphate has a far more harmful effect because it not only reacts with
Calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium aluminates like other sulphates but also
decomposes the hydrated calcium silicates completely and makes the cement a friable /
brittle mass.

The rate of sulphate attack increases with increase in the strength of the sulphate solutions. A
saturated solution of magnesium sulphate can cause serious damage to concrete with high water /
cement ratio in a short time (< 1 year). However, if the concrete is made with low water cement
ratio, the concrete can withstand the action of magnesium sulphate for 2 – 3 years.

Another factor influencing the rate of attack is the speed at which the sulphate used for the reaction
is replenished. Hence, concrete subjected to the pressure of sulphate bearing water has the highest
rate of attack. Similarly, alternate drying and wetting due to tidal action or spraying leads to rapid
attack.

Methods of Controlling Sulphate Attack

i) Use of sulphate Resisting Cement

The most efficient method of resisting sulphate attack is to use cement with low C3A ( Tri-Calcium-
Aluminate) content. In general, it has been found that cements containing less than 7 % of C 3A give
good performance in sulphate water with those containing more than 7 % C3A perform badly in
such situations.

ii) Quality Concrete

A well designed, placed, compacted and cured concrete which is dense and impermeable exhibits a
higher resistance to sulphate attack. Similarly, a concrete with low water/cement ratio also
demonstrate a higher resistance to sulphate attack.
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iii) Use of air – entrainment agent ( intended to create tiny air bubbles in concrete)

Use of air entrainment to an extent of 6 % has beneficial effect on the sulphate resisting properties
of concrete. The beneficial properties are possible due to reduction in segregation, improvement in
workability, reduction in bleeding and in general, better impermeability of concrete.

iv) Use of pozzolana (material having cementitious properties )

Adding pozzolanic material to cement reduces the risk of sulphate attack. These pozzolanic
materials convert the leachable and reactive calcium hydroxide into insoluble, non leachable and
nonreactive cementitious product. This pozzolanic action is responsible for the impermeability of
concrete. The removal of calcium hydroxide reduces the susceptibility of concrete to be attacked by
magnesium sulphate.

v) High pressure steam curing

High pressure steam curing increases the resistance of concrete to sulphate attack. This
improvement is due to the change of C3AH6 into a less reactive phase and also due to the removal or
reduction of calcium hydroxide by the reaction of silica when high pressure steam curing is
adopted.

The requirements for concrete exposed to sulphate attack is discussed in IS 456:2000

CHLORIDE ATTACK
Chloride attack is one of the most important aspects to be considered when dealing with durability
of concrete because one of its harmful effects is that it causes corrosion of steel. Statistics shows
that over 40% of failure of structure is due to corrosion of reinforcement.

The high alkaline nature of concrete causes the formation of a protective oxide film on the surface
of the steel reinforcement. This protective layer can be lost due to the presence of chloride in the
presence of air and water. One can recall; sulphates attack concrete while chlorides attack
reinforcement.

Chloride enters a concrete from cement, water, aggregates and sometimes from admixtures.
However, the present day admixtures contain negligible quantity of chloride or are chloride-free.
Chloride can also enter by diffusion from the environment.
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Limits of Chloride Content of Concrete; IS 456:2000

Max. Total acid soluble chloride content.

S/N Type or Use of Concrete
Expressed as kg/m3 of concrete
Concrete containing metal and steam cured at elevated
1 0.4
temperature and pre-stressed concrete
Reinforced concrete or plain concrete containing
2 0.6
embedded metal
Concrete not containing embedded metal or any
3 3.0
material requiring protection from chloride

The amount of chloride required for initiating corrosion is partly dependent on the pH value of pore
water in concrete. At a pH value less than 11.5, corrosion may occur without the presence of
chloride. At a pH value greater than 11.5, a good amount of chloride is required.

The total chloride in concrete is present partly as insoluble chlorialuminates and partly in soluble
form. It is the soluble chloride which is responsible for corrosion of reinforcement.

Corrosion of Steel
The high pH of concrete causes a passive and non corroding protective oxide layer on the steel.
However, the presence of chloride ions can destroy and penetrate that protective layer. Once this
layer is destroyed, corrosion occurs by an electrochemical process.

In the steel, one part becomes an anode and one part becomes the cathode and they are connected
by an electrolyte in the form of pore water in the hardened cement paste. The positively charged
ferrous ions Fe 2+ at the anode gets into the solution while the negatively charge electrons e- pass
through the steel into the cathode where they are absorbed by the constituents of the electrolyte
and combine with water and oxygen to form hydroxyl ions (OH-). These travel through the
electrolyte and combine with the ferrous ions to form ferric hydroxide which is converted to rust by
further oxidation.

At the Anode

Fe  Fe 2+ + 2 e-

Fe 2+ + 2 (OH-) Fe (OH)2 [Ferrous hydroxide]

4 Fe (OH)2 + 2 H2O + O2  4 Fe (OH)3 [Ferric oxide]

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At the Cathode

4 e- + O2 + H2O  4 (OH)-

Note:

i. No corrosion occurs if the concrete is dry or below relative humidity of 60% since there
is not enough water to promote corrosion.
ii. Corrosion does not take place if the concrete is fully immersed in water because
diffusion of oxygen does not take place into the concrete.
iii. For corrosion, the most probable optimum relative humidity is 70 – 80 %
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The product of corrosion occupies a volume as many as six times the original volume of steel
depending upon the oxidation state. This increase in volume of rust exerts thrust on the cover of the
concrete resulting in cracks or delamination of the concrete. Concrete loses its integrity and the
cross section of the reinforcement gradually reduces until the structure collapses.

Methods to control corrosion of steel reinforcement:

The measures adopted to control the corrosion of steel reinforcements are listed and briefly
described as follows:

i. Metallurgical methods

Steel can be made more corrosion resistant by altering its structure through metallurgical
processes. Different methods such as rapid quenching of the hot bars by series of water jets, or by
keeping the hot steel bars for a short time in a water bath are adopted. As a result, the mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance property of steel can be improved.

ii. Corrosion inhibitors

Corrosion can be prevented or delayed by using certain corrosion inhibiting chemicals such as
nitrites or phosphates. The most widely used chemical is based on calcium nitrite. It is added during
mixing of concrete. The nitrite ions will stabilise the protective layer even in the presence of
chloride ions. The more chemical added, the longer will corrosion be delayed.

iii. Coatings to reinforcement

The aim of coating to steel bar is to provide a durable barrier to aggressive materials such as
chlorides. The coating should be robust to withstand fabrication of reinforcement cage, poring of
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concrete and compacting. Simple cement slurry coating is a cheap method for temporary protection
against rusting in storage.

A more reliable method would be de-rusting the reinforcement with a de-rusting solutions, then
phosphating it followed by a coat of cement slurry and sealing solution. A better option would be
epoxy coating.

iv. Cathodic protection

This is a very effective and well used method for preventing corrosion in concrete structures in
very developed countries. However, due to its high cost, it is not much used in India or Mauritius.

This method comprises of application of an electric current to an electrode laid on the concrete
above the steel reinforcement. This electrode serves as anode and the steel reinforcement is
connected to the negative terminal of a DC source and acts as a cathode.

During the process, the chloride ions which are responsible for damaging the protective layer
around the reinforcement are drawn away from the vicinity of the steel towards the anode where
they are oxidised to form chlorine gas. Hence, the environment around the steel reinforcement
reverts back to alkaline conditions, which protects the reinforcement.

v. Coatings to concrete

In addition to coating of reinforcement, surface coating is given to a concrete member to further

increase its durability. The coating serves as both protection and decoration. It should be noted that
freshly made concrete structures have plenty of water in their pores. This water moves out of the
structures eventually as water vapour. For better durability, a concrete structure should be able to
‘breathe’, that is water vapour should be able to move from inside to outside and outside to inside.
But of course, water should not move from outside to inside. Hence, this concrete coating must
allow a concrete to breathe and should not be totally impermeable.

vi. Design and detailing

All precautions should be taken when designing and detailing concrete structures with respect to
spacing between bars for concrete to flow between reinforcement, to facilitate vibration of
concrete, to give proper cover to steel reinforcement and to restrict crack width.
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Nominal Cover to meet durability requirement (IS 456 : 2000)

Exposure Nominal Concrete cover in mm not less than
Mild 20
Moderate 30
Severe 45
Very severe 50
Extreme 75

CARBONATION
Carbonation of concrete is a process by which carbon dioxide from the air penetrates into concrete
and reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonates. This can results in a small
shrinkage.

The pH value of pore water in hardened concrete is generally between 12.5 – 13.5 depending upon
the alkali content of the cement. The high alkalinity forms a thin passivating layer around the steel
reinforcement and protects it from the action of oxygen and water. As long as steel remains in a
highly alkaline condition, it is not going to corrode. Such condition is known as passivation.

In practice, CO2 present in the atmosphere in smaller or greater quantity, enters into the concrete,
carbonates the concrete and reduces the alkalinity of concrete. The pH value of pore water in the
hardened cement paste which was around 13.0 gets reduced to 9.0.

When all Ca(OH)2 has carbonated, the pH value will be reduced to 8.3. In such low pH, the
protective layer gets destroyed and the steel is exposed to corrosion. Of course, oxygen and
moisture has to be present for corrosion to occur.

Rate of Carbonation
The rate of carbonation depends on the following factors:

i. The level of pore water, i.e relative humidity

ii. Grade of concrete
iii. Permeability of concrete
iv. Whether the concrete is protected or not
v. Thickness of cover
vi. Time
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It is interesting to know that if the pore is filled with water (or at high humidity), the diffusion of
CO2 is very slow. But even in small amount, the CO2 is readily transformed into dilute carbonic acid
and this reduces the alkalinity.

On the other hand, if the pores are dry (at low humidity), the CO2 remains in gaseous state in the
pores and does not react with hydrated cement.

Hence, moisture penetration from external sources is vital to carbonate the concrete.

The highest rate of carbonation occurs at a relative humidity of 50 – 70 %

Measurement of depth of carbonation

A simple method for establishing the extent of carbonation is to treat the freshly broken surface of
concrete with a solution of phenolphthalein in dilute alcohol.

If the Ca(OH) is unaffected by CO2, the colour of the concrete turns pink. If the concrete is
carbonated, it will remain uncoloured.
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FREEZING AND THAWING

Concrete structures, which experience sub-zero temperatures in winter, are subjected to cycles of
freezing and thawing and as such suffer from the damaging action of frost. Frost action is one of the
most powerful weathering action on the durability of concrete. In most extreme conditions, the
lifespan of concrete can be reduced to just a couple of years. In cold countries, this is one of the
most important factors affecting the durability of concrete.

Fresh concrete should not be subjected to freezing temperature. Fresh concrete contains a
considerable amount of free water. If this free water is subjected to freezing temperature, discrete
ice lenses are formed. Water expands about 9 % during freezing. The formation of ice lenses in
fresh concrete disrupts the inner structure of the concrete causing permanent damage. Once
subjected to frost action, the fresh concrete will not recover the structural integrity at higher
temperature.

Therefore, the most important point to bear in mind is that the temperature of concrete should be
maintained above 00C.

Hardening of fresh concrete should not be subjected to extremely low temperature. Freezing of
water in concrete may exert an extra pressure of 14 MPa. The severest conditions of frost action
arise when concrete has more than one face exposed to the weather and is in such position that it
remains wet for a long period.

There are various theories to explain frost damage:

i. This damage is attributed to the empty spaces available not being sufficient to
accommodate the additional solid produced when free water in concrete freezes.
ii. The failure is attributed to the production of extra pressure due to formation of ice
lenses parallel to the surface of the concrete when water migrates from the capillaries to
the surface where the temperature is at freezing point.

It is worth noting that when the concrete is young, it contains more water and if such concrete is
subjected to a low temperature, greater quantity of water gets frozen and the total disruptive force
is high. But if the concrete is old, it contains less moisture and the freezing of such concrete will
exert less pressure.
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CRACKS
Cracking can be the result of one or a combination of factors such as drying shrinkage, thermal
contraction, restraint (external or internal) to shortening, sub-grade settlement, and applied loads.
Cracking cannot be prevented but it can be significantly reduced or controlled when the causes are
taken into account and preventative steps are taken.

1. Plastic Shrinkage
Water from fresh concrete can be lost by evaporation, absorption by sub-grade or formwork and in
the hydration process. When the loss of water from the surface of concrete is faster than the
migration of water from the interior to the surface, the surface dries up. This creates a water
gradient which results in surface cracking while the concrete is still in plastic condition.

The magnitude of plastic shrinkage and shrinkage cracks depend on the ambient temperature,
relative humidity and wind velocity. In other words, it depends on the rate of evaporation of water
from the surface of concrete.

The rate of evaporation in excess of 1 kg/m2 per hour is considered critical. In such situation, the
following measures have to be taken to reduce or eliminate plastic shrinkage cracks:

i. Moisten the sub-grade and formworks

ii. Erect temporary wind breakers to reduce the wind velocity over concrete
iii. Erect temporary roof to protect fresh concrete from hot sun
iv. Reduce the time between placing and finishing. If there is delay, cover concrete with
polyethylene sheets.
v. Minimise evaporation by covering concrete with fog spray or curing compound.

Plastic shrinkage is very common in hot weather conditions and roof slab concrete. Once they are
formed, it is very difficult to rectify. Sometimes, a thick slurry is poured over the cracks and well
worked with a trowel.

The best way however, is to take all precautions to prevent evaporation of water from the wet
concrete, to finish it fast and cure it as early as possible.
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2. Settlement Cracks
Plastic concrete when vibrated or otherwise settles. If the concrete is free to settle uniformly, then
there is no crack. If there is any obstruction to uniform settlement (reinforcement or larger piece of
aggregate), then it creates some voids or cracks. This is called settlement cracks. This generally
happens in deep beams.

This can be avoided by pouring concrete in layers and compacting each layer properly. Building up
large quantity of concrete over a beam should be avoided.

Sometimes, settlement cracks are so severe that it needs grouting operators to seal them off. If
concrete is still plastic, re-vibration is very effective. Otherwise, settlement cracks affect the
structural integrity of any member and affects durability.

3. Thermal Expansion
Concrete members expands and contracts when subjected to external temperatures. The change in
seasonal temperatures makes the concrete expand and contract. Since these structures are not free
to expand and contract due to restraint at support, a considerable tensile stress more than the
tensile strength of concrete is generated resulting in cracks in concrete.

 Assume the characteristic compressive strength of concrete = 25 N/mm2

 Modulus of Elasticity = 5000 x √fck N/mm2 = 2.5 x 104 N/mm2

 Flexural Tensile Strength = 0.7 x √fck N/mm2 = 3.5 N/mm2

 Assume coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete = 10 x 10-6 per oC

 Assume season variation in temperature = 20 oC
 Thermal Expansion Strain = 20 x 10 x 10-6 = 200 x 10-6

Stress
 Modulus of elasticity =
strain

 Tensile Stress = 2.5 x 104 x 200 x 10-6 = 5.0 N/mm2

A tensile stress of 5.0 N/mm2 is greater than the flexural tensile strength of concrete (3.5 N/mm2)

This is sure to cause micro cracking in concrete.

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4. Construction Joints
Construction joints are formed using some sort of bulkhead, made of wood, steel, plastic, or precast
concrete. These bulkheads are often used as screed rails during placement and finishing of the slab.
These are temporary joints left between subsequent concreting operations. The position of the
construction joints should be pre-planned before concreting is started. Till such position and
location, concrete must be poured in one operation. The joints must be made at such places that
concrete is less vulnerable to maximum bending moment and maximum shear force.

In walls and columns construction, joints should be horizontal and arranged at such a level to
coincide with the general architectural features. Joints in beam and slabs should be at the point of
maximum bending moment.
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5. Transition Zone
The transition zone is the region of the cement paste around the aggregate particles. Its origin lies
in the packing of the cement particles against much larger particles which often lead to an increase
in porosity.

Concrete is a brittle material which develops microcracks even before load is applied. On account of
lack of bond, higher w/c ratio and bleeding water, the transition zone becomes the weakest link in a
concrete mass. Under load, microcracks propagate further starting larger cracks.

With increase stress level, the concrete matrix cracks gradually and spreads throughout the mass.
The microcracks in the transition zone at the interface of steel reinforcement become more
permeable and allow the entry of air and water to promote corrosion of steel reinforcement.
Incidentally, these microcracks increase the depth of carbonation as well.
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6. Structural Design Deficiencies

Sometimes inadequate provision of main steel reinforcement, or inadequate provision for
temperature reinforcement or wrong placing of bars or absence of corner reinforcement may cause
unacceptable cracks in concrete.

Other examples are congestion of reinforcement and difficulties in proper compacting concrete,
particularly at the column and beam junctions, deep beams. If care is not taken, concrete is sure to
crack.

The permissible width of crack depends upon the functions of the structural members and on the
exposure conditions of the concrete. The following permissible crack width was proposed:

STRUCTURAL MEMBERS PERMISSIBLE CRACK WIDTH

Interior members 0.35 mm

Exterior members under normal exposure conditions 0.25 mm

Exterior members exposed to aggressive environment 0.15 mm

***** End of Unit *****

Best of Luck for Exams