Master Glossary of Refinery Terms

MASTER GLOSSARY
OF
REFINERY TERMS
File: 383100531.doc
Created: June 2008
Last Revised: 6/13/08
Table of Contents
A......................................................................................................................................................3
B.....................................................................................................................................................24
C.....................................................................................................................................................41
D....................................................................................................................................................70
E.....................................................................................................................................................82
F.....................................................................................................................................................91
G..................................................................................................................................................104
H..................................................................................................................................................109
I....................................................................................................................................................119
J....................................................................................................................................................126
K..................................................................................................................................................127
L...................................................................................................................................................129
M..................................................................................................................................................137
N..................................................................................................................................................146
O..................................................................................................................................................152
P...................................................................................................................................................158
Q..................................................................................................................................................176
R...................................................................................................................................................177
S...................................................................................................................................................191
T...................................................................................................................................................215
U..................................................................................................................................................226
V..................................................................................................................................................229
W..................................................................................................................................................236
X..................................................................................................................................................240
Y..................................................................................................................................................240
Z...................................................................................................................................................241
Characters and Symbols..............................................................................................................242
Numerical....................................................................................................................................242
Chemicals and Formulas..............................................................................................................243
KBC Advanced Technologies, HPI 2 of 252 Master Glossary of Refinery Terms

A
A Area ft2.
abel tester A closed-cup flash tester for kerosene and other oils.
abrasive Able to wear away another material by constant rubbing or

scraping. Liquid products containing sand or similar solids
will wear away a metal pipeline through which it travels.
absolute A chemical substance that is relatively free of impurities. An

example is absolute alcohol, which is ethyl alcohol
containing not more than 1% by weight of water.
absolute pressure The total pressure equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric
pressure (14.7 lbs./sq. in at sea level).
The pressure above the absolute zero value of pressure that

theoretically is obtained in empty space or at absolute zero of
temperature, as distinguished from gauge pressure.
Pressure measured relative to the pressure in a perfect

vacuum.
The total pressure within a vessel, pipe, etc., not offset by

external atmospheric pressure.
absolute temperature A temperature at which zero is a condition absolutely free of

heat and equivalent to –459.72°F or –273.18°C.
absolute viscosity The force required to move 1 sq cm of plane surface at a

speed of 1 cm per sec relative to another parallel plane
surface from which it is separated by a layer of liquid 1 cm
thick. This viscosity is expressed in dynes per square centi-
meter, its unit being the poise, which is equal to 1 dyne-sec
per sq cm. The unit of one-hundredth of a poise, designated
as a centipoise, is more convenient and is commonly used.

absorb The dissolving of a gas soluble component into a liquid to
form a solution where a chemical reaction does not take
place.
A product stream that takes in heat in a furnace or heat

exchanger. Also refers to the action of an oil stream when it
takes in heavy fractions from a gas stream passing through it.
absorber A tower or column that separates hydrocarbon gases from

liquids by contacting the gas with an absorption oil. The
absorption oil captures and dissolves vaporized liquids in the
gas stream.
absorption The process by which one substance attracts another,

forming a homogeneous mixture, e.g., a sponge absorbing
water; oil absorbing butane from a gas mixture, caustic
absorbing hydrogen sulfide from hydrocarbon vapors, or gas
taken up by kerosene or heavy naphtha in an absorption
tower.
To take in and make a part of an existing whole. The

penetration of a solid substance by a liquid as by capillary,
osmotic, solvent, or chemical action.
absorption factor A factor used in engineering calculations which expresses

the propensity for a constituent in natural gas to be absorbed
in absorption oil. This factor is generally found in the
literature as A = L/KV, where L and V are the mols of liquid
and vapor, respectively, from a tray, or an average value for
the section or total absorber. K is similarly the vapor-liquid
equilibrium ratio for the particular component.
absorption gasoline Gasoline extracted from refinery gas by contacting the gas
with an oil and subsequently distilling the oil.
absorption oil The oil used in absorption tower separation to extract

gasoline fractions contained in wet refinery gas, usually in
the heavy naphtha, kerosene, or gas oil boiling range.

absorption tower A tower or column that causes contact between a rising gas
(absorber) and a falling liquid so that the selected component of the gas
can be dissolved in the liquid.
access To gain entry in order to connect with or use part of a system

as with the warehouse facility.
accommodation An offshore platform, or semi-submersible rig, built or

platform/rig adapted to provide living quarters for drilling and production
personnel.
accumulation Pressure increase over the maximum allowable working

pressure of the vessel during discharge through the pressure
relief valve, expressed as a percent of that pressure or pounds
per square inch.
accumulator A vessel for the temporary storage of gas or liquid that is

usually used for collecting sufficient material for a
continuous charge or reflux to some refining process.
acfm Actual cubic feet per minute. A measure of compressor

output (volume of air) at operating temperature and pressure.
ACGIH American Conference of Governmental Industrial

Hygienists. An organization of professionals in
governmental agencies or educational institutions engaged in
occupational safety and health programs. ACGIH develops
and publishes recommended occupational exposure limits for
chemical substances and physical agents.
Address: 6500 Glenway Ave., Bldg. D-7, Cincinnati, OH.
45211; phone: (513) 661-7881.

acid An inorganic ionic compound containing hydrogen and a
strong non-metal. During a reaction, an acid molecule
releases a hydrogen ion. Acid solutions usually have a sour,
biting, and tart taste, like vinegar.
Any chemical which undergoes dissociation in water with

the formation of hydrogen ions. Acids have a sour taste and
may cause severe burns. They turn litmus paper red and
have ph values of 0 to 6. Acids will neutralize bases or
alkaline media. Acids will react with a base to form a salt.
acid gas Gases that react with water to form an acid. These gases are
mainly hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2). In
addition, an acid gas stream may contain small quantities of
hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and carbonyl sulfide (COS).
Any combination of hydrocarbon or non-hydrocarbon gas

compounds containing hydrogen sulfide (H2S) that form
acids when dissolved in water.
A combination of hydrocarbon or non-hydrocarbon gases

containing hydrogen sulfide (H2S) that forms acids when
dissolved in water. Acid gas may contain ammonia (NH3),
hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and carbonyl sulfide (COS).
acid heat A temperature rise from mixing oil and sulfuric acid.
acid wash color A test for the presence of non-hydrocarbons in aromatic

solvents. A sample of solvent is mixed with sulfuric acid and
shaken. After standing, the color of the acid layer is
compared against color standards.
acidic Containing acid. Some products or raw materials frequently

contain acidic components or components, such as chloride
salts, which form acids when heated.
acidosis Condition of decreased alkalinity of the blood and tissues

marked by sickly sweet breath, headache, nausea, vomiting,
and visual disturbances; usually the result of excessive acid
production.

acknowledge To send a signal to the DCS to indicate that a condition has
been met or a manual operation has been completed.
acreage Land leased for oil and gas exploration and development;
usually descriptive of more than one lease.
acrid Irritating and bitter.
ACT Atmospheric Crude Tower. A fractionation tower that

operates at atmospheric pressure, approximately 14.7 psig.
action level Exposure level at which OSHA regulations to protect

employees takes effect. Exposure at or above the action
level is termed occupational exposure. Exposure below this
level can also be harmful.
activated alumina A porous solid chemical (aluminum oxide) used principally

as a drying agent for removing water from the process
streams and instrument air by adsorption.
activated sludge Sludge that contains micro-organisms. Used for biological

treatment of wastewater.
active ingredient Ingredient of a product that actually does what the product is
designed to do. The remaining ingredients may be inert.
actuarial analysis Statistical analysis of failure data to determine the age-

reliability characteristics of an item.
actuating ring A ring that is attached to several levers and actuates these
levers in proportion to the movement of the ring.
acute effect An adverse effect on a human or animal body that takes

place soon after exposure.
acute lethality The death of animals immediately or within 14 days after a

single dose of or exposure to a toxic substance.
acute toxic effect The effect on man of a single exposure of short duration to
high concentrations of poisonous compounds or vapors.

acute toxicity The adverse effects resulting from a single dose of or
exposure to a substance.
additive Any substance that is added to a resin, usually in a relatively

small percentage to alter properties. Examples are slip
additives, pigments, stabilizers, and flame retardants.
additives Raw material added to a batch to promote or decrease certain

physical or chemical characteristics of a batch.
A substance added to petroleum products to impart some

desirable property.
adenocarcinoma A tumor with glandular (secreting) elements.
adenosis Any disease of the gland.
adhesion A joining of two surfaces that are normally separate.
adhesive A material capable of bonding one surface to another. Used

in the plastics industry to join a plastic article to another
article of the same plastic, different plastic, or a nonplastic
materials.
adiabatic A process in which there is no loss or gain of heat exchanged

between the process and the surroundings.
adiabatic expansion The expansion of a gas, vapor, or liquid stream from a higher
pressure to a lower pressure in which there is no heat transfer
between the gas, vapor, or liquid and the surroundings.
adiabatic temperature A change in temperature that occurs without adding or taking

change away heat energy. This occurs when the pressure is changed
on a gas.
adsorb Collection gas or liquid molecules on the surface of another

material.
adsorbent A solid substance used to remove components from natural

gas being processed.

adsorption A process in which a porous solid removes a substance from
gas or liquid by holding an extremely thin layer of the
substance on the walls of the pores; e.g., molecular sieves
removing water from a hydrocarbon stream, such as
ethylene.
The process by which one substance attracts another,

forming a physical or chemical bond at its surface.
The surface retention of a solid or liquid.
aerate Expose to the action of air. A bubble of air through a

substance.
aeration To supply or charge water with air for the purposes of

maintaining its dissolved oxygen content near saturation.
aerosol A fine aerial suspension of liquid (mist, fog) or solid (dust,

fume, smoke) particles small enough to be stable.
agent Any substance, force, radiation, organism, or influence that

affects the body. Effects may be beneficial or injurious.
aggolomerate To form or collect into a cluster or mass.

agitator, batch A cone bottom tank for treating oils equipped with air or gas
spargers for mixing.
AGO Atmospheric gas oil. A hydrocarbon component that boils

around 600°F.
AIChE American Institute of Chemical Engineers
air blowing A process for raising the softening point of asphalt by

reacting with air at elevated temperature.
air compressor A machine that draws in air at atmospheric pressure,

compresses it, and delivers it at a higher pressure. It may be
of the reciprocating, centrifugal, or rotary (vane) type.
air cooler A process cooler with open finned tubes that cool by blowing
a stream of ambient air across the tubes.

air drilling A rotary drilling technique in which compressed air is used
instead of fluids to circulate or bring to the surface, bits of
rock and other cuttings from the drill bit.
air failure The action of a control valve upon instrument air failure.
The valve is normally set to respond (to open or close) per a
preset condition.
air fin cooler (condenser) A piece of equipment that transfers heat using air for a
cooling medium.
air injection An enhanced recovery technique in which air is injected into

the petroleum formation to increase reservoir pressure.
air lift A production technique in which an air balance beam

pumping unit is used to lift oil to the surface.
air receiver A tank or vessel which receives the air from the discharge of
air compressors.
air register A device with adjustable openings through which air is fed
and controlled to a burner in a furnace.
air-actuated valve A valve that opens and closes as a result of increasing or

decreasing air pressure (pneumatic).
air-diaphragm pump An air-powered pump where alternating movement of air

within the diaphragm creates suction and pressure for
continuous transfer of material.
air-fuel ratio The ratio of air weight to fuel weight consumed in an

internal combustion engine or furnace.
air-line respirator A respirator that is connected to a compressed breathable air

source by a hose of small diameter. The air is delivered
continuously or intermittently in a sufficient volume to meet
the wearer’s breathing requirements.

air-purifying respirator A respirator that uses chemicals to remove specific gases and
vapors from the air or that uses a mechanical filter to remove
particulate matter. An air-purifying respirator must only be
used when there is sufficient oxygen to sustain life and the
air contaminant level is below the concentration limits of the
device.
alarm system When a process begins to deviate away from its set limits,
visual and/or audible alarms alert control station operators.
alcohol Any of a group of organic alkyl compounds containing a

hydroxyl group with the general formula ROH.
alcohol fuel Lower alcohols used as blending agents in gasoline, particu-

larly where petroleum is scarce or gasoline is low in octane
number.
alcohol-type foam A fire-fighting foam effective against many water-soluble

and some non-water-soluble cargoes.
aldehyde A dehydrogenated alcohol, i.e., an organic compound

containing the CHO radical, which are injected into the
water as biocides.
algae Chlorophyll-bearing, aquatic, nonvascular plants, which are

microscopic, with some as small as 1 micron in diameter.
Submerged plants growing in water, such as plankton and
seaweed, are algae.
aliphatic A class of saturated or unsaturated carbon compounds in

which the carbon atoms are joined in open chains.
Belonging to a group of organic compounds having an open-

chain structure and consisting of the paraffin, olefin, and
acetylene hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
aliphatic hydrocarbons Straight-chain hydrocarbons.

alkali A chemical compound capable of neutralizing an acid, for
example, caustic soda (NaOH).
In chemistry, any substance having marked basic properties.

In its restricted and common sense, the term is applied only
to hydroxides of ammonium, lithium, potassium, and
sodium. They are soluble in water; they have the power of
neutralizing acids and forming salts with them and of turning
red litmus blue. In a more general sense, the term is also
applied to the hydroxides of the so-called alkaline earth
metals: barium, calcium, and strontium.
Any chemical substance which forms soluble soaps with

fatty acids. Alkalis are also referred to as bases. May cause
severe burns to the skin. Alkalis turn litmus paper blue and
have ph values from 8 to 14.
alkaline Having the properties of a group of chemical compounds

called bases, which neutralize strong acids. Many are
corrosive.
alkalinity The strength of the hydroxyl ion in an alkaline solution.
alkylate High-octane gasoline-grade components manufactured from

refinery gases.
The product obtained by the acid catalyzed coupling of light

olefins, usually propylene and butylene, with isobutane.
Alkylate is a gasoline-blending component.

alkylation A refining process for converting light, gaseous olefins into
high-octane gasoline components (the reverse of cracking).
The process of combining an olefin with an isoparaffin to

form an isoparaffin of higher molecular weight. Also,
combining an olefin with an aromatic to form alkyl-benzene.
The addition reaction by olefins and isoparaffins, using a

catalyst at low temperature to produce a saturated hydro-
carbon. In a refinery, alkylation is used to produce a com-
pound of high-octane number from lower molecular weight
hydrocarbons.
A process using sulfuric or hydrofluoric acid as a catalyst to

combine olefins and isoparaffins to produce a high-octane
product known as alkylate.
Alkylation Unit A process that chemically combines isobutane and olefin

butanes to make molecules in the gasoline boiling range.
allergic reaction Abnormal physiological response to a chemical stimuli by a

sensitive person.
allergic respiratory Labored breathing, coughing, or gasping caused by inhaling

reaction a particular substance.
allergic skin reaction Reddening, swelling, and/or itching of the skin following
contact with a substance to which a person has become
sensitized due to previous skin contact or natural body
conditions.
allocation Assignment or distribution for a specific purpose or

particular persons or things.
allowance The intentional difference in dimensions of mating parts to

provide for different classes of fit.
alloy A substance having metallic properties that consists of two or

more elements.
alopecia Loss of hair.

alum Aluminum sulfate. A chemical used for water purification.
ambient Usual or surrounding conditions.
ambient temperature The temperature of the environment, generally in the

outdoors.
ames test Short-term test commonly used for preliminary screening of

chemicals to see if they cause mutations in a special type of
bacterial cell.
amine An organic, nitrogen compound, derived from ammonia by

the replacement of hydrogen with one or more hydrocarbon
radicals, that react as bases in an acid/bas reaction. Usually
used for acid gas absorption or for pH control the selective
solvent. Pure amine is normally diluted with water to form a
weak solution that is used as an absorber and carrier of H2S
and NH3 removed from oil and gas streams in the refinery.
ammeter Measures the current flow in amperes in a circuit. An

ammeter is connected in series in the circuit.
amperes A quantity that defines the flow of electrons or electric

current in an electrical circuit. Specifically, it is the amount
of electric current that flows across a resistance of 1 ohm
with a potential of 1 volt.
analgesia Loss of sensitivity to pain.
analogue A measurement characterized by continuous variation over a

range.
anesthetic A chemical that causes a total or partial loss of sensation.

Overexposure to anesthetics can cause impaired judgment,
dizziness, drowsiness, headache, unconsciousness, and even
death.
anhydride A compound derived from other compounds by removing

elements composing water (hydrogen and oxygen).

anhydrous Free of water. Substance in which no water molecules are
present as hydrate or as water crystallization.
aniline point The lowest temperature at which equal volumes of freshly

distilled aniline and the oil being tested are completely
soluble. Used generally to determine how easily an oil will
crack.
anion A negatively charged ion.
annular space A concentric ring of space around a point or object. For

example, if a smaller pipe is inserted into a larger pipe, the
donut-shaped space between the two pipes is annular space.
annulus The space between the drill string and the earthen wall of the
well bore, or between the production tubing and the casing.
annulus mounted Items mounted together in a circular fashion.
anoxemia A condition of deficient oxygen in the blood.
anoxia Lack of oxygen from inspired air.
A deficiency of oxygen in the tissues of the body.
ANSI American National Standards Institute. A privately

funded organization that identifies industrial/public national
consensus standards and coordinates their development.
anthracite A hard coal purchased in different sizes (grades). Used for

filtering solids from water.
antidote Remedy to relieve, prevent, or counteract the effects of a

poison.
antifoam A chemical that breaks down the surface tension of a liquid

so that the liquid will not form bubbles or foam.
antifoulant A chemical compound that adheres to the metal parts of a

process equipment to prevent polymers and other foulants
from adhering.

antioxidant A chemical added to a petroleum product to inhibit or
prevent oxidation.
aperture An opening.
API American Petroleum Institute. An organization of the

petroleum industry.
API gravity The American Petroleum Institute’s hydrometer

measurement of specific gravity for refinery process streams.
A scale of hydrometer measurement of specific gravity set by

the API (American Petroleum Institute) that determines the
density of petroleum crudes and refined products. The
higher the API gravity, the lighter the oil. Also known as
degrees API or °API.
Degrees API = 141.5 – 131.5/sp. gr.
API separator A vessel that allows vapors to separate and be removed from
a partially condensed product stream.
APL Applications Parts List. A list of all parts required to

perform a specific maintenance activity. Typically set up as
a standard list attached to a standard job for routine tasks.
Not to be confused with a Bill of Materials.
apparent viscosity Ratio of shear stress to rate of shear of a non-Newtonian

fluid, such as lubricating grease, calculated from Poiseuille’s
equation and measured in poises. Apparent viscosity
changes with changing rates of shear and temperature and
must, therefore, be reported as the value at a given shear rate
and temperature.
appraisal drilling Drilling carried out following the discovery of a new field to
determine the physical extent, amount of reserves, and likely
production rate of the field.
appraisal well A well drilled as part of an appraisal drilling program.
apprentice A tradesperson (or craftsperson) in training.

approved batch A batch of paint that has been tested for quality and found to
be acceptable compared to preset physical specification.
approved batch for filling The batch of paint that has been approved by QC (Quality
Control) for filling.
APS Ammonium persulfate (332345). An initiator in the

polymer reaction process.
AQTX Aquatic toxicity. Adverse effects on marine life that result

from their being exposed to a toxic substance.
aqueous Water-based solution or suspension. Frequently, a gaseous

compound dissolved in water.
aqueous solution A solution with water as the solvent.
ARDS Atmospheric residual desulfurization. A refining process

that removes sulfur from oils.
argyria Local or generalized gray/blue-colored impregnation of the

body tissue with silver.
aromatic (adjective) Derived from or characterized by the presence of the

benzene ring.
aromatic(s) (noun) The name used for the benzene series of hydrocarbons,
including benzene, toluene, and xylene.
Benzene or a compound derived from benzene, with one or

more rings of carbon atoms, as distinct from those of only
aliphatic or alicyclic character. These products are used as
components of unleaded gasolines and as feedstocks for
petrochemicals, such as cyclohexane and paraxylene, both of
which are used in end products like nylons and polyesters.
One of the three principal groups or series of hydrocarbon

compounds that occurs naturally in crude oil. New
formulations of gasoline with increased octane levels often
contain increased amounts of aromatics.

aromatization The formation of benzene ring compounds from a paraffin or
naphthene.
arosorb process Separation of aromatics from non-aromatics in refinery

streams, such as catalytic reformate by absorption on a gel
from which they are recovered by desorption.
artificial drives Techniques for producing oil after depletion or in lieu of

natural drives which includes waterflooding, natural gas
reinjection, inert gas injection, flue gas injection, and in-situ
combustion.
artificial lift Any of the techniques, other than natural drives, for bringing
oil to the surface.
asbestosis Chronic lung disease caused by inhaling air-borne asbestos

fibers.
ash test A test used to determine the amount of noncombustible

impurities in the oil. These impurities come principally from
the natural salts present in the crude oil or from the
chemicals that may be used in refinery operations, although
they may also come from scale and dirt picked up from
containers and pipes. Some ash-producing impurities in fuel
oils cause rapid deterioration of refractory materials in the
furnace, particularly at high temperatures. Some are abrasive
and destructive to pumps, valves, control equipment, and
other burner parts. Ash specifications are included in order
to minimize these operating difficulties as far as practical.
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
asphalt Black to dark-brown solid or semisolid cementatious

material that gradually liquefies when heated and in which
the predominating constituents are bitumens. These occur in
the solid or semisolid form in nature and are obtained by
refining petroleum or are combinations with one another or
with petroleum or derivatives thereof.

asphaltenes One of the principal components of asphalt. It is the black or
brown solid material precipitated from an asphalt with
normal pentane. It is an arbitrary fraction defined by the
method of analysis. Other arbitrary fractions of asphalt are
oils and resins.
asphyxia The condition arising when the blood is deprived of an

adequate supply of oxygen so that loss of consciousness or
death may follow.
asphyxiant A vapor or gas which causes unconsciousness or death by

suffocation. Most simple asphyxiants are harmful to the
body only when they become so concentrated that they
reduce oxygen in air (normally 21%) to dangerous levels
(16% or lower). Asphyxiation is a potential hazard of
working in confined spaces. Some chemicals like carbon
dioxide function as chemical asphyxiants by reducing the
blood’s ability to carry oxygen.
aspiration hazard Danger of drawing material into the lungs leading to an

inflammatory response.
assay A qualitative and/or quantitative determination of the

components of a material.
The tabulated results of a comprehensive laboratory analysis

of crude oil.
assembly A number of parts fitted together to form a complete piece of

equipment.
asset In maintenance, any item in the physical plant or its

equipment.
asset management The systematic planning and control of a physical resource

throughout its life. This may include the specification,
design, and construction of the asset, its operation, mainte-
nance and modification while in use, and its disposal when
no longer required.

asset register A list of all the assets in a particular workplace, together with
information about those assets, such as manufacturer, vendor,
make, model, specifications etc.
associated gas Natural gas, commonly known as gas-cap gas, which

overlies and is in contact with crude oil in the reservoir.
Where reservoir conditions are such that the production of
associated gas does not substantially affect the recovery of
crude oil in the reservoir, such gas may be reclassified as
non-associated gas by a regulatory agency.
asthma Disease characterized by recurrent attacks of dyspnea,

wheezing, and perhaps coughing caused by spasmodic
contraction of the bronchiole in the lungs.
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials. A voluntary

membership organization with members from a broad
spectrum of individuals, agencies, and industries concerned
with setting standards for the testing of industrial products.
The world’s largest source of voluntary consensus standards
for materials, products, systems, and services. A resource for
sampling and testing methods, health, and safety aspects of
materials, safe performance guidelines, and effects of
physical and biological agents and chemicals.
ASTM colorimeter Apparatus widely used for determining the color of lubri-
cating oil. It is described in ASTM Method D 1500. The
color so determined is known as ASTM color.
ASTM D-86 distillation A laboratory distillation test that plots boiling temperature
against percent distilled to indicate the relative composition
of a mixture of hydrocarbons.
ASU Air Separation Unit.
atmosphere Pressure measurement.

One atmosphere (atm) = 14.7 lbs/squ in.
atmospheric Pertaining to the air around us. For example, atmospheric

pressure is 14.7 pounds per square inch.

atmospheric distillation A process where hydrocarbons are heated, reduced in
pressure, and separated by boiling point ranges under near
atmospheric pressure conditions.
atmospheric pressure The absolute pressure of the atmosphere at the reference

location. Atmospheric pressure varies with weather, density,
and by altitude. (See Standard Atmospheric Pressure and
Temperature.)
atmospheric resid Bottoms product of atmospheric fractional distillation that

will not boil at temperatures below 750°F. Atmospheric
resid is used as feed for a vacuum tower.
atom The smallest unit of an element that is capable of entering

into a chemical combination.
The smallest particle in which elements combine with

themselves and each other to form molecules.
atomization The ability of an oil to be broken up into a fine spray by

characteristics some mechanical means.
atomize To break up a liquid into a fine spray.
attachment bosses Reinforcement pads on a turbine casing for attaching

equipment.
attemperator Attemperators reduce the steam temperature by bringing

superheated steam into direct contact with high-pressure
boiler feedwater. The steam is cooled through the
evaporation of the water. (Also called desuperheaters.)
auto-ignition temperature The minimum temperature which a substance must be heated

without application of flame or spark to cause a substance to
ignite. Materials should not be heated to greater than 80% of
this temperature.
automatic An operator may adjust a set point. The controller sends an

output signal to the final control element, causing it to
change position (or speed, etc.).

automatic control(s) A control or controls that performs regulating and switching
operations without operator involvement in response to
predetermined conditions.
automatic operation A switch for automatic adjustment by a controller of its

switch output signal.
autonomous maintenance Maintenance activities performed by operators on their own

equipment rather than by full-time maintenance personnel.
auxiliary drive A driving gear assembly driven by the shaft gear that
actuates auxiliary equipment.
availability The proportion of total time that an item of equipment is

capable of performing its specified functions, normally
expressed as a percentage. It can be calculated by dividing
the equipment available hours by the total number of hours
in any given period. One of the major sources of disagree-
ment over the definition of availability is whether downtime
should be divided by total hours or by scheduled operating
time. For example, if your plant is only scheduled to operate
five days a week, should downtime that is incurred over the
weekend be included in the calculation of availability? Since
one of the prime goals of any organization should be to
maximize its return on assets and can only be achieved by
reducing the total downtime, regardless of whether this
downtime was scheduled or not, all downtime should be
considered as a proportion of total time, not scheduled
operating time.
available hours The total number of hours that an item of equipment is

capable of performing its specified functions. It is equal to
the total hours in any given period, less the downtime hours.
average boiling point Unless otherwise indicated, the sum of the ASTM distillation
temperatures from the 10-percent point to the 90-percent
point, inclusive, divided by 9. Sometimes, half the initial
and half the maximum distillation temperatures are also
added, and the sum then divided by 10.

average life How long, on average, a component will last before it suffers
a failure. Commonly measured by MTBF (mean time
between failures).
aviation gasoline High-performance petroleum fuels made specifically for

piston-engine, propeller- driven airplanes.
azeotrope A liquid mixture of two or more products formed in a

distillation process that, when boiled, give off a vapor of the
same composition as the liquid. No further separation is
possible.

B
back order An order for items not currently available that will be
shipped as arranged.
back pressure Pressure that resists the flow of fluid in a piping system.
Pressure on the discharge side of a pressure relief valve.
See Also:
 Built-up Back Pressure
 Constant Back Pressure

 Superimposed Back Pressure
 Variable Back Pressure
background processing The execution of lower priority programs while higher

priority programs are not being handled by a data processing
system.
backlog Work which has not been completed by the nominated

“required by date.” The period for which each work order is
overdue is defined as the difference between the current date
and the “required by date.” All work for which no “required
by” date has been specified is generally included on the
backlog. Backlog is generally measured in “crew-weeks,”
that is, the total number of labor hours represented by the
work on the backlog, divided by the number of labor hours
available to be worked in an average week by the work crew
responsible for completing this work. As such, it is one of
the common key performance indicators used in
maintenance.
backpressure controller A controller that maintains a constant upstream pressure. Its

valve opens as the upstream pressure increases and closes as
the upstream pressure decreases. It is independent of
downstream pressure.

bacteria Microscopic organisms that can live in soil, water, air,
organic matter, and the bodies of plants and animals.
bacterium A single-celled organism that lacks internal cell membranes.
baffle A device for deflecting oil or gas in a circuit breaker.
A plate that regulates the flow of a fluid as in a steam boiler

flue or a gasoline muffler.
BAL British Anti-Lewisite. A name for the drug, dimecaprol,

used a treatment for toxic inhalations.
bar code A sticker that contains the lot number, description, and
quantity of material in a box, pallet, pail, or drum.
barg A measurement of pressure. One bar is equal to the absolute

value of Standard Atmospheric Pressure. One atmosphere is
equivalent to 1.01 Bara (equivalent to 14.696 psia).
1 barg = 1 bar, gauge pressure.
barge Non-self-propelled marine vessel used as cargo tankers,

equipment and supply carriers, crane platforms, and support
and accommodation bases in off-shore drilling, and as
submarine pipe-laying vessels.
barometer An instrument for determining atmospheric pressure.
barometric condenser Equipment for maintaining a partial vacuum on a refinery

tower or steam turbine by condensing the vapors from it by
direct contact with sprayed water.
barometric pressure The actual atmospheric pressure as determined by a

barometer.
barometric system A direct contact condenser having steam jets which remove
noncondensables and pull a vacuum on the system.
barrel The standard unit of measurement in the petroleum industry.

It contains 42 US standard gallons, 35 British imperial
gallons of liquid.

base An inorganic compound that contains the hydroxyl ion and is
alkaline on the pH scale.
Substances that (usually) liberate OH anions when dissolved

in water. Bases react with acids to form salts and water.
Bases have a pH greater than 7, turn litmus paper blue, and
may be corrosive to human tissue. A strong base is called
alkaline or caustic.
base oil A finished petroleum stock which is blended with other

materials to make salable products.
base stock Any semi-finished petroleum product which requires only

the addition of blending agents or additives to make it a
finished product.
basement rock The ancient rock that lies below sedimentary strata. It does
not contain oil or gas.
basic dimension A theoretically exact value used to describe the size, shape,
or location of a feature.
basic size The size from which the limits of size are derived by the
application of allowances and tolerances.
batch A quantity of paint or paint-related product.
batch distillation Distillation where the entire volume of liquid to be distilled

is placed into the still at the beginning of the operation.
Batch Executive The DCS routine that sequences and controls the other DCS
routines.
batch ticket A document that lists, step by step, in a recipe the correct
materials, equipment, and instructions to be used when
making a batch.
batchmaking The action of following a formulation to make paint or other

finished products.

battery limits The outer boundaries of the area assigned to a unit or battery.
A section of the boundary of a processing unit through which

pipelines enter and leave.
Baumé gravity Arbitrary scale of specific gravities that is used to determine

specific gravities and in graduation of hydrometrers.
A unit of measurement of specific gravity used in the

chemical industry.
Degrees Baumé = 140/Sp. Gr. – 130.
Baumé hydrometer An instrument used for measuring Baumé density of a fluid.

This is in the form of a straight glass tube which is floated in
the fluid in question, the level of the fluid coming in line
with the graduations of the scale marked on the neck of the
hydrometer. This system of measurement is ordinarily used
in measuring concentrations of chemicals in a water solution.
bb fraction The butane/butylene fraction. The boiling points of butane

and butylene (butene) are so close that they are, as a rule,
collected as one fraction.
bbl(s) Barrel(s). The standard unit of measurement in the

petroleum industry. It contains 42 US standard gallons, 35
British imperial gallons of liquid. (bpd – barrels per day).
BCM Blood-clotting mechanism effects.

bearings A support provided to hold a revolving shaft in its correct
position. There are two different classes of bearings. The
radial bearing is used for horizontal shafting, the load on the
bearing being due to the weight of the shaft or to forces
acting on the shaft in a direction perpendicular to its axis.
The thrust bearing prevents lengthwise movement of the
shaft due to an axial force, this force being transmitted
through one or more collars on the shaft to fixed surfaces in
the bearing. An example of a thrust bearing is a foot-step
bearing that is used to support the end of a vertical shaft.
Bearings may also be classified according to two types. The

journal type is exemplified by bronze bushings or babbit-
lined bearings. Very large pieces of equipment are usually
equipped with journal-type bearings. The anti-friction type
are either ball or roller of various designs. Most moderate-
sized rotary machinery, such as pumps and motors, is
equipped with ball bearings. Larger machinery may be
equipped with roller bearings.
Beavon Unit Unit that removes low level (1 to 2%) sulfur compounds
from the Sulfur Recovery Unit’s effluent gases, also referred
to as tail gases.
bedrock The firm base rock to which is anchored the geological

structure of interest to petroleum geologists.
BEI Biological Exposure Indexes. Numerical values based on

procedures to determine the amount of a material absorbed
into the human body by measuring it or its metabolic
products in tissue, fluid, or exhaled air.
benchmarking The process of comparing performance with other

organizations, identifying comparatively high performance
organizations, and learning what it is they do that allows
them to achieve that high level of performance.
benign Not recurrent or not tending to progress. Not cancerous.
Bentley Nevada monitor A monitor for rotating equipment that monitors critical
temperatures, vibration, and bearing displacement.

benzene insolubles That portion of the normal pentane insolubles in used
lubricating oils which is not soluble in benzene, and which
may include in addition to the insoluble contaminants from
external sources, the benzene-insoluble matter produced by
oxidation and thermal decomposition of the oil, the oil
additives, and the fuel.
bevel gear drive The driving gear of the auxiliary drive assembly in direct
contact with the shaft gear.
BFW Boiler feedwater. Treated water used as feed to the boilers.
Hot deaerated/treated water fed to the boiler under high

pressure.
BHP Brake horsepower.
biocide A substance that is destructive to several different

organizations.
biodegradable Organic material’s capacity for decomposition as a result of

attack by micro-organisms.
biological monitoring Periodic examination of body substances, such as blood or

urine, to determine the extent of hazardous material
absorption as opposed to mere exposure.
biological treatment The process of breaking organic wastes down using bacteria.
biopsy Removal and examination of tissue from the living body.
bitumen Hydrocarbon material of natural or pyrogenous origin, or

combination of both, accompanied by nonmetallic deriva-
tives, which may be gaseous, liquid, semisolid or solid, and
which is completely soluble in carbon disulfide.
(ASTM D 8-63).
black oil Any of the black-colored oils used for the lubrication of
heavy, slow-moving, rough machinery where it would be
impractical or uneconomical to use higher grade lubricants.

blank See blind.
blank flange See blind flange.
blanket gas Gas introduced above a liquid in a vessel to keep out air to
prevent oxidation of the material, or to prevent forming
explosive mixtures.
blanketing The displacement of air above a flammable liquid with an

inert gas to prevent an explosion. Example: maintaining a
nitrogen atmosphere in the vapor space of a tank at a slight
gauge pressure to exclude air.
bleeder A small drain or vent valve located on the low point of a line,
pump, or vessel that can be used to drain equipment or
piping. Bleeders are also provided in areas of process
equipment where samples are taken.
bleeding Diverting from a line or vessel a small portion of the

contained material, usually accomplished by slightly
cracking a valve on the line or vessel.
blend A mixture of various kinds of oils having the same origin or

of the same class. Thus, a blended oil may consist of various
petroleum oils or a blended animal oil may consist of various
animal oils. When vegetable or animal oils are mixed with
petroleum oil, the result is a compound not a blend.
blender A device for mixing two fuel oils to achieve a less viscous
and more uniform fuel.
blending The mixing two or more petroleum fractions to produce a

product meeting specifications for market.
The mixing of two compatible fuels having different

properties in order to produce an intermediate fuel.

BLEVE Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion. Condition in
which liquids are excessively heated, which may result in the
violent rupture of a container, and the rapid vaporization of
the material. The possibility of a BLEVE increases with the
volatility of the material.
blind A solid metal plate inserted in a line so that no flow can pass.
Provides positive line shut off upstream or downstream and
can be readily changed. Sometimes referred to as a blank.
blind flange A flat plate added to a piping system for the purpose of
closing off the line. This is sometimes known as a blank
flange.
blind list A list of blanks inserted to isolate a vessel or pipe system. It

must show the location of each blank and have provision for
the signature of witness to check each one in both the open
and closed position.
blind, figure-eight One part of the blind is solid forming a blank, the other is
open. Used in locations where a line must be periodically
blinded and a visible indication is required to show whether
the line is blanked or open.
block in To isolate a piece of equipment by closing the valves in all

the lines to and from that piece of equipment.
block valve A valve used for isolation of equipment; a general name for
any valve (usually hand-operated) that can be used to close
off or block a line.
bloom The color of an oil observed by reflected light.
blow case A small tank in which liquids are accumulated and drained
by applying gas or air pressure above the liquid level. Such
a vessel is usually located below a pipeline or other
equipment at a location where an outside power source is not
convenient for removing the drained liquid.
blow out A sudden, violent escape of gas or vapor.

blowdown Vessel or process that draws process fluids into a
“blowdown” vessel to keep undesirable material from
accumulating by the use of pressure. For example, a steam
blowdown drum is used to settle particulates and sediments
out of a steam flow. Blowdown vessels are also used to
reduce pressure on a process circuit or system.
To intermittently purge a piece of equipment of unwanted

accumulated material.
Withdrawal of water from boilers and cooling towers to

prevent buildup of solids.
blowdown stack A stack into which the contents of a unit are emptied in an
emergency.
blowdown vessel A drum, often equipped with a stack into which relief valve
discharge and other blowdown lines are connected.
blowing agent A substance incorporated in a mixture for the purpose of

producing foam. For polyurethanes, this is usually either
carbon-dioxide generated from the diisocyanate/water
reaction or introduced as liquid CO2 or is a low-boiling
organic liquid volatilized by the heat of the polyurethan-
forming reactions.
blown Giving off by an illuminated oil of a light having a different

color than its own.
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand. The amount of dissolved

oxygen consumed, expressed in milligrams per liter.
Micro-organisms oxidize organic matter in water under

controlled conditions.
body burden The total amount of a toxic material that a person has
ingested or inhaled from all sources over time.
BOE Barrel of oil equivalent. Equals gas volumes divided by six

and added to crude and natural gas volumes.

boil The formation of vapor bubbles within a liquid by heating
the liquid to its boiling point temperature. Liquids boil when
the liquid is heated so the vapor pressure of the liquid tries to
exceed the system pressure resting on the liquid surface.
boil-away Sometimes called hand distillation. A distillation test

performed on liquefied gases such as propane and butane in
which the liquid will “boil-away” at atmospheric
temperature.
boil-away or weathering A Gas Processors Association (GPA) test for low-pressure

test gas for the determination of heavy components in a sample
by evaporation of the sample as specified.
boildown Vaporizing the residue to purify the residue product.
boiler A boiler is a closed vessel in which water is heated under

pressure. As the heating and pressure increase, the water is
converted into steam.
boiling The transition of a substance from the liquid to the gaseous

phase.
boiling range The range of temperature, usually determined at atmospheric

pressure in a standard laboratory apparatus, over which the
boiling or distillation of an oil commences, proceeds, and
finishes.
BOM Bill of Materials. A list of all the parts and components that
make up a particular asset. Not to be confused with an
application parts list.
BOM or BuMINES Bureau of Mines, US Department of Interior. Began

approving air breathing apparatus in 1918 and later added all
types of respirators. BOM’s respirator testing/approval
activities have been discontinued; NIOSH now has this
responsibility. BOM-approved Type 14F gas masks are still
acceptable; all other BOM approvals have expired or have
been replaced by NIOSH approvals.

bomb A pressurized container to hold gases that is used when
performing a vapor pressure test.
bomb sample container A small, cylindrical container used for sampling,

transporting, and testing material that must be kept under
high pressure.
bond A connection between two objects. For example, the

chemical bonds which hold together the atoms in a
compound.
bonding The act of attaching a grounded piece of equipment to a

piece that is not grounded by using bonding and grounding
cables.
A safety practice where two objects are interconnected with

clamps and bare wire. This equalizes electrical potential
between the objects and helps prevent static sparks that could
ignite flammable materials.
bonding and grounding The act by which one attaches a grounded cable to their tank
and equipment. These cables link them together minimizing
the risk of static discharge. Static can be created by mixing,
dosing, or milling a batch.
book To reserve specific equipment items to perform a

DCS-controlled function as long as an item is “booked.”
booster pump A pump system installed to maintain or increase the pressure

in pipelines so that liquids and gases keep flowing.
booster station An auxiliary station consisting of suitable storage tanks,

motive power, and pumps for pumping oil through pipelines.
boot An extension to the bottom of a drum or vessel to

accumulate settled water so that it may be withdrawn from
the process.

bottle oiler A semiautomatic oiler for supplying oil from an inverted
bottle to a bearing, such as a journal. Feed is controlled by a
spindle which rests on the journal and has a slight
up-and-down motion as the shaft rotates; no oil is fed when
the shaft is stationary.
bottom-of-the-barrel Heavy, high-sulfur and high-metals residual fuel oil left after
(residual) fuel lighter crude oil has been distilled off.
bottoms The liquid (water and sediment) which collects at bottom of

a vessel (tower, tank), either during a fractionating process or
while in storage. The heaviest product remaining in the
liquid phase after distillation. The accumulation of
sediments, mud, and water in the bottoms of tanks.
bottoms cooler A heat exchanger in which the bottoms product from a tower
is cooled before it is pumped to storage or to other
processing equipment.
bottoms product The heaviest product of a distillation, such as produced from

the bottom of a still or distillation column. Also, bottoms
can be the stream leaving the bottom of a drum or a vessel.
The liquid which collects in the bottom of a vessel either

during a fractionating process or while in storage (tower
bottoms, tank bottoms).
BP Boiling point. The temperature at which a liquid changes to

a vapor state at a given pressure. Flammable materials with
low boiling points generally present special fire hazards.
bpd Barrels per day. A standard measure of petroleum product

flow in petroleum processing operations.
bpsd Barrels per standard day. A standard measure of

petroleum product flow in petroleum processing operations.
The term “bpds” is stated as the rating capacity of a
particular unit or portion of a unit, operating at a constant
flow rate.
bph Barrels per hour.

BPT Boiling point temperature. The temperature at which the
transition from the liquid phase to the gaseous phase occurs
at a given pressure.
The temperature at which a liquid changes to a vapor state at

a given pressure, usually expressed in degrees Fahrenheit at
sea level pressure (760 mmHg or one atmosphere). For
mixtures, the initial boiling point or the boiling range may be
given. Flammable materials with low boiling points
generally present special fire hazards. Some approximate
boiling points are: propane –44°F; anhydrous ammonia
–28°F; butane 31°F; gasoline 100°F; alkyl chloride 113°F;
ethylene glycol 387°F.
bradycardia A slow heartbeat with a pulse rate below 60/minute.
breaching The space between the end of the tubing and the jacket of a
hot water boiler or steam boiler.
breakdown A specific type of failure, where an item of plant or

equipment is completely unable to function.
breakdown maintenance No scheduled maintenance. An equipment maintenance

strategy, where no routine maintenance tasks are performed
on the equipment. The only maintenance performed on the
equipment is corrective maintenance, and then only after the
equipment has suffered a failure. Also described as a run-to-
failure strategy.
breathing apparatus Equipment designed to provide a worker with a supply of

purified air when working in the presence of toxic gases.
breeching The steel or firebrick structure of a furnace which carries the

flue gases to the stack or chimney.
bright stock Refined, high-viscosity lubricating oils usually made from

residual stocks by suitable treatment, such as a combination
of acid treatment or solvent extraction with dewaxing or clay
finishing.
brights Unlabeled containers, excluding drums.

brine Salt water used in the regeneration of water softeners.
Salt water that has been concentrated in the Desalinating

Units prior to return to the sea.
BS&W A value, which stands for “bottom sediment & water,” that
identifies the percentage of dirt, salt, and emulsified water in
a in a crude oil by centrifuging a sample. Sometimes
abbreviated to S and W.
BS&W monitor An instrument which detects entrained water content in

petroleum products wherein the water changes the capacitive
reactance as a function of the dielectric constant.
Btu British thermal unit. The amount of heat required to raise

one pound of water from 39° to 40°F. Typically, the term
“Btu” is used in refinery operations to compare the relative
heating values of various fuels and to rate the capacity of
heaters and heat exchange equipment.
BTX A restructured naphtha process (benzene, toluene, xylene)

via a platformer having a lower boilaway, used as charge for
a sulfolane unit.
bubble cap An inverted cup with a notched or slotted edge to disperse

vapor into small bubbles beneath the surface of the liquid on
the bubble tray (plate) causing intimate mixing in a
distillation column.
bubble tower A vertical, cylindrical vessel containing bubble trays or

plates. Its purpose is to effect a separation of the feedstock
into fractions having more narrow boiling ranges.
bubble tray (plate) A shallow, horizontal tray that is used to secure intimate
contact between rising vapors and falling liquid in a tower.
The tray is fitted to the inside of a fractionating tower to act
as a still to hold a level of liquid that is contacted by rising
vapors that pass upward through slots or holes in the tray.
This tray eliminates channeling of the vapors and also brings
about a uniform temperature for any one cross-section of the
tower.

bubbling area The section of a tray with the perforations where
vapor/liquid contact is made.
buffer A substance that reduces the change in hydrogen ion

concentration (pH) that otherwise would be produced by
adding acids or bases to a solution.
A solution with a specified pH value.
bugs The major biological solids in wastewater, resulting from a

growth of micro-organisms during bio-degragation. The
organisms are the major component of activated sludge.
built-up back pressure The pressure in the discharge header which develops as a
result of flow after the pressure relief valve opens.
bulk Not divided into parts or packaged in separate units. Used

when referring to liquids received by the tanker truck load.
bulk density The mass (weight) per unit volume of a solid particulate
material as it is normally packed with voids between
particulates containing air. Usually expressed as lb/ft3 or
g/cm3.
bulk dose Dosing of raw materials using a metered feed pump. These
are dosed from large storage tanks.
bulk storage Materials delivered by a tank wagon, then received and

stored in large tanks.
bull plug A plugging device made of steel bar stock, having machine
threads used on bleeders and vents found on pumps,
compressors, etc., to prevent fugitive emissions.
Buna Trademark for synthetic rubber and rubber-like materials,

such as Buna-N (nitrile) or Buna-S (styrene).
bunker “C” fuel oil A heavy residual fuel oil used by ships and industry; also
referred to as No. 6 fuel oil.

burner The equipment through which fuel and air are mixed
together and admitted to a furnace to be burnt.
The equipment in a furnace through which fuel and air are

mixed together at desired velocities, turbulence, and
concentration to establish and maintain proper ignition and
combustion of the fuel.
burner oil A light fuel oil, primarily used in heating systems or

furnaces.
burning Combining a material with oxygen, usually from the air.

Heat and light are usually products of burning.
burning test A test for determining the burning qualities of kerosene.
burnout A process used to remove the buildup of contaminants from

catalyst beds and fired heater tubes. Normally associated
with a shutdown condition when all sulfur must be burned
from catalyst, or all coke must be burned from fired heater
tubes.
butadiene An unsaturated hydrocarbon with two double bonds.

Butadienes (bivinyl, erythrene, vinyl-ethylene) have the
general formula C4H6. An example is 1,3- butadiene;
CH2CHCHCH2, a gas boiling at –3°C (26.6°F); used in
synthesis of copolymers sold as synthetic rubber. A butane
derivative, it is one of the most widely used raw materials
used in the manufacture of synthetic rubber.
butterfly valve A throttling divide (or damper) in a pipe, which consists of a

flat disc turning on an axis at a 90°angle to the center line of
the pipe.
BW Boiler water.
bypass An auxiliary loop in a pipeline, usually for diverting the flow

around a larger valve, control valve, or other piece of
equipment.

by-products Useful materials recovered incidental to the principal
objective of refining petroleum.

C
C Centigrade (Celsius), a unit of temperature. The

temperature based on 0° for the temperature at which water
freezes and 100° for the temperature at which water boils.
C/H ratio Carbon/hydrogen ratio.
CAA Clean Air Act. A federal law enacted to regulate and reduce
air pollution. Administered by the EPA.
calcium-base grease A grease composed of a mineral oil thickened with calcium

(lime) soaps.
calendar day A basis for calculating plant production that is used to give
average production for a full year.
calibration A determination of the accuracy of an instrument by finding

its variation from standard.
call-out To summon a tradesperson to the workplace during his

normal non-working time so that he can perform a mainte-
nance activity (normally an emergency maintenance task).
A note on a drawing giving a dimension, specification, or a

machine process.
calorie A standard unit of heat. The amount of heat required to raise

1 gram of water 1 degree C.
capital Durable items with a working life or value which allows

them to be used a long time.
capital spare equipment Durable equipment with a cost value of $500 or more.
Normally kept in stores as replacements.

capital spare parts Durable parts of a recurring need and capitalized if their unit
value exceeds $2000 or turnaround is rapid enough to
warrant bulk quantities of a value exceeding $2000.
carbide A binary compound of carbon with an element that is more

electropositive than carbon. Carbon-hydrogen compounds
are excluded.
carbon A non-metallic element, which when combined chemically

with hydrogen, forms a series of substances called hydro-
carbons, which make up all petroleum and the products
derived from it. It combines chemically with oxygen during
normal burning to produce carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide, giving off heat in the process.
carbon black Black, amorphous carbon. It can be made by incomplete

combustion or thermal decomposition of natural gas, or by
combinations of natural gas and petroleum oils. Used in
rubber compounding, inks, and paints.
carbon residue A carbonaceous material remaining after evaporating and

coking oil under prescribed conditions.
carcinogen Any substance or agent capable of causing or producing

cancer in mammals.
carcinoma A malignant tumor or cancer; a new growth made up of

epithelial cells tending to grow rapidly, infiltrate other cells,
and give rise to metastasis (spreading).
carrier air Air added to a catalyst transfer line to provide the medium
by which the catalyst can be transported.

CAS Chemical Abstracts Service. An assigned number used to
identify a chemical. An organization that indexes
information published in Chemical Abstracts by the
American Chemical Society and that provides index guides
by which information about particular substances may be
located in the abstracts. Sequentially assigned CAS numbers
identify specific chemicals, except when followed by an
asterisk (*), which signifies a compound (often naturally
occurring) of variable composition. The numbers have no
chemical significance. The CAS number is a concise, unique
means of material identification.
CAS Contract Acceptance Sheet. A document that is completed

by the appropriate contract supervisor and contractor to
indicate job completion and acceptance. It also forms part of
the appraisal of the contractors’ performance.
cascade A control system involving two or more controllers. One

instrument measures a process variable (e.g., temperature)
and resets or adjusts the set point of a second instrument,
which controls another process variable (e.g., flow
controller).
casing-head gas Gas produced with oil from an oil well as distinguished from
gas produced from a gas well. The casing-head gas is taken
off at the top of the well or at the separator.
casing-head gasoline The liquid hydrocarbon product extracted from casing-head

gas by one of three methods: compression, absorption, or
refrigeration.
cat cracker A large refinery vessel for processing reduced crudes or

other feedstocks in the presence of a catalyst, as opposed to
the older method of thermal cracking, which employs heat
and pressure only. Catalytic cracking is generally preferred
since it produces less gas and other highly volatile
byproducts. It produces a motor fuel of higher octane than
the thermal process.

catalyst A substance that modifies a chemical reaction (makes it
faster or slower) without being consumed.
A substance which influences or increases the rate of a

chemical reaction without entering into or undergoing a
permanent chemical change itself. Catalysts can usually be
recovered essentially unaltered in form or amount, and are
often regenerated and reused in the process.
Material which promotes a chemical reaction but remains

unchanged itself, or can be regenerated to its original form.
A substance that accelerates or changes the direction of a

chemical reaction but remains unchanged and may be
regenerated to its original form.
catalyst activity A comparison of the effect fresh catalyst has on a reaction

with the effect of the catalyst in its current working condition
(with deposits on it and degraded from use).
catalytic cracking The conversion of high-boiling-point hydrocarbons into

lower-boiling-point products using heat, pressure, and a
catalyst in a fixed bed, moving bed, or fluid bed.
catalytic desulfurization A process in which the sulfur content of petroleum is

reduced, usually by conversion to H2S, using a catalyst with
or without the presence of added hydrogen.
catalytic fines Hard, abrasive crystalline particles of alumina, silica, and/or

alumina silica that can be carried over from the fluidic
catalytic cracking process of residual fuel stocks. The
particle size can range from sub-micron to greater than sixty
microns in size. These particles become more common in
the higher viscosity marine bunker fuels.
catalytic reforming A process which naphthenes are converted to romatics by

removal of hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst.
cathodic protection Reduction or prevention of corrosion by making a metal the

cathode in a conducting medium by means of a direct electric
current, which is either impressed or galvanic.

cation A positively charged ion.
caustic A base or alkali which when in contact with certain materials

destroys or corrodes by chemical action.
caustic prewash drum A vessel containing a sodium hydroxide (caustic) solution

used to remove H2S and mercaptan sulfur from hydrocarbon
streams.
caustic scrubber A drum containing a caustic soda solution used to remove

H2S and mercaptan sulfur compounds from a feed stream
passing through the drum. The process eventually spends the
caustic.
caustic treating The process in which a petroleum distillate or gas is treated

with an aqueous solution of caustic to remove acidic
components and hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which usually
contribute to poor odor or poor stability.
cavitation A condition where vapors are formed due to low liquid

pressure and/or high temperature as it passes over the
impeller of a pump. The bubbles collapse in the volute
causing the pump to vibrate and loud noise to be emitted.
Excessive amounts of cavitation will lead to accelerated
deterioration of a pump.
The dynamics that occur in a pump when the pressure on a

liquid being pumped falls below its vapor pressure.
Formation of a partial vacuum in a pump when vapors form

due to low pressure and/or high temperature, causing
vibration and loud noise.

CBM Condition Based Maintenance. An equipment maintenance
strategy based on measuring the condition of equipment in
order to assess whether it will fail during some future period,
and then taking appropriate action to avoid the consequences
of that failure. The condition of equipment could be
monitored using condition monitoring, statistical process
control techniques, by monitoring equipment performance,
or through the use of the human senses. The terms
condition-based maintenance, on-condition maintenance, and
predictive maintenance can be used interchangeably.
CC Closed cup. Identifies one of the methods used to measure

flash points of flammable liquids.
cc, cm3 Cubic centimeter.
CCR Conradson carbon residue.
ceiling Maximum allowable human exposure limit for air-borne

substances not to be exceeded even momentarily.
centimeter, cm 1/100 meter. A cm = approximately 0.4 in.
centipoise The cgs unit of the measure of viscosity equal to 1/100 poise.
The viscosity of water at 20°C is approximately
12 centipose.
0.01 poise or centistokes times specific gravity at the test

temperature.
centrifugal Proceeding or acting in a direction away from the center or

axis. For example, in a centrifugal pump, fluid enters and is
forced outward under pressure.

centrifugal pump A pump that creates its discharge pressure and pumping
force by slinging fluid out of the pump impeller by
centrifugal force. A pump in which fluid movement is
developed primarily by the action of centrifugal force
(whirling action).
A pump that causes fluid movement using an impeller to

create centrifugal force.
centrifuge A mechanism that separates oils into fractions by centrifugal

force. The charge oil is subjected to centrifugal force by
spinning at high speed so that heavier materials move to the
outside to be withdrawn as underflow and the lighter
clarified materials are withdrawn as overflow. Applied to
diesel engine fuels and lubricating oils to remove moisture
and other extraneous materials.
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,

and Liability Act. The Superfund Law, Public Law
PL 96-510, found at 40 CFR 300. The EPA has jurisdiction.
cetane index An empirical measure of ignition quality. Defined as the

percentage by volume of cetane in a mixture of cetane and
methyl naphthalene, which has the same ignition quality
when used in an engine as a fuel under test.
cetane number The percentage of cetane in a blend of cetane and

alphamethyl naphthalene which has the same ignition quality
as the fuel being tested. Used on diesel fuels as an indication
of their performance.
CFB boilers Circulating fluidized bed boilers that are used with a
variety of fuels, particularly successful at burning those of
poor quality. When the flow of air reaches a certain velocity,
it causes the solid particles to lift (or fluidize) and
combustion occurs in this fluidized zone.
cfh Cubic feet per hour.
CFR Code of Federal Regulations. A collection of the

regulations established by law.

CFR diesel fuel testing A standard engine employed in making cetane number tests
unit of diesel engine fuels.
cgs Metric units of measure based upon centimeter, gram, and

second.
chain transfer agents Substances that initiate the exchange of one molecule for
another. Mercaptans are used as chain transfer agents in the
polymer production process.
charcoal test A test standardized by the American Gas Association and the
Gas Processors Association for determining the natural
gasoline content of a given natural gas. The gasoline is
adsorbed from the gas on activated charcoal and then
recovered by distillation. The test is described in Testing
Code 101-43, a joint AGA and GPA publication.
charge Feedstock to a refinery processing unit.
charge (stock) or feed Crude oil or other hydrocarbons that are the basic materials
(feedstock) for a refining process. Within the refinery, some
products of processes are the feed to other processes.
charge heater A furnace in which feedstock is heated until it has reached

the desired process temperature.
charge pump A pump used to introduce feed into a process.
check valve An automatic, non-return apparatus or valve, which permits

fluids to pass in one direction but automatically closes when
fluids attempt to pass in the opposite direction.
A one-way valve that permits fluids to pass in only one

direction.
chelant A chemical used in treating BFW to prevent scaling in

equipment.
chelating agent A chemical compound capable of forming multiple chemical

bonds to a metal ion. Used to treat metal poisoning.

chemical Any element, chemical compound, or mixture of elements
and/or compounds.
chemical absorption An instrument used for discovering the presence of a

indicator suspected substance (gas or vapor), which works on the
principle of discoloring a chemical agent in the apparatus.
chemical cartridge A respirator that uses various chemical substances to purify

respirator inhaled air of certain contaminative gases or vapors.
Typically effective for concentrations no more than 10 times
the TLV of the contaminant if it has warning properties (odor
or irritation) below the TLV.
chemical family A group of single elements or compounds with a common

general name.
chemical formula Gives the number and kinds of atoms that comprise a
molecule of a material.
chemical name Scientific designation of a name that clearly identifies

chemical for hazard evaluation purposes.
chemical octane number A measure of the combustion characteristics of gasoline.

The chemical octane number or octane rating of gasoline is
increased by refining processes or by the use of octane
improvers, such as tetraethyl-lead.
Note: Chemical octane ratings are frequently obtained by

preparing blends which may contain such
high-octane-rated components as selected alkylate,
isobutane, pure toluene, and others.
chemical pneumonitis Inflammation of the lungs caused by accumulation of fluids

due to chemical irritation.
chemical reactivity The ability of a material to chemically change. Undesirable

and dangerous effects such as heat, explosions, or the
production of noxious substances can result.

chemicals Materials that are added to a process to enhance or finish the
product or make the process more efficient. Chemicals are
sometimes regenerated and reused in the process, but quite
often become part of the product.
chemiluminescence Emission of light during a non-combustible chemical

reaction.
CHEMTREC Chemical Transportation Emergency Center. A national

center established by the CMA in Washington, DC in 1970 to
relay pertinent emergency information concerning specific
chemicals on request. The 24-hour toll free telephone
number (800-424-9300) is intended primarily for use by
those who respond to chemical transportation emergencies.
chevron A figure, pattern, or object having the shape of a V or an

inverted V.
chiller A type of heat exchanger that is able to cool process streams

to cryogenic temperatures.
chimney tray Collects all liquid inside a column and allows vapor to pass
upward without contacting the liquid at that stage. A
chimney tray does not fractionate.
chloracne Acne-like eruption caused by excessive contact with certain

compounds.
chlorate A salt of chloric acid.
chlorinate The injection of chlorine into water to kill organic impurities.

It is injected into clarified water to kill bacteria and make
water fit for drinking.
chlorination The adding of the element chlorine into a chemical reaction.
The addition of the element chlorine into a stream.
chlorine A non-metallic element. A heavy, yellowish-green toxic gas.

choke coil An induction coil used to slow down variations in a
fluctuating electrical current.
CHP Chemical Hygiene Plan. Per 29 CFR 1910.1450, OSHA

standard, “Occupational Exposures to Hazardous Chemicals
in Laboratories.” Effective 5/1/90. A written plan that
includes:
 Specific work practices
 Standard operating procedures
 Equipment and engineering controls
 Policies to ensure that employees are protected from
hazardous exposure levels to all potentially hazardous
chemicals in use in their work areas
The OSHA standard provides for:

 Training
 Employee access to information
 Medical consultations
 Examinations
 Hazard identification procedures
 Respirator use
 Record keeping practices
christmas tree A diagram showing how all of the units of an assembly

drawing go together.
chromatograph An apparatus for analyzing mixtures of compounds by

separating them into individual components which can be
identified by color or other means.
chronic effect Adverse effect on a human or animal body with symptoms

that develop slowly over a long period of time or that reoccur
frequently.
chronic exposure Long-term contact with a substance.

chronic toxic effect The cumulative effect on man of prolonged exposures to low
concentrations or of intermittent exposures to higher
concentrations of poisonous compounds or vapors.
chronic toxicity Adverse effects resulting from repeated doses of or

exposures to a material over a relatively prolonged period of
time. Ordinarily used to denote effects noted in experimental
animals.
circuit breaker A piece of equipment which is wired in series with an

electric circuit, such as a motor, to protect the circuit from an
overload. Its relation to a motor might be compared to a
relief valve safeguarding a vessel. Its location is usually
some distance from the motor. When the motor (fan, pump,
or mixer) is being repaired or inspected, the breaker is
thrown and tagged to protect the repairmen.
circulation system A lubricant is circulated by gravity or pump to bearings and

lubrication returned in a continuous flow.
cladding Process of covering one material with another and bonding

them together under high pressure and temperature. Also
known as bonding.
clarification A process in which chemicals are added to water to cause

small particles of suspended solids to be coagulated and
grow large enough to fall from suspension.
clarified oil Heavy oil taken from the bottom of a fractionator in a

catalytic cracking process from which all residual catalyst
has been removed.
clarified water River water from a refinery clarifier source where sludge and
other residue is removed before refinery use.
clarifier A machine used for a liquid-sludge separation in which the

particles with a higher specific gravity are separated from the
lower specific gravity of the liquid. A clarifier bowl has one
outlet for the light phase oil; the heavier phase particles are
retained on the bowl wall.

clarifier A piece of equipment that is used to remove suspended
solids from wastewater.
clarify To remove sediment (undissolved solids) from water by

settling, filtration, or other means.
Claus Process A patented sulfur recovery process in which a portion of

hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is burned in the presence of a catalyst
to produce sulfur dioxide (SO2), which are then combined to
produce elemental sulfur and water.
clay Granular or finely divided mineral material used for treating

petroleum. This is a general term including fuller’s earth,
bauxite, bentonite, and montmorillonite.
cleaners’ solvent A very well-refined petroleum fraction boiling between

(stoddard solvent) 300–400°F, primarily intended for dry cleaning.
clear gasoline Gasoline which is free of antiknock additives, such as

tetraethyllead. In comparative engine tests between leaded
and unleaded fuel, clear, unleaded gasoline is sometimes
referred to as straight gasoline base, base fuel, or “neat”
gasoline.
clearcoat Products that have no color. Their function is to provide a

clear protective barrier between the coat of paint and the
environment.
Cleveland open-cup tester An apparatus used for the determination of flash and fire
points of all petroleum products flashing above 175°F, with
the exception of fuel oils.
clingage Material remaining in ship cargo tanks on sides, members

and structure after discharge, of which the amount is not
measurable by conventional methods.
closed system A system that is isolated so that it cannot exchanger matter

with its surroundings.

cloud point The temperature at which paraffin or other solid substances
begin to crystallize or separate from petroleum oil, imparting
a cloudy appearance to the oil when it is chilled under
prescribed conditions.
CMA Chemical Manufacturer’s Association.
CMMS Computerized Maintenance Management System. A

computerized system to assist with the effective and efficient
management of maintenance activities through the
application of computer technology. It generally includes
elements such as a computerized work order system, as well
as facilities for scheduling routine maintenance tasks, and
recording and storing standard jobs, bills of materials, and
application parts lists, as well as numerous other features.
CNS Central nervous system. The brain and spinal cord.
coagulant A substance that causes other substances to gather into a

mass.
coagulation The first stage of clarification in which chemicals combine

with water to from sticky clumps of solid material called
aggolomerate.
coal A solid fossil fuel consisting mainly of carbon produced by

the compression of decayed plants.
coal oil Oil obtained by the destructive distillation of bituminous

coal; archaic term for kerosene made from petroleum.
coalesce To come together.
The action of small water droplets that form larger droplets

during the separation of water from oil in the Desalter.
coalesce To come together to form a whole.

coalescer A vessel used in a process stream to separate entrained water
from hydrocarbon. The coalescer is filled with a fiber
packing to which small droplets of water adhere, becoming
larger droplets, until they fall out of the process stream by
the force of gravity. The water-free hydrocarbon passes out
the top of the coalescer and the water is removed from the
bottom.
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand. The amount of oxygen,

expressed in milligrams per liter, consumed under specified
conditions in the oxidation of organic and inorganic matter in
water.
coefficient of water/oil Also called the partition coefficient, it is the ratio of the
distribution solubility of a chemical in water to its solubility in oil. Used
to indicate how easily human or other organisms can absorb
or store a material. Sometimes abbreviated Ko/w; may also
be expressed as its logarithm, log Ko/w.
co-feed Any mixture of ingredients that the recipe requires to be fed

to the reactor separately from the mixture in the monomer
scale tank.
cogeneration The use of a single plant to simultaneously produce power

and heat or steam, which requires up to one-third less fuel
than a separate production.
coke (1) Carbon deposits that can build up on catalyst or fired heater
tubes, which deteriorate catalyst or heater performance, due
to difficulty in removing hardened coke which is almost as
hard as the tubes themselves. Catalyst and heater tube
coking is a very severe form of thermal cracking.
coke (2) The solid product, coke, which contains nonvolatile

substances produced in coking units. Petroleum coke is used
primarily for three types of applications: fuel, electrodes,
and metallurgy.
coke petroleum A solid residue high in carbon content produced from

cracking. It is in some degree always a byproduct of
commercial cracking operations.

coking The formation of solid, non-distillable crude byproducts on
internal furnace tubes and other process areas. Usually
caused by hot spots or overheating.
Processes for thermally converting and upgrading heavy

residual oil into lighter products and by-product petroleum
coke.
cold box A group of cryogenic equipment encased in a common box

of insulation. Also, a train of cryogenic heat exchangers in a
common shell and insulated together.
cold feed A mixture of virgin and coker gas oil pumped from the South
Plant tank farm as FCC feedstock.
cold train The set of exchangers that heat the crude upstream of the
Desalter .
color stability The resistance of oil to discoloration due to light, aging, etc.
color, NPA A color standard and test approved by the NPA. A unit of
measurement of the quality of oils.
color, Saybolt A scale for the determination of the color of gasoline and
burning oils that ranges from 30 for gasoline to 15 for
heavier grades of kerosene.
colored scale On some graphic control panels, the dial indicators may be
color-coded: 0–10 as green; 0–300 as black; and 0–1000 as
red.
column A tall, cylindrical vessel also referred to as a tower.
A vertical cylindrical vessel with internal trays or packed

with a material which causes a separation of the components
of a liquid inside while under pressure and temperature.
combination reaction A reaction that joins together elements, compounds, or a

combination of the two to form a single compound as a
product.

combined cycle unit An electric generating unit that consists of one or more
combustion gas turbines and one or more boilers with the
required energy input to the boiler(s) provided by the exhaust
gas of the combustion turbine(s).
combined sulfur Chemical compounds with a very objectionable odor. One

of the most common forms of combined sulfur in petroleum
fractions is the mercaptans, in which a sulfur atom is
attached directly between carbon and hydrogen atoms (R-S-
H).
combustible Classification of liquids that will burn with a flash point of

100°F (37.8°C) or higher, but below 200°F (93.3°C).
Nonliquid substances, such as wood and paper, are classified
as ordinary combustibles.
combustible gas indicator An instrument used to detect explosive gas/air mixtures. It

usually measures concentration in terms of the lower
explosive limit (LEL).
combustible liquids A term used by the NFPA and the DOT to classify certain
liquids that will burn on the basis of flash points. NFPA and
DOT generally define “combustible liquids” as having a
flash point of 100°F or higher. They do not ignite as easily
as flammable liquids; however, they can be ignited under
certain conditions and must be handled with caution.
combustion The act of burning a fuel-and-air mixture.
The rapid oxidation of a compound or element in a chemical

reaction that produces a large amount of heat energy.
combustion turbine A rotating, internal combustion engine used to produce

electricity and provide heat for producing steam.
commingling Producing oil and gas from two or more reservoirs at

different depths.
commission Place in service.

common name Designation for a material other than a chemical name, such
as code, trade, brand, or generic name.
compatible The property of two or more liquids that when mixed

together will not form solid material.
component A subassembly of an asset, usually removable in one piece

and interchangeable with other, standard components (e.g., a
truck engine).
A part of a mixture.
compound The chemical combination of the atoms of two or more

elements to form a new and different substance.
compounding Mixing additives with oils, particularly lubes, to impart

oxidation resistance, rust resistance, detergency.
compress To reduce the volume of a quantity of gas so as to raise the

pressure.
compressed gas A material contained under pressure, e.g., dissolved gas,

liquefied by compression or refrigeration.
A gas or mixture of gases having, in a container, an absolute

pressure exceeding: 40 psi at 70°F (21.1°C) or 104 psi at
130°F (54.4°C) (regardless of the pressure at 70°F (21.1°C),
or a liquid having a vapor pressure exceeding 40 psi at 100°F
(37.8°C), as determined by ASTM D 323-72.
compressible The property of a substance to be reduced in volume by the

application of additional pressure.
compression The act of reducing the volume of a gas in order to increase

its pressure.
compressor A machine used to increase the pressure of a gas or vapor.
A pump which draws in air or other gases, compresses it, and

discharges it at a higher pressure. It is often powered by an
internal combustion gas engine.

concentrate To increase the percentage of a substance or substances in a
mixture.
concentration Relative amount of a substance when combined or mixed

with other substances.
concentric Having a common center.
condensable A gas that is capable of being condensed at or above

atmospheric temperatures.
condensate Condensed vapor. Usually refers to condensed steam.
Liquid condensed from the vapors leaving the top of a

distillation column.
Condensed steam.
Petroleum liquids separated from wet natural gas by cooling

at elevated pressure.
Petroleum liquids produced from certain wells by reducing

the pressure of a supercritical gas mixture. (Retrograde
condensation).
Light liquid hydrocarbons separated from crude oil after

production and sold separately.
The liquid product produced from a gas being cooled below

its boiling point leaving an exchanger. In this process, steam
in the exchanger condenses to water. It is collected and
returned to the steam-generating utility.
condensation Transformation from a gas to a liquid.
condense To turn a vapor into a liquid by cooling.

condenser A piece of equipment which liquefies all or part of a vapor
stream by causing a transfer of heat from the vapor to a cool
water stream. A shell-and-tube condenser is composed of a
number of small tubes or pipes running lengthwise through a
large pipe. The heat passes from the vapors through the
metal walls of the small pipes into the water. A cooling
media other than water may be used, e.g., air.
A heat-transfer device that reduces a fluid from its vapor

phase to its liquid phase.
condition monitoring The use of specialist equipment to measure the condition of

equipment. Vibration analysis, tribology, and thermography
are all examples of condition monitoring techniques.
conditional probability of The probability that an item will fail during a particular age
failure interval, given that it survives to enter that age.
conditions to avoid Conditions encountered during handling or storage that could

cause a substance to become unstable.
conduction The transfer of heat energy through a material (solid, liquid,

or gas) by the motion of adjacent atoms and molecules
without gross displacement of the particles.
confined space Any area that has limited openings for entry and exit that
would make escape difficult in an emergency, has a lack of
ventilation, contains known and potential hazards, and is not
intended nor designated for continuous human occupancy.
conjunctivitis Inflammation of the conjunctiva, the delicate membrane that

lines the eyelid and covers the eyeball.
conservation Regulation of oil and/or gas production from a reservoir in

order to prolong its life and hopefully recover a larger
quantity of the oil or gas in place. Re-injection of associated
gas for future use. Also, environmental protection and
preservation.

conservation vent A two-way venting device that relieves both high pressure
and vacuum in the tank while minimizing the amount of
vapor that is allowed to pass to the atmosphere. One cover is
drawn inward and allows air to enter the tank if the tank
experiences a vacuum condition. A second cover lifts to
allow air/vapors out of the tank if the pressure builds up in
the tank.
constant back pressure Back pressure which does not change appreciably under any
condition of operation whether the pressure relief valve is
closed or open.
consumables Materials used up during an operation as are gasoline and oil

in gasoline-engine powered equipment.
contactor A vessel used to mix one product with another, e.g., acid gas
with amine.
container Any bag, barrel, bottle, box, can, cylinder, drum, reaction
vessel, or storage tank that contains a hazardous chemical.
Under the Hazard Communication Standard, pipes or piping
systems, engines, fuel tanks, or other operating systems in a
vehicle are not considered to be containers.
contaminate The corruption of a material by intrusion of or contact with

dirt or foulness from an outside source.
contamination Unwanted material within a body of paint.
continuous process An operation conducted on an uninterrupted flow of

materials.
control loop Any closed cycle in a process system which measures,

compares the measurement with a set point, computes the
difference, and adjusts a final control element to maintain
process requirements.

control valve A final control element, either pneumatically or electrically
operated, that consists of a valve body containing an opening
in which a plug or damper is positioned to vary the opening
area. The actuator can be a pneumatic diaphragm, a
solenoid, or an electric motor.
A valve used to control the flow or supply of liquids, gases,

or other material in motion.
controller The pneumatic or electronic device that receives the signal

from a transmitter, then, in turn, sends a signal to a control
valve that will adjust it to hold the variable at the value set
on the controller.
See Also:
 Indicating Controller
 Recording Controller
convection The circulation that occurs in a fluid at a non-uniform

temperature owing to the variation in its density and the
action of gravity. Also, the transfer of heat by this automatic
circulation of fluid.
The transfer of heat due to currents in gases or liquids caused

by difference in density.
convection section The flue gas or stack portion of a heater in which furnace
tubes are located. The tubes are heated through convection,
which is the transfer of heat to the tubes by direct contact
with hot gasses from the furnace burner.
convergent annulus Objects that mounted in annulus with the ends converging
together.
conversion (FCC) A measure used to determine the severity of cracking and to

correlate product yields with unit operating conditions.
Usually defined as the percent of feed converted into
materials that boil below 430°F.

conversion (general) The percentage of desirable products produced from the
feedstock by a chemical reaction.
converter A vessel containing catalyst beds where controlled reaction

of chemical compounds takes place. Located in each SRU
(Sulfur Recovery Unit) to convert H2S to SO2.
The catalyst circulating system of the Fluid Catalytic

Cracking Process. It consists of the riser, disengager,
stripper, and regenerator vessels.
coolers Any type of heat exchanger whose primary purpose is to

reduce the temperature of one of the passing materials by
heat transfer to the other.
cooling air Air tapped from the gas turbine compressor and routed
throughout the gas turbine to cool the rotor blades and
combusters.
cooling tower A structure that uses a fan-driven current of air to cool water
by evaporation for use in process areas.
cooling water A circulating stream of cold water that is pumped through

heat exchangers to cool process streams.
copolymer A polymer, such as butadiene-styrene, manufactured from

two or more different monomers.
copper dish gum The milligrams of gum found in 100 milliliters of gasoline
when evaporated under controlled conditions in a polished
copper dish. It indicates the potential gum content of a
material.
co-products Saleable products other than the principle product.
cornea The transparent structure of the external layer of the eyeball.
corrective maintenance Any maintenance activity which is required to correct a

failure that has occurred or is in the process of occurring.
This activity may consist of repair, restoration, or
replacement of components.

corrosion The wearing away of a substance by chemical action. The
molecular-level chemical action of a substance upon a pipe
or vessel that breaks the electro-chemical bonds land
removes metal atoms from the original metal.
A chemical process that deteriorates metal.
corrosion inhibitor A chemical additive or filming agent that adheres to the

walls of vessels or piping that acts as a shield to prevent
corrosion inside the vessel or piping. Also called a filmer.
A chemical added to a process that aids in reducing the

corrosion rate of process components.
corrosion rate Expressed in inches per year; accompanied by temperature.
corrosion test A test designed to indicate if an oil is corrosive to metal. A

metal strip is immersed in the oil being tested.
corrosive Tending or having the power to wear away by chemical

action.
The molecular-level chemical action of a substance upon a

pipe or vessel that breaks the electro-chemical bonds and
removes metal atoms from the original metal.
A liquid or solid that causes visible destruction or

irreversible alterations in skin tissue at site of contact, or, in
the case of leakage from its packaging, a liquid that has
severe corrosion rate on steel.
cost-effectiveness A measure of a system’s effectiveness (earnings and savings)

versus its operating costs.
COT Coil outlet temperature. The temperature of a hydrocarbon

or steam flow as the flow leaves a heater.
counterbore The enlargement of the end of a hole to a specified diameter

or depth.

countercurrent The flow of two fluids passing each other in opposite
directions. Example: The flow of a gas ascending a tower
while the contacting liquid is flowing downward.
countercurrent flow Two flows in one vessel, moving in opposite directions. For
example, a gas stream flowing upward while a liquid stream
flows downward through the gas.
countersink The chamfered end of a hole to receive a flat head screw.
coupling A device that joins two objects together.
covalent bond A bond formed when two electrons from different atoms
share the same energy shell.
CPSC Consumer Products Safety Commission. A federal agency

with responsibility for regulating hazardous materials when
they appear in consumer goods. Hazards are defined in the
Hazardous Substances Act and the Poison Prevention
Packaging Act of 1970.
cracked Refers to a petroleum product produced by a secondary

refining process, such as thermal cracking or vis-breaking
processes, which yield very low quality residue.
cracked gasoline The principle product of catalytic cracking and thermal

cracking processes.
cracked naphtha The crude low boiling product from the thermal cracking
process from which gasoline is made by distillation.
cracked tar Residue from the thermal cracking process.

cracking A high heat thermal process which randomly breaks large
hydrocarbon molecules, such as crude, into smaller hydro-
carbon molecules in order to derive a variety of fuel
products. Simultaneously, smaller, reactive molecules
combine with one another to form larger molecules, such as
tars and polymers. Cracking is undesirable in distillation
operations because cracking can lead to coke formation in
the heaters and bottoms areas of the crude tower and vacuum
tower.
craftsperson Alternative to tradesperson. A skilled maintenance worker

who has typically been formally trained through an
apprenticeship program.
critical The temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied by

pressure/temperature pressure. The critical pressure is that pressure required to
liquefy a gas at its critical temperature.
criticality The priority rank of a failure mode based on some

assessment criteria.
crosswind A wind directly perpendicular to the path of movement.
CRT Cathode ray tube. A type of video display used for most
television and computer screens.
CRU Catalytic Reformer Unit.

crude petroleum Also known as crude, crude mineral oil, crude oil, mineral
oil, oil, petroleum, o r rock oil. A liquid of geological origin,
produced from the earth, consisting of hydrocarbons and
usually relatively small proportions of sulfur, nitrogen, and
oxygen in the form of derivatives of hydrocarbons. Crude
petroleum occasionally contains uncombined or elementary
sulfur. It is commonly accompanied by varying quantities of
gas, water, and inorganic matter, and may contain small
amounts of these materials. If these materials are removed
without appreciable change in the liquid hydrocarbon
mixture, the liquid remains crude petroleum. Crude
petroleum varies greatly in its natural form. Such variations
range all the way from mobile, volatile liquids to extremely
viscous liquids.
crude still Distillation equipment in which crude oil is separated into

various products.
crude topping A process in which distilling crude oil removes and separates
the lighter, more useful products from the heavy residues.
crude/crude oil A mineral oil consisting of a mixture of hydrocarbons

obtained from the earth, yellow to black in color, of variable
specific gravity and viscosity; and often referred to as crude.
A mixture of hydrocarbons of variable specific gravity and

viscosity that existed in a liquid phase in underground
reservoirs and remains liquid at atmospheric pressure after
passing though surface separating facilities.
A short name for raw or unrefined petroleum.
cryogenic(s) Relating to extremely low temperature, usually below –75°F,

as for refrigerated gases or to condense propane.
CTU Crude Topping Unit.
cu ft, ft3 Cubic feet. Cu ft is preferred.
cu m, m3 Cubic meter. Cu m is preferred.

cumene Isopropyl benzene from benzene and propylene feedstocks.
curettage Cleansing of a diseased surface.
curtis stage The first wheel of a multi-stage steam turbine. Steam acts
upon this wheel as impulse. About 50% of a multi-stage
turbine’s power is produced by this stage.
customer A person or organization who purchases a service or

commodity, usually frequently and systematically.
cut A stream or fraction taken out of the bubble or distillation

tower. For example, in running crude through a pipe still and
bubble tower, the product produced may include a gasoline
cut, a light naphtha cut, a kerosene cut, etc., each of which is
collected separately.
To agitate resin solution until the flake is completely

dissolved.
cut point The boiling-temperature division between fractions of a

crude oil or base stock.
cutaneous Pertaining to the skin.
cutback asphalt Asphalt blended with gasoline, kerosene, or heavier distillate

for the ease of handling during application, e.g. road oils.
cutter/cutter stock Gas oil (GO) from PB&M (Pump Blending and Movement),
and is used to reduce the viscosity of the vacuum resid
leaving this system.
A low viscosity petroleum stock used to reduce the viscosity

of heavy, very viscous materials, such as asphalts and
cracked tars. Light cycle oil is an example.
CWA Clean Water Act. A federal law enacted to regulate and

reduce water pollution. Administered by the EPA.
cyanosis A dark, purplish coloration of the skin and mucous

membrane caused by deficient oxygenation of the blood.

cycle A repetitive motion where a machine fills an empty container
and resets in preparation for filling another empty container.
cycle oil A gas oil which has been subjected to the catalytic cracking
process and which is ordinarily lower in API gravity for a
given boiling point, lower in aniline number, higher in
unsaturation and aromaticity, and more refractory toward
further cracking than the virgin charging stock from which it
is made.
cycle stock Material taken from a latter stage of a process and recharged
to the process at some earlier stage. Light cycle oil, a
fraction of the synthetic crude produced in the catalytic
cracking process, which is returned to the reactor is an
example.
cyclization The formation of hydrocarbon ring compounds from

straight-chain compounds.
cyclohexane The cyclic form of hexane which is used as a raw material in

the manufacture of nylon.
cyclone A vessel, with a circular cross section, in which vapors form

a vortex under pressure.
cyclone separator A conical vessel provided with a tangential inlet for a gas
stream carrying powdered solids and a line in the top at the
center which draws the vapors. Powdered solids are
separated by centrifugal force and pass downward along the
incline (conical) to a bottom outlet. The dip leg connects to
the solid outlet and carries the catalyst back to the dense
phase bed. There are a number of these units in the tops of
the reactor and regenerator in fluid cat crackers. They are
also used to separate catalyst dust from gas streams leaving
an elutriator on a TCC Unit. They are also sometimes used
to remove condensate and impurities from streams. Another
variety removes solids from liquids.
cylinder stock Oil used for lubrication of steam cylinders, usually a high
viscosity distillate.

D
D86 A test performed by distillation that determines the

percentage of factions of a product.
Dalton’s Law of Partial The pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the
Pressures sum of the separate pressures which each gas would exert if
it alone occupied the whole volume.
DCAC Direct-contact aftercooler.
DCS Distributed Control System. A general term for board-

operated control and monitoring systems such as the
TDC 3000.
A collection of modules, each with its own specific function,

interconnected tightly to carry out an integrated data
acquisition and control application.
deaerate To remove air from water.
deaerator A vessel or device that uses steam for vaporization and

impact-extraction of air (or other noncondensables) in a
water stream.
A deaerator is a vessel for air removal and is used to remove

dissolved gases from boiler feedwater to make it non-
corrosive.
dealkylation The catalytic treatment of a mixture of benzene, xylenes, and

other polymethylbenzenes in presence of synthetic
aluminosilicates to produce toluene.
deasphalting The process of removing asphaltic materials from reduced

crude using liquid propane to dissolve nonasphaltic
compounds.

debutanizer A column that provides for fractionation of butane and
lighter components out of a hydrocarbon mixture.
decant oil (slurry oil) The heaviest oil output (bottoms) of the FCCU main
fractionator, which is sent to storage. The term “decant”
originated when the oil contained a large amount of catalyst
and was poured gently into a slurry settler. This settling
process is no longer necessary due to improved catalyst/oil
separation in the disengager. This heavy residual oil is
sometimes used as a feedstock to the No. 7 Coking Process.
Generally, decant is sold and used for the production of
carbon black.
decomposition A breakdown of a material or a substance by heat, chemical

reaction, electrolysis, decay, or other processes, forming
other compounds that may be flammable, toxic, or shock
sensitive.
decomposition reaction A chemical reaction where a single compound is broken into

its elements or into several different compounds.
defatting The removal of natural oils from the skin by fat-dissolving

solvents or other chemicals.
defect A potential failure or other condition that will require

maintenance attention at some time in the future, but which
is not currently preventing the equipment from fulfilling its
functions.
defoamer A substance that prohibits the formation of foam.
degassing The act of removing gas from a liquid.
dehydration The process of removing entrained water.
dehydrocyclization A reaction in which an alkane is converted into an aromatic

hydrocarbon and hydrogen.

dehydrogenation A chemical reaction in which a hydrocarbon has hydrogen
atoms removed from the molecules to form an unsaturated
hydrocarbon molecule.
Process of removing sulfur or sulfur compounds from

petroleum oils by suitable agents.
de-ionized water Water treated by a mechanical process, such as distilling or

filtering to remove impurities, especially various ions.
delayed coking A coking process that raises the temperature of the heavy oil
residue to nearly 1000° and leaves the oil in a large drum to
gradually crack the large molecules into light oil
components.
deliquescent Water soluble salts, usually powdered, that absorb moisture

from the air and soften or dissolve as a result.
delta (x) The differential between two measured process variables. As

examples, the difference between the inlet stream pressure
and the outlet stream pressure of an in-line filter would be
the filters “Delta P.” The difference between the reactor
charge temperature and the reactor effluent temperature
would be the reactor’s “Delta T.”
demethylation The process of removing a methyl group from a chemical

compound using a catalyst.
demin Demineralized.
demister A wire mesh pad installed at vessel gas outlets that removes
liquid (mist) entrainment in vapors by increasing vapor
velocity.
demister pad A fibrous pad through which a gas stream flows to separate
out entrained liquid.
demulcent A material capable of soothing or protecting inflamed,

irritated mucous membranes.

demulsibility The resistance of an oil to emulsification or the ability of an
oil to separate from any water with which it is mixed. The
better the demulsibility rating, the more quickly the oil
separates from water.
demulsification The process of “breaking” or separating an emulsion into its

component parts.
demulsifier An additive which promotes demulsification.
A chemical that helps in separating water from the crude in

the Desalter.
dense-phase catalyst A dense mixture of catalyst and vapor containing a relatively

small amount of aeration vapor.
density The ratio of the weight-to-volume of a material, usually in

grams per cubic centimeter.
deoiling The process of making an oil-free wax from a waxy stock,

comprising chilling mixture of solvent and feed to crystallize
part of the wax, and separating the wax from the waxy-oil-
solvent by filtering or centrifuging.
deoxidation To remove oxygen from a mixture of gases containing

oxygen. The argon purification skid deoxidizes the argon by
selectively adsorbing oxygen from the mixture or gases.
depressant A substance that reduces a bodily functional activity or an

instinctive desire, such as appetite.
dermal Used on or applied to the skin.
dermal toxicity Ratings corresponding to the following definitions are

derived from data obtained from the test methods as
described in 16 CFR 1500.40 and categories of toxicity as
described in 16 CFR 1500.3.
dermatitis Inflammation of the skin.
Desal Desalinated water.

desalter A piece of equipment that mixes a hydrocarbon stream with
a small amount of fresh water, e.g., 10% by volume, forming
a water-in-oil emulsion. The resulting emulsion is subjected
to an electric field wherein the water is coalesced as an
underflow from the upper flow of a relatively water-free,
continuous hydrocarbon phase. The desalted hydrocarbon
stream is produced at relatively low cost and has a very small
residual salt content. The performance of this unit can be
improved with a demulsifier, such as Alken 860 Demulsifier.
desalting The process of removing salt from crude by emulsification

with water, then breaking the emulsion and separating
phases.
desiccant A class of solid chemicals that are able to filter out moisture,
which is retained in the desiccant, from a stream flow. The
desiccant is able to be regenerated by heating. The kind of
desiccants used for drying process streams at Nova are called
zeolites and are classed as molecular (mole) sieves.
design pressure The internal pressure a boiler or other vessel is designed to

contain.
designated area An area of or device within a lab to be used for work with
select carcinogens, reproductive toxins, and other materials
which have a high degree of acute toxicity. An
administrative control intended to minimize the potential for
employee exposure to hazardous chemicals.
designated representative Any individual or organization to whom an employee gives

written authorization to exercise such employee’s rights
under the Hazard Communication Standard.
dessicant A chemical substance that has such a great affinity for water
that it will abstract water from fluid materials.
destination tank A tank to which a batch of paint is being milled or

transferred to.
detail drawing A drawing of a single part that provides all necessary

information to produce the part.

deterioration Any undesirable chemical or physical change.
detonation or knock A violent explosion involving high-velocity pressure waves.
A sharp explosion produced in an automobile engine by an

inferior grade of gasoline.
deviation Varying from normal operating parameters.
dew point The temperature and pressure at which water vapor begins to
condense to a liquid.
dewaxing The process of making a wax-free oil from a waxy stock,

comprising chilling a mixture of solvent and feed to a low
temperature to crystallize all of the wax and separating the
wax cake (slack wax) by filtering or centrifuging.
The removal of wax from petroleum products by solvent

absorption, chilling, and filtering.
dial indicator Small circular gauges used to indicate measured conditions

that may be linear or square root scaled and may be
calibrated to indicate proportionately.
diaphoresis Profuse perspiration.
diaphragm A dividing membrane or thin partition.
diesel A vehicle driven by a diesel or compression-ignition engine.
diesel fuel A light fuel oil with a boiling range of approximately

375–650°F.
diesel index The product of the API gravity and aniline number in
degrees Fahrenheit divided by 100. High diesel index
indicates high paraffinicity of an oil.
diesel oil The oil used for internal combustion in a diesel engine.
Usually that fraction which distills over after kerosene.
Similar to gas oil.

diethanolamine (DEA) A compound derived from ammonia and ethanol used for
extracting hydrogen sulfide from light hydrocarbons
(tail gas).
differential The difference between two measurements of the same kind

taken at different but significantly related points in a system.
An example is the differential pressure, the difference in
pressure measurement, across a filter.
differential pressure The difference in pressure between two points in a process.

Same as P or delta P. Within a vessel, the differential
pressure is sometimes referred to as DP.
differential pressure A controller that maintains a pressure difference between two

controller points (measured pressures).
differential temperature The difference in temperature between two points in a

process. Same as T or delta T.
diffuser A stationary passage surrounding an impeller in which

velocity pressure imparted to the flow medium by the
impeller is converted into static pressure.
digital A measurement that can be expressed as one of a finite

number of levels. In many control systems, a measurement
with only two states.
dike A barrier constructed to control or confine hazardous

substances and prevent them from entering sewers, ditches,
streams, or other flowing waters.
dilute-phase catalyst A mostly vaporous, catalyst/vapor mixture which resides in

layers above the dense-phase catalyst in the converter.
dilution ventilation Air flow designed to dilute contaminants to acceptable

levels.
diolefin A hydrocarbon that contains two double bonds, usually

susceptible to polymerization. Butadiene.

dip leg A catalyst return line from the Buell cyclone separator to the
catalyst bed in the reactor regenerator of a Fluid Catalytic
Cracking Unit.
A downcomer that transports the catalyst away from the

cyclone chambers to the dense-phase catalyst level. It is
required to prevent vapors from entering the cyclone from a
direction other than its inlet nozzle.
dip tube An elbow-shaped pipe used to facilitate transfer of liquids

from a drum or tank.
direct costs All expenses associated with products, operations, and

services.
direct-acting controller If the process variable increases, the output to the final
control element increases.
disc The part of a valve which is moved into the line of flow in
order to restrict or close off the movement through the line.
discard task The removal and disposal of items or parts.
discharge To flow out. The delivery from a pump.
disengager The top vessel of the FCCU converter in which the catalyst
is separated from the cracked reaction products coming out
of the riser.
dispersant A chemical which is used to prevent the settling of solids in

exchangers and piping by keeping the solids in suspension so
they can be removed in the blowdown.
dispersion A batch of paint that has already been mixed and milled but
is still not complete. Additional raw materials are needed to
complete the batch.
dissolve The mixing of a solid, a gas, or a liquid with another liquid

to produce a uniform liquid mixture.

distillate A liquid product condensed from vapor during distillation.
Gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, and light lubricating oils are
examples of distillates since they are the result of distillation
of crude oil.
distillation The process of producing a gas or vapor from a liquid by

heating the liquid in a vessel and collecting and condensing
the vapors into liquids.
A separation process based on boiling points and vapor

pressures used to recovery different fractions of a liquid
mixture.
distillation tray A horizontal partition in a distillation tower that holds a level

of boiling liquid. In operation, each tray in a tower is
performing a single stage of distillation. The design of the
tray allows hot vapor rising in the tower to bubble through
liquid that is overflowing trays from above. This action
causes an exchange of heat and materials to separate the
components of a liquid by distillation.
distribution The dispensing of materials, supplies, equipment, products,

or services according to the need, requisition, orders or
plans, including authorized delivery of such items.
distributor A business, other than a chemical manufacturer or importer,

which supplies hazardous chemicals to other distributors or
to employers.
disulfide oil A double sulfide of a hydrocarbon resulting from the

regeneration of spent Merox caustic formed by oxidizing
sodium mercaptide.
divergent ducting Ductwork that separates from a central axis.

doctor test A qualitative analytical test for mercaptans comprising
mixing a sample of gasoline or heavier distillate with Doctor
solution (sodium plumbite, a solution of litharge in caustic)
and adding a little finely divided sulfur. If the yellow color
of the sulfur is darkened, mercaptans are present and the text
is reported “positive.” A positive result is also called a “bad
Doc.” A negative result may be reported “Doc sweet.”
doctor treatment The process of sweetening gasoline or heavier distillates by

converting mercaptans to disulfides, using sodium plumbite,
sulfur, and air.
dose The act if adding raw materials to a batch.
DOT Department of Transportation. Regulates the

transportation of chemicals and other substances to aid in the
protection of the public as well as fire, law enforcement, and
other emergency response personnel, particularly when
transportation incidents occur involving hazardous materials.
Detailed DOT classification lists specify appropriate
warnings, such as “Oxidizing Agent” or “Flammable
Liquid,” which must be used for various substances.
double-replacement A chemical reaction in which an element from each of two

reaction compounds join to form a new compound, and the remaining
elements join for a second new compound. A double-
replacement reaction generally fits the equation:
AB + CD  AC + BD
DOW Dirty oily water.
downcomer/downspout The conduit or overflow pipe in a distillation tower through

which the liquid from one tray enters and is distributed to the
tray below.
downstream The refining or process of crude oil into finished fuel

products.

downtime The time that an item of equipment is out of service as a
result of equipment failure. The time that an item of
equipment is available, but not utilized, is generally not
included in the calculation of downtime.
draft The difference between atmospheric pressure and some

lower pressure in a confined space that causes air to flow,
such as that exiting in a furnace or gas passages of a steam-
generating unit.
The negative pressure inside a fired heater that is created by

convection of hot gases from the combustion. The
differential force that allows combustion air to enter the
heater.
Combustion inside a heater creates negative pressure as the

hot gases rise, drawing in cooler, heavier atmospheric air.
draw/draw-off (take-off) A pipe connection (usually valved) to a vessel through which

liquid can flow. Examples: A side-cut draw on a distillation
column or a water draw on a tank.
drive linkage A driver with links coupled together to move a driven object.
DRM Dangerously reactive material. A material that can react by

itself or with water and air, producing a hazardous condition.
drop To remove material from the bottom of a vessel.
drum A 55-gallon container made of fiber, metal, or plastic. The

top of the drum is either open or capped. If capped, the drum
has an open bunghole in the cap for filling.
drum manipulator A tool used by pre-stagers to lift, hold, and pour various
liquids from the drums.
dry chemical A powdered fire extinguishing agent, usually composed of

sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, etc.

dry gas A hydrocarbon gas consisting mainly of methane and ethane
and containing no recoverable amounts of butane or heavier
hydrocarbons.
dry steam Water vapor which does not contain entrained water droplets.
DUGAS Dubai Natural Gas Company.
Duo Sol Refining A process in which asphaltic materials are removed from
heavy residual oils when contacted with propane and cresylic
acid. This leaves a paraffinic raffinate, which is further
processed for lube oil.
duplex Having two similar sections as with a two cylinder pump.
duplex pump A reciprocating pump that has two or more liquid cylinders,
each having its own individual drive, and has a more steady
discharge pressure than a simplex pump.
duration time The specified time limit set for each charge to the reactor.
dust Solid particles suspended in air produced by some

mechanical process, such as crushing, grinding, abrading, or
blasting. Most dusts are an inhalation, fire, and dust
explosion hazard.
dysplasia An abnormality of development.
dyspnea A sense of difficulty in breathing; shortness of breath.

E
ear pins A pin that secures and locks a hose connection into position.
ebullate Literally, to boil. Used to describe the lifting and mixing

action of the ebullating oil circulated through the H-Oil
reactors.
EBV Emergency block valve. A valve used to block a process

flow under major upset or emergency conditions.
EC50 Effective concentration. A concentration of a material in

water; a single dose which is expected to cause a biological
effect on 50% of a group of test animals.
economic life The total length of time that an asset is expected to remain
actively in service before it is expected that it would be
cheaper to replace the equipment rather than continuing to
maintain it. In practice, equipment is more often replaced
for other reasons, including because it no longer meets
operational requirements for efficiency, product quality,
comfort etc., or because newer equipment can provide the
same quality and quantity of output more efficiently.
economizer section A part of a boiler or heater, usually just below the stack,
where gases and/or liquids are routed to increase their
temperature and cool the flue gas.
edema An abnormal accumulation of clear, watery fluid in body

tissue.
eductor An ejector-like device used for mixing tow fluids.
EE rated EE rated means all construction, motors, and switches are

enclosed to prevent sparks from escaping, and flexible leads
are in non-metallic looming or tubing for use in explosive
hazardous areas.

effluent A downstream product or castoff liquid from a process. The
water or oil/water mixture expelled or displaced from a tank.
ejector A specially shaped piping device that uses Bernoulli’s

principle to evacuate equipment or inject fluids against
pressure. Ejectors require a high-pressure motivating stream
that is usually steam or water.
elastomer A material that at room temperature can be stretched

repeatedly to at least twice its original length and
immediately upon release of the stress returns with force to
its approximate original length.
electrical potential Energy that is due to the position or configuration of charged

particles or masses. Electricity flows from a point of higher
potential to one of lower potential.
electrolyte A non-metallic substance that conducts an electric current in

a solution by moving ions rather than electrons.
electrolytic process A process that causes the decomposition of a chemical

compound by the use of electricity.
electron An electrical particle which has a negative charge.
elements The primary substances of matter in which an atom is the

smallest particle that retains the identify of the substance.
Atoms of elements chemically react to form the molecules of
compounds.
embolism An obstruction of a blood vessel by a transported clot, a

mass of bacteria, etc.
embrittlement Embrittlement is caused by exposure of metal alloys to a

corrosive environment. Such material is usually susceptible
to the intergranular type of corrosion attack.
emetic An agent that induces vomiting.

emphysema An irreversibly diseased lung condition in which the alveolar
walls have lost their resiliency, resulting in an excessive
reduction in the lungs’ capacity.
employee A worker who may be exposed to hazardous chemicals under

normal operating conditions or in foreseeable emergencies.
employer A person engaged in a business where chemicals are either

used, distributed, or are produced for use or distribution,
including a contractor or subcontractor.
EMS Equipment maintenance strategies. The choice of routine

maintenance tasks and the timing of those tasks designed to
ensure that an item of equipment continues to fulfill its
intended functions.
EMT Emergency Maintenance Task. A maintenance task carried

out in order to avert an immediate safety or environmental
hazard, or to correct a failure with significant economic
impact.
emulsion A stable dispersion of fine particles of one liquid in a second

immiscible liquid. For example, water-in-oil emulsions have
water as the internal phase and oil as the external, while oil-
in-water have oil as the internal phase and water as the
external.
A mixed suspension of two or more immiscible substances.
endothermic A reaction which occurs with the absorption of heat and must
be supplied with heat to sustain the reaction.
endothermic reaction A chemical reaction that absorbs heat energy and must have
a supply of heat to sustain the reaction.
engineering controls Systems that reduce potential hazards by isolating the worker
from the hazard or by removing the hazard from the work
environment. Methods include ventilation, isolation, and
enclosure.

Engler viscosity A viscosity obtained by dividing the out-flow time in
seconds for 200 ml of the material being tested by the time in
seconds for 200 ml of water at 68°F (20°C) to flow out of an
Engler viscosimeter.
enthalpy The measure of the internal energy of a substance in relation

to the datum point.
The heat content which is a description of the

thermodynamic potential of a system. The quantity of
energy in steam or water is most applicable to this system.
entrain To draw in and transport by flow of a fluid.
entrainment Liquid droplets or solid particles carried along in a vapor

stream, generally due to the velocity or turbulence of the
vapor.
environmental A failure has environmental consequences if it could cause a

consequences breach of any known environmental standard or regulation.
EP End point. The highest temperature indicated by the

thermometer in a distillation test of an oil.
EPA Environmental Protection Agency. A federal agency with

environmental protection regulatory and enforcement
authority. Administers Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act,
FIFRA, RCRA, TSCA, and other federal environmental
laws.
epidemiology Science that deals with the study of disease in a general

population.
epiphora An excessive flow of tears.
epistaxis Nosebleed.

EPRV Estimated plant replacement value. The estimated cost of
capital works required to replace all the existing assets with
new assets capable of producing the same quantity and
quality of output. This is a key value often used in
benchmarking activities.
EPSS Electronic Performance Support System.
equalization basin Part of oily water sewer system where the pH factor is
equalized.
equilibrium In a reversible reaction, the state in which the concentration

of the reactants is no longer changing. As much reaction is
occurring in the forward direction as in the reverse direction.
equilibrium catalyst A cracking catalyst within the converter in a state of balance

as to the degree of contamination from metals, etc. which is
determined by the rates of catalyst withdrawal, fresh catalyst
makeup, and the amount of contamination.
equipment All items of durable nature, capable of continuing or

repetitive use by an individual or organization.
equivalent length A mathematical expression for valves and fittings expressed

in terms of a straight pipe.
ergonomics The study of human characteristics for the appropriate design

of living and work environments.
error response control or The further the process variable is from the set point, the
nonlinear control greater the proportion of change is made to the final control
element.
erythema Abnormally red skin from capillary congestion.
ES Expert System. A software-based system which makes or

evaluates decisions based on rules established within the
software. Typically used for fault diagnosis.
ESO Ebullating seal oil.

estimating index The ratio of estimated labor hours required to complete the
work specified on work orders to the actual labor hours
required to complete the work specified on those work
orders, commonly expressed as a percentage. This is a
commonly used measure of labor productivity, particularly
when there are well-defined estimating standards. A figure
of greater than 100% for the estimating index indicates a
higher-than-standard level of productivity, while a figure of
less than 100% indicates a lower-than-standard level of
productivity.
etiology All of the factors that contribute to the cause of a disease or

an abnormal condition.
evaporate The process of a liquid vaporizing when the liquid is below

its boiling point temperature.
evaporation rate The rate at which a particular material will vaporize when
compared to the rate of vaporization of a known material.
The evaporation rate can be useful in evaluating the health
and fire hazards of a material.
evaporative cooling Removing heat from a liquid by the vapor generated by

evaporation. Example: the evaporative cooling of cooling
water in a cooling tower.
evaporator A vessel which receives the hot discharge from a heating coil
and by a reduction in pressure, flashes off overhead the light
products, and allows the heavy residue to collect in the
bottom.
EWO Engineering Work Order. The prime document used to

initiate an engineering investigation, engineering design
activity, or engineering modifications to an item of
equipment.
exchanger A piece of equipment that conserves energy by simultane-

ously heating a cold product and cooling a hot product by
exchanging heat between the two products.

exhaust The escape or passage of a gas or vapor from one position to
another.
exhaust plenum The passageway providing escape or passage of a gas or

vapor.
exothermic Characterized by or formed with the evolution of heat, e.g.,

some chemical reactions produce heat and are referred to as
exothermic reactions.
exothermic reaction A chemical reaction that produces heat.
expander A machine that cools a gas stream by a combination of

pressure expansion, and working against a load.
A turbine connected to a load, usually a compressor.
expanding gas The lowering of pressure of a gas to increase its volume.

This expansion always results in lowering the temperature of
the gas without removing heat energy.
expansion An increase in the volume of a gas with a corresponding

decrease in its pressure.
expansion bend A U-shaped bend inserted in a pipeline to take up the

increase in length when it is heated.
expense The cost incurred for the items which are directly charged as
a cost of doing business since they are used over a specific
period of time.
explosive A material that produces a sudden, almost instantaneous

release of pressure, gas, and heat when subjected to abrupt
shock, pressure, or high temperature.

explosive limits The limits of percentage composition of mixtures of gases
and air within which an explosion takes place when the
mixture is ignited. The lower explosive limit corresponds to
the minimum amount of combustible gas and the upper
explosive limit corresponds to the maximum amount of
combustible gas that will support combustion when mixed
with air.
exposure limits Concentration in air of a chemical that is thought to be

acceptable.
Acceptable concentration of a chemical in air thought to be

safe.
exposure or exposed The state of being open and vulnerable to a hazardous

chemical by inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, absorption,
or any other course, including potential (accidental or
possible) exposure.
extinguishing media A fire extinguisher or extinguishing method appropriate for

use on a specific material.
extract In a solvent extraction process, it is the material

preferentially dissolved by the solvent.
extraction process A process of separating a material by means of a partially

miscible solvent into a fraction which is soluble in the
solvent and a fraction which is relatively insoluble.

eye irritation Ratings corresponding to the following definitions are
derived from data obtained from test methods described in
the 16 CFR 1500.42 graded pursuant to the Draize Scale for
scoring ocular lesions and temporal reversibility criteria as
set forth in NAS Publication 1138.
 Practically non-irritating: The undiluted product, when
instilled into the eyes of rabbits produces no noticeable
irritation, or slight transient conjunctiva irritation.
(Average Draize score 0.00-15.0).
 Slightly irritating: The undiluted product, when instilled
into the eyes of rabbits, produces slight to moderate
conjunctiva irritation, slight corneal involvement, and/or
slight iritis. (Average Draize score 15.1-25.0).
 Moderately irritating: The undiluted product, when
instilled into the eyes of rabbits, produces moderate
corneal involvement with or without severe iritis.
(Average Draize score range 25.1-50.0). The effects
clear within 21 days.
 Severely irritating or corrosive: The undiluted product,
when instilled into the eyes of rabbits, produces severe
corneal involvement with or without severe iritis.
(Average Draize score range 50.1-110.0). The effects
persist for 21 days or more.

F
f Flow.
f Friction factor.
facilities Physical plants, including the real estate, buildings,

equipment.
Fahrenheit The temperature scale based on 32°F for the temperature at

which water freezes and 212°F for the temperature at which
water boils (180° difference).
Conversion to Fahrenheit from Celsius (centigrade)

temperature scale is by the following formula (where C is the
temperature in Celsius degrees):
F = 9/5C + 32
fail-safe A control device, either mechanical or electronic, used to

sense departures in specification and fail to the safest
position (open or closed) in an operation when all
requirements are not being met.
failure An item of equipment has suffered a failure when it is no

longer capable of fulfilling one or more of its intended
function. Note that an item does not need to be completely
unable to function to have suffered a failure. For example, a
pump that is still operating, but is not capable of pumping
the required flow rate, has failed. In Reliability Centered
Maintenance terminology, a failure is often called a
functional failure. A planned equipment shutdown is
classified as a failure, but a routine equipment shutdown at
shift change would not be classified as a failure. The
justification for the inclusion of planned shutdowns as
failures is that a failure, as defined, causes a disruption to the
desired steady-state nature of the production process, and
therefore, should ideally be avoided.

failure code A code typically entered against a work order in a CMMS
which indicates the cause of failure, e.g., lack of lubrication,
metal fatigue, etc.
failure consequences In Reliability Centered Maintenance, the consequences of all

failures can be classified as being either hidden, safety,
environmental, operational, or non-operational.
failure effect A description of the events that occur after a failure has
occurred as a result of a specific failure mode. Used in
RCM, FMEA, and FMECA.
failure finding task or In Reliability Centered Maintenance, a routine maintenance

functional test task, normally an inspection or a testing task, designed to
determine, for hidden failure, whether an item or component
has failed. A failure finding task should not be confused
with an on-condition task, which is intended to determine
whether an item is about to fail. Failure finding tasks are
sometimes referred to as functional tests.
failure mode or failure Any event which causes a failure.

cause
failure pattern The relationship between the conditional probability of

failure of an item, and its age. Failure patterns are generally
applied to failure modes. Research in the airline industry
established that there are six distinct failure patterns. The
type of failure pattern that applies to any given failure mode
is of vital importance in determining the most appropriate
equipment maintenance strategy. This fact is one of the key
principles underlying Reliability Centered Maintenance.
false load A recycle stream that returns cooled discharge gas to the
first-stage suction to maintain a minimum flow through the
compressor.
fasciculation Muscular twitching.
FBP Final boiling point. During analysis by distillation, the

highest reading of a thermometer when a specified
proportion of a liquid has boiled off.

FCCU Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit.
FD Forced draft.
federal register Daily publication that lists and discusses the regulations of
federal agencies.
feed The liquid mixture that enters a tower or unit.
feed drum A vessel in which a fluctuating flow is accumulated and from

which a constant secondary flow is taken.
feed or charge (stock) Crude oil or other hydrocarbons that are the basic materials
(feedstock) for a refining process. Within the refinery, some
products of processes are the feed to other processes.
feed ramping A large change can be made to the feed rate, set point, etc.,
but the final control element changes will automatically be
administered in certain (x) increments every so many (x)
minutes, depending upon the values programmed into the
feed ramping controller.
feed tray The tray on which fresh feedstock is introduced into the
system.
feed/effluent exchanger A heat exchanger where heat is transferred from the outlet
stream of a reactor or column to the inlet stream as preheat.
feedforward control When a change is made to the feed rate or to the load, the
feedforward controller compensates downstream controllers
for the effect of this load change before it has a chance to
affect downstream variables. The calculations used to
program feedforward control must be very precise.
feedstock Stock from which material is taken to be fed into a

processing unit.
FFI Failure finding interval. The frequency with which a

failure finding task is performed and is determined by the
frequency of failure of the protective device, and the desired
availability required of that protective device.

fiber A basic form of matter, usually crystalline, with a high ratio
of length to diameter.
fibrosis The formation of fibrous tissue, as in reparative or reactive

process to particulates, in excess of amounts normally
present in lung tissue walls. This reduces the oxygen and
carbon dioxide exchange efficiency.
field butane A purchased mixture of gases, the largest part of which is

butane and other C4 hydrocarbons.
FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act. The

act requires that certain useful poisons, such as chemical
pesticides sold to the public, contain labels that carry health
hazard warnings to protect users. It is administered by EPA.
fill ticket A document that lists the correct materials, equipment, and
instructions to be used when filling an approved batch.
filling The act of putting paint-related products into the proper

container.
filling head A piece of equipment that directs the flow of material from
the filling machine into the container.
filmer A corrosion inhibitor chemical. (See corrosion inhibitor.)
filming amine A specialty chemical used as a corrosion inhibitor in the

debutanizer and ACT overhead systems.
filter To remove undissolved solids from a liquid by passing it

through a cloth screen, cartridge, activated carbon, or sand.
filter housing gasket A gasket used to create an air-tight seal between a filter
housing’s lid and cylinder.
filtration To separate solid contaminants from liquid.
final control element The final element in the closed loop that does the actual
process controlling. It may be a valve, power cylinder,
solenoid, or motor.

fines Powdered solid particles formed from any solid substance by
erosion or crushing during processing.
Finely crushed or powdered material or fibers; especially

those smaller than the average in a mix of various sizes.
fin-fan A condenser that uses a fan to move air across a set of finned
tubes to cool a product passing through the tubes.
A type of cooling assembly with finned tubes at the top and

air blower (fan) beneath. The hot liquid passes through the
tubes and is cooled by the air blowing against them.
finished product Liquid polymer, soap, or resin that is ready to be shipped.
fire diamond A symbol designed by the NFPA to give a quick number

rating for the particular material’s degree of health (blue),
flammability (red), reactivity (yellow), and specific (white)
hazard.
fire point The lowest temperature at which oil vaporizes rapidly

enough to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition under
standard conditions.
firebox The furnace of a fire-tube boiler.
fixed A permanent structure that cannot be moved without

disconnecting secure fasteners.
fixed costs Expenses such as office facilities and training which do not
vary with activity rates.
fixed gas Gas which will not condense under the pressure and
temperature conditions available in a process.
flame arrestor An assembly of perforated plates or screens enclosed in a

case and attached to the breather vent of petroleum storage
tanks. A flame arrestor helps prevent a flame from travelling
to the source of flammable materials.

flame retardant An added substance which inhibits the initiation and/or
spread of flames.
flammable Defined by the DOT and the NFPA as a liquid with a flash
point below 100°F. Flammable liquids are:
Class 1A: The flash point is below 73°F and the boiling
point below 100°F.
Class 1B: The flash point is below 73°F and the boiling
point is at or above 100°F.
Class 1C: The flash point is at or above 73°F and below
100°F.
flammable aerosol A product packaged in an aerosol container which can

release a flammable material.
flammable gas A gas that at ambient temperature and pressure forms a

flammable mixture with air at a concentration of 13% by
volume or less; or a gas that at ambient temperature and
pressure forms a range of flammable mixtures with air
greater than 12% by volume, regardless of the lower limit.
flammable limits The minimum and maximum concentrations of flammable

gas or vapor between which ignition occurs. The concen-
trations are usually given as percent volume of the vapor or
gas. Below the lower limit, there is not enough vapor or gas
(fuel) to support a fire. Above the upper limit, there is not
enough oxygen to support combustion.
flammable liquid A liquid that gives off vapors that can be ignited at room
temperature. A liquid with flash point below 100°F.
flammable solid A solid that will ignite readily and continue to burn or is
liable to cause fires under ordinary conditions or during
transportation through friction or retained heat from
manufacturing or processing. It burns so vigorously and
persistently it creates a serious transportation hazard.

flange An annular ring welded to each end of two pipes so the pipes
can be connected to each other by bolting the rings together.
The joint is made leak-tight by a gasket inserted between the
rings.
flare Where excess gases from the plant are sent to be burned.
A system to burn off any excess gas, waste gas, or

uncontrolled process gas. A flare has a receiver drum for
combustibles and a pilot and igniter system.
flash A sudden release in pressure resulting in partial or complete

vaporization.
To change suddenly from a liquid to a vapor. Also to ignite

suddenly.
flash back Occurs when a trail of flammable material is ignited by a

distant spark or ignition source. The flame then travels along
the trail of the material back to its source.
flash drum A vessel used to separate vapors and liquids using a sudden
fall in pressure.
flash point The lowest temperature at which an oil gives off vapor in
sufficient quantity to burn momentarily on the approach of a
flame or spark.
flash temperature The temperature at which feed enters a fractionator. This

temperature is selected to vaporize a fixed percentage of the
feed.
flash tower A vessel used for separation of liquid a vapor in a flash

distillation process.
flash zone Area in a distillation tower where pressure falls suddenly in

relation to pressure of feed being introduced, causing feed to
flash into its vapor phase.

flashing Effecting a separation of products by releasing the pressure
on a hot oil as it enters a vessel. The lighter fractions
vaporize (flash) off and the heavy oil drops to the bottom.
The process of separating products by reducing the pressure

on a hot oil as it enters a vessel. The light fractions vaporize
(flash off) while the liquid drops to the bottom.
floating head The end of a tube bundle which is free to move back and
forth in an exchanger shell as the tubes expand and contract
with changes in temperature.
floating roof The roof of a tank which floats on the surface of the liquid
contents and is free to move up and down as they increase or
decrease.
flocculation The second stage of clarification in which the mixture of

sticky precipitate and water is agitated to maximize and
speed up the contact between the aggolomerate and
suspended solids.
flocculent A chemical that forms long, complex ions in water and

causes suspended particles to clump together.
flood/flooding A spewing or heaving of liquid along with vapor out of the

top of a distillation column. It is caused by excessive liquid
and/or vapor flow in the column.
flow A smooth, uninterrupted movement or progress of a fluid.
fluctuate To vary; to rise and fall; to be unsteady.
flue A passage of air, gas, or smoke.
flue gas A mixture of the products of combustion and any unburned

fuel gases, released mainly out of the stacks of process
heaters.
fluid An aggregate of matter in which the molecules are able to

flow past each other without limit and without fracture
planes forming.

fluidization A technique in which fine solid particles are aerated with a
gas causing the mixture to behave as a fluid.
fluoride A fluorinated hydrocarbon resulting from an incomplete

alkylation reaction. Also the products from the corrosion of
HF acid with metals, such as aluminum or iron.
flush To clean by water flow.
flux/flux oil A liquid residuum from asphaltic crude.
An oil for blending with asphalt for the purpose of softening

it or preparing it for air blowing.
fly ash The fine ash generated from burning coal that is carried with
the flue gases.
FMEA Failure Modes and Effects Analysis. A method of

conducting a PHA. A structured method of determining
equipment functions, functional failure, assessing the causes
of failures and their failure effects. The first part of a
Reliability Centered Maintenance analysis is a failure modes
and effects analysis.
FMECA Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality Analysis. A

structured method of assessing the causes of failures and
their effect on production, safety, cost, quality, etc.
foam A fire-fighting material consisting of small bubbles of air,

water, and concentrating agents. Foam will put out a fire by
blanketing it, excluding air, and blocking the escape of
volatile vapor.
foaming The formation of bubbles on the surface of a liquid, such as

boiler water. The foam may entirely fill the steam space of
the boiler or may be of minor depth. In either case, it causes
appreciable entrainment of boiler water with steam.
foamite The trade name for a preparation used in extinguishing oil

fires.

FOE Fuel oil equivalent.
fog A visible suspension of fine droplets in a gas.
force The influence on an object or body which causes it to

accelerate.
force majeure A standard clause which indemnifies either or both parties to

a transaction whenever events reasonably beyond the control
of either or both parties occur to prevent fulfillment of the
terms of the contract.
forced circulation In lubrication, the circulating lube oil is forced through the
bearing clearances by applying pressure to the oil as opposed
to the capillary action of some lubrication systems.
forced-draft fan (fd fan) A fan which forces atmospheric combustion air into a heater
firebox.
fore bay A sump in which the circulating water pumps take suction on
the water and deliver it to plant processes.
foreseeable emergency A potential occurrence, such as equipment failure, rupture of

containers, or failure of control equipment which could result
in an uncontrolled release of a hazardous chemical.
formation A stratum of rock that is recognizable from adjacent strata by

consisting mainly of a certain type of rock or combination of
rock types. Thickness may range from less than two feet to
hundreds of feet.
formula The scientific expression of the chemical composition of a

material, e.g., water (H2O), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), sulfur
dioxide (SO2).
forward workload All known backlog work and work which is due or predicted
to become backlog work within a pre-specified future time
period.
fouling In heat transfer, the lowering of clear-film transfer rates
resulting from corrosion, dirt, or roughness of the surface of
tube walls of heat exchangers.
The accumulation of corrosion, dirt, or roughness in pipes or

on heat absorbing surfaces which results in undesirable
restrictions to flow and/or heat transfer.
FPF Flexible polyurethane foam. Produced by reacting a

diisocyanate [typically toluene diisocyanate (TDI)] with a
high molecular weight polyol (typically a polyether).
Carbon dioxide is the principal blowing agent for FPF. The
carbon dioxide can be produced by the reaction between an
excess of diisocyanate with water or can be added as liquid
carbon dioxide.
fraction One of the portions of a volatile liquid within certain boiling

point ranges, such as petroleum naphtha fractions or gas-oil
fractions.
fractional distillation The process of heating liquids to a vaporization point and

(fractionation) condensing out various components of the crude within
specific boiling point ranges (cut points).
fractionate To separate a mixture by distillation into several portions,

each consisting of the volatile liquid within a certain boiling
point range.
fractionating column A process unit that separates various fractions of petroleum

by simple distillation with the column tapped at various
levels to separate and remove fractions according to their
boiling ranges.
fractionating tower The vertical cylindrical vessel which separates components

of a liquid mixture in a distillation process.
fractionation The process of separating reformate product into components

by distillation, crystallization or precipitation. Controlling
the fractionation process allows the RVP of the finished
reformate product to be controlled. The off-gas is the
byproduct of the process.
fractionator A distillation tower that can simultaneously separate three or
more products by withdrawing products at intermediate
locations in the tower.
freezing point The temperature at which a material changes its physical

state from liquid to solid. A frozen material may burst its
container or the hazards could change.
frostbite Damage to tissue from exposure to extreme cold or contact

with extremely cold liquids or solids.
F-style A container that is square or rectangular in shape.
FTA Fault Tree Analysis. A method of conducting a PHA.
fuel gas Natural gas. A refinery off-gas that has been treated for use
as a fuel in heaters and boilers.
fuel oil Any oil used for the production of power and heat. For a
description of classes of fuels, see ASTM D 288.
The heavy residuum product resulting from a distillation or

cracking process.
fuel oil system The system that supplies fuel oil to the heater or boiler
during operations.
fugitive emission Gas, liquid, solid, vapor, fume, mist, fog, or dust that escapes
from process equipment or a product.
full protective clothing Fully protective gear that keeps gases, vapor, liquid, and
solids from any contact with the skin and prevents them from
being inhaled or ingested.
fuller’s earth A porous earth having adsorptive properties towards

impurities in oil.
full-range naphtha The ACT overhead product made up of light naphtha and
heavy naphtha.
fulminate A salt of fulminic acid.
fume Airborne suspension consisting of minute solid particles
arising from the heating of a solid. This heating is often
accompanied by a chemical reaction where the particles react
with oxygen to form an oxide.
function What we want an item of equipment to do, and the level of

performance which the users of the equipment require when
it does it. An item of equipment can have many functions,
commonly split into primary and secondary functions. The
level of performance specified is that required by the users of
the equipment, which may be quite different to the original
design, or maximum, performance capability for the
equipment.
functional failure In Reliability Centered Maintenance, the inability of an item

of equipment to fulfil one or more of its functions.
Interchangeably used with failure.
fungible Interchangeable. Products which can be commingled for

purposes of pipeline shipment.
furfual solvent A solvent used to extract the non-lube product from the raw
lube charge oil to the process.
furfural cycle oil A heavy oily liquid obtained from digesting oat and rice
hulls, corn cobs, bran, and similar materials with sulfuric
acid with subsequent distillation of a specific overhead
product from the liquor.
furfural refining A process in which undesirable tars or aromatic compounds

are removed from lube oil or catalytic charge stocks. These
materials are soluble in furfural but paraffinic compounds are
not.
furnace The portion of oil and/or gas-fired heaters that contains the
firing equipment.
G
g Gram. A metric unit of weight.
g/kg Grams per kilogram. An expression of dose used in oral

and dermal toxicology testing to indicate the grams of
substance dosed per kilogram of animal body weight.
gagetron An instrument employing gamma ray radiation and Geiger

Counter detection in the measurement of catalyst levels on
TCC Units.
gamma rays Radiation, similar to x-rays but of a shorter wave length, that
is used in treating cancer or a means of radioactive
substances, such as radium.
gangrene The death of tissue combined with putrefaction.
Gantt Chart A bar chart format of scheduled activities showing the

duration and sequencing of activities.
gas A formless fluid that occupies the space of its enclosure, can
settle to the bottom or top of an enclosure when mixed with
other materials, and can be changed to its liquid or solid state
only by increased pressure and decreased temperature.
gas blanket An atmosphere of inert gas applied to the vapor space of a

vessel to prevent oxidation of its contents and/or prevent an
explosive mixture from forming.
gas chromatograph (GC) A method used in the quality control lab to identify various
check compounds in samples.
gas duct burner A set of burners in the exhaust duct of the combustion
turbine used to supplement the heat of the turbine exhaust to
fire the co-gen boilers.
gas lift or lift gas A method of lifting oil from the bottom of a well to the
surface by the use of compressed gas. The gas is pumped
into the hole and at the lower end of the tubing, and becomes
a part of the fluid in the well. As the gas expands, it lifts the
oil to the surface.
gas oil A petroleum distillate boiling within the general range of

450–800°F. Usually includes kerosene, diesel fuel, heating
oils, and light fuel oils.
gas turbine A machine that generates, through a controlled combustion

process, a large volume of high-energy gas which can be
passed through turbines to produce shaft horsepower. Also
called a gas generator or a turbine generator.
gas-fired heater A piece of equipment that burns fuel gas to provide heat
within a process.
gasket A type of rubber seal that prevents liquid from leaking in

between two flat surfaces.
gasoil Designation for No. 2 heating oils and diesel fuels. A clean
distillate fuel oil.
gasoline A light petroleum fraction having an approximate boiling

range of 100–400°F, obtained by distillation, cracking,
polymerization, and other processes.
gasoline, casing-head The liquid hydrocarbon product extracted from casing-head

gas by one of three methods: compression, absorption, or
refrigeration.
gasoline, clear Gasoline which is free of antiknock additives, such as

tetraethyllead. In comparative engine tests between leaded
and unleaded fuel, clear, unleaded gasoline is sometimes
referred to as straight gasoline base, base fuel, or “neat”
gasoline.
gasoline, cracked The principle product of catalytic cracking and thermal

cracking processes.
gasoline, natural Liquid product recovered from wet natural gas by
absorption, compression, or refrigeration.
gasoline, straight-run One of the products obtained by distillation of petroleum.
gastric lavage Washing out of the stomach using a tube and fluids.
gastritis The irritation of the lining of the stomach which may be

evident as stomach pains or vomiting, etc.
gauge To measure or an instrument used for measuring.
GC Gas chromatograph.
GDS Gas Distribution System.
gear pump An air-powered pump used to transfer liquids where, under

the positive-displacement principle, revolving gears mesh
together to draw fluid from the intake and force it out, under
pressure, through the output.
geiger counter A sensitive instrument that detects the presence of

radioactive substances, such as gamma rays, and measures
them quantitatively.
general ventilation The removal of contaminated air and its replacement with
clean air from the general workplace area as opposed to local
ventilation, which is specific air changing in immediate air
of a contamination source.
generator An electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical

energy to electrical energy using electromagnetic induction.
The source of mechanical energy comes from the
combustion turbines.
generic name Designation or identification to identify a chemical by other

than its chemical name.
genetic Pertaining to or carried by genes. Hereditary.
gland seal A sealed joint around a moving shaft or spindle used to
reduce leakage to a negligible amount. The restriction can
be a labyrinth or a series of carbon rings compressed around
the shaft. For large high-pressure steam turbines, the gland
seals are equipped with leak-offs and other devices to
positively prevent steam from escaping to the atmosphere
around the turbine’s bearing housings.
globe valve A valve designed to efficiently throttle or regulate flow.

Globe valve seating is parallel to the line of flow. All contact
between seat and disc ends when flow begins.
glycol A type of alcohol that is miscible with water and good for
antifreeze protection.
GNL Gaseous nitrogen low. Low-pressure nitrogen.
go-line Used in relation to mobile equipment. Equipment which is

available, but not being utilized is typically parked on the go-
line. This term is used interchageably with ready line.
GOU Gas Oil Unit.
governor Equipment on a steam turbine that regulates the speed of the

turbine. The equipment consists of a speed sensor, a
controller, steam valve actuators, and steam valves.
gph Gallons per hour.
gpm Gallons per minute.
gram Metric unit of mass weight. One US ounce is about 28 grams

and one pound is 454 grams.
graphic panel Usually located at the control station, this panel allows the
operator to view the entire process. The process is
represented by a series of symbols and lines. Materials are
color-coded. All critical conditions are represented by
gauges, recorders. lights, etc. It also contains running lights,
remote switches, and push-buttons for adjusting controllers,
etc.
gravity The ratio of the density of a liquid or solid substance to the
density of an equal volume of water. Gases are compared to
air.
gravity, specific In the case of oil, refers to the relative weight or density of
the oil as compared with the weight or density of distilled
water at the same temperature.
grease A solution of soap in mineral oil.
grease gun A pump used to inject grease into a bearing.
green oils Heavy polymers that are formed in the presence of a catalyst.
Green oils are formed in the acetylene reactors and in
desiccant dryers.
grey water In the gasification process, the liquid stream formed when
soot water has been filtered and most of the soot particles
have been removed.
grounding Safety practice to conduct electrical charge to ground,

preventing igniting sparks of a material.
guide vane A constructed movable flat plat that directs the flow of air
into the compressor.
gum A sticky matter sometimes formed in gasoline and other oils

by the chemical reactions of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
These reactions are usually oxidation of polymerization.
gum test (ASTM) The milligrams of gum in 100 milliliters of gasoline,

determined by evaporating gasoline in a glass breaker under
controlled conditions, which indicates actual gum content.
gunite Quick-setting cement mixture pumped through a hose under

pressure.
gusset A small plate used to reinforce assemblies.
H
halogen Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, or astatine.
hand controller (HIC-xxx) A remotely operated controller that can perform a manual
adjustment to a final control element.
hand switch (HS-xxx) A toggle switch. Its function is on/off, high/low, automatic
start/hand start, etc.
hand valve A valve that opens and closes manually by turning a handle.
hard pipe Fixed piping used to carry liquids or gases.
hardener A blend of resin and solvents that are added to paint or

clearcoats to harden them.
hardware Physical items such as equipment, tools, instruments,

components, parts, etc.
hazardous A material or operation that is dangers to human life and

health and has the potential to cause an accident.
hazardous chemical Any chemical whose presence or use is a physical hazard or

a health hazard.
hazardous decomposition Breaking down or the separation of a substance into its

constituent parts, elements, or into simpler compounds
accompanied by the release of heat, gas, or hazardous
materials.
hazardous ingredients Hazardous substances that make up a mixture.
hazardous material Any substance or mixture of substances having properties
capable of producing adverse effects on the health or safety
of a human being. A hazardous material has one or more of
the following characteristics: a flash point below 140°F,
closed cup, or is subject to spontaneous heating; a threshold
limit value below 500 ppm for gases and vapors, below
500 MG/M3 for fumes, and below 25 mppcf for dusts; a
single dose oral LD50 below 500 mg/kg; subject to
polymerization with the release of large amounts of energy;
is a strong oxidizing or reducing agent; causes first degree
burns to skin in a short time exposure or is systemically toxic
by skin contact; or in the course of normal operations, may
produce dusts, gases, fumes, vapors, mists, or smokes which
have one or more of the above characteristics.
hazardous waste number The identification number assigned by the EPA, per RCRA
law, to identify and track hazardous wastes.
Hazop Hazard and operability study. A method of conducting a

PHA. A structured process, originally developed by ICI
following the Flixborough disaster, intended to proactively
identify equipment modifications and/or safety devices
required in order to avoid any significant safety or
environmental incident as a result of equipment failure.
Similar, in some respects, to RCM, but not as rigorous in
identifying underlying causes of failure, and does not
consider, in any depth, the possibility of avoiding such
incidents through applying appropriate Proactive
Maintenance tasks.
HAZWOPER Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response.
HC High case.
HDS Hydrodesulfurization. A catalyst process in which

petroleum sulfur-bearing feedstocks are reacted with
hydrogen to produce sulfur-free hydrocarbons and hydrogen
sulfide gas.
HDT Hydrotreating. A more severe form of the hydrogenation
process compared to HDS. In addition to removing sulfur,
the process hydrogenates olefins and aromatics into
paraffins.
A hydrogenation process that cracks sulfur atoms out of

hydrocarbon components, forms hydrogen sulfide from the
sulfur atoms, and replaces the sulfur with hydrogen in the
hydrocarbon.
header A common line to which two or more lines are joined.
A chamber that distributes fluid from a series of pipes to a

vessel. Usually refers to the U-bend connection between two
consecutive tubes in the coil. Headers in a heater have plugs
that can be removed for cleaning. Also refers to an area
where accessible connectors to several pipes are grouped,
allowing hoses to be connected to a particular tank or line.
A pipeline from which branches radiate or which collects

streams from other lines.
A common pipeline to that distributes liquids, gases, or air

throughout a unit or plant through a series pipes.
header box The enclosures on a furnace in which the tubes end and in
which the inter tube connections are located.
headspace The volume above a liquid in a closed vessel.
health hazard A chemical from which acute or chronic health effects may
occur in exposed individuals.
heat capacity The quantity of heat required to raise a system one degree in
temperature in a specified way, usually at constant pressure
or constant volume.
heat energy Energy that excites molecules to move so that liquids will
vaporize. Levels of heat energy are expressed as
temperature.
heat exchanger A piece of equipment having a tubular piping arrangement
which effects the transfer of heat from a hot to a relatively
cool material by conduction through the tube walls, having a
countercurrent or concurrent flow of hot and cold materials.
A system where a hot process flows next to a cooler process,

giving up heat through thin tubular walls.
A piece of equipment having a tubular piping arrangement

which effects the transfer of heat from a hot to a relatively
cool material by conduction through the tube walls, having a
countercurrent or concurrent flow of hot and cold materials.
heat of combustion gross Total heat evolved during the complete combustion of the
unit weight of a substance, usually expressed in Btu per
pound.
heat of combustion net Gross heat of combustion minus the latent heat of
condensation of any water produced.
heat of compression The adiabatic rise in temperature when a gas is compressed.
heat of condensation The heat removed from a specified amount of vapor to

condense it to a liquid.
heat of vaporization The hidden heat required to change a liquid to a vapor in

which the added heat energy does not change the tempera-
ture of the liquid but is only used for vaporization.
heat(ing) medium A material, whether flowing or static, used to transport heat

from a primary source, such as combustion of fuel to another
material. Heating oil, steam, and an eutectic salt mixture are
examples of heating mediums.
heater A furnace with an internal tube section used for heating oil or
gas in a processing unit.
The furnace and tube arrangement which furnishes the

principle heating element in a processing unit.
heating value The total amount of heat developed by the complete
combustion of a unit weight or unit volume of fuel.
heavy crude Crude oil with a high specific gravity and a low API gravity
due to the presence of a high proportion of heavy
hydrocarbon fractions and metallic content.
heavy ends The higher boiling constituents of a petroleum product.

Usually hexanes or heptanes and all heavier hydrocarbons
are the heavy ends in a natural gas stream.
heavy naphtha A feed product for the reformer.
A light petroleum distillate having a boiling range from

(IBP) 120–450°F FBP or endpoint.
helical lobe compressor A positive-displacement, constant-volume, variable-pressure

machine. Two helical screw rotors enclosed in a cylinder
forms a cavity at the inlet into which material is drawn. As
the screws rotate, the material is pushed along the moving
cavity. The cavity is closed at the discharge end, forcing the
fluid into the outlet line.
hematopoietic system The blood-forming mechanism of the human body.
hemolysis The separation of the hemoglobin from red blood corpuscles.
hepatic Pertaining to the liver.
hepatotoxin A substance that causes injury to the liver.
hexanes plus or heptanes The portion of a hydrocarbon fluid mixture or the last
plus component of a hydrocarbon analysis which contains the
hexanes (or heptanes) and all hydrocarbons heavier than the
hexanes (or heptanes).
HHV Higher heating value.
high velocity vent valves A pressure-actuated valve that permits large volumes of gas
or gas/air mixtures to be expelled to the atmosphere at a
constant high velocity. Used principally during loading and
ballasting.
highly toxic The probable lethal dose of undiluted product to 50% of the
test animals determined from dermal toxicity studies (lethal
dose [LD50]) is less than or equal to 200 milligrams per
kilogram of body weight.
high-pressure loop All the equipment in the H-Oil Unit that operates at a
nominal 3000 psig. This includes the recycle compressor,
feed heaters, reactors, high-pressure drums, and high-
pressure DGA absorber.
high-pressure purge Flushing a vessel or piping by using a high pressure gas.
HMIS Hazardous Materials Identification System. Developed

by the NPCA to provide information on health, flammability,
and reactivity hazards that are encountered in the workplace.
A number is assigned to a material indicating the degree of
hazard, from 0 for the least up to 4 for the most severe.
Letters are used to designate PPE.
HOA Hand-off-auto.
HOD Heating oil distillate. A fuel product used for home heating
and diesel fuel. It is produced through crude oil distillation
and has a boiling point between that of kerosene and gas oil.
homogeneous Of a uniform consistency, structure, and/or composition

throughout.
homogenizer A mechanical device which is used to create a stable,

uniform dispersion of an insoluble phase (asphaltenes)
within a liquid phase (fuel oil).
hopper Small vessel that holds the paint before transferring it

through the filling head.
hortonsphere A spherical, pressure-type tank used to store volatile liquids.
Its purpose is to prevent excessive evaporation loss which
occurs when such products are placed in conventional
atmospheric pressure storage tanks.
hot feed A hot gas oil feed used directly from its source without
cooling or intermediate storage. Using the feed directly
conserves its heat energy.
hot spot A portion of a furnace tube which is overheating due to an

insulating material, usually coke, preventing proper heat
transfer to the tube contents.
hot train A set of heat exchangers that heat the desalted crude
upstream of the Heaters.
HP (1) High pressure.
HP (2) Horsepower. The unit of power in the British engineering

system equal to 550 foot-pounds per second, approximately
745.7 watts.
HP condensate Refers to condensate stream from the high-pressure steam

systems (600 psig and 300 psig).
HPGOX High-pressure gaseous oxygen.
HRSG Heat recovery steam generators. A boiler that recovers

heat from a gas turbine exhaust and converts it to usable
steam to improve efficiency.
HSD High speed dissolver. A method of breaking down pigment

and powder particles using shear force created by mixing at
high speed with an HSD blade.
HSD blade A blade used while dispersing a batch of paint. The blade is
a flat and round disk. On the edges are teeth-like
projections.
HSE Health, Safety and Environment.
HSR Heavy straight run, from the bottom of the splitter column.
HTS High temperature shift converter.
HUX Heavy hydrocracked naphtha, a feed product for the

reformer.
HVGO Heavy vacuum gas oil. The bottom sidestream off the
vacuum tower.
HYCO Hydrogen/carbon monoxide (CO).
hydrant A device having a valve at the top and connected to the fire
water header arising from the ground used for connecting
fire fighting apparatus, such as fire hoses, nozzles, etc.
These devices are painted red and located throughout the
area in strategic locations.
Hydrar Unit A unit downstream of the Udex Unit that produces cyclo-
hexane from the hydrogenation of benzene feedstock.
hydrate A compound in which water attaches itself to a gas molecule.

The attachment then raises the freezing point of the water,
causing the water to freeze around the hydrocarbon
molecule, forming a hydrate.
hydraulic ram A hydraulic-acturated plunger used as a driver.
hydrocarbon A large class of organic compounds containing only carbon

and hydrogen and occurring in petroleum, natural gas, coal,
and bitumens.
hydrocarbon An organic compound composed only of carbon and

hydrogen. Petroleum, natural gas, and coal are the main
sources of hydrocarbons for industry.
hydrocracking A process in which large molecules are broken into smaller
molecules by the use of heat, pressure, catalyst, and
hydrogen.
A process combining cracking or pyrolysis with hydrogena-

tion. Feedstocks can include crude oils, residual, petroleum
tars, and asphalts.
A process which exposes heavy fuel oil to hydrogen at high

pressure and temperature in the presence of a catalyst to
reduce sulfur and produce lighter oils by cracking the heavy
oil molecules.
The cracking of hydrocarbons in the presence of hydrogen

and usually in the presence of a catalyst
hydrofining A process for treating petroleum with hydrogen in the

presence of a catalyst under relatively mild conditions of
temperature and pressure. Some hydrocracking may occur
under more severe conditions.
hydrofinishing A mild hydrofining process used particularly to replace or

supplement clay treating of lube oils and waxes.
hydroforming A process in which naphthas are passed over a catalyst at

elevated temperatures and moderate pressures, in the
presence of added hydrogen or hydrogen-containing gases,
to form high-octane motor fuel or aromatics.
hydrogen recycle Compressed hydrogen that flows through the Reaction

System to the Separation System and back again.
hydrogenate The process of reacting hydrogen gas with a substance so the

substance gains hydrogen atoms. Hydrogenation occurs in
the acetylene reactors to convert acetylene (C2H2) into
ethylene (C2H4). In this reaction, two atoms of hydrogen are
added to each acetylene molecule to make a molecule of
ethylene.
Reaction of hydrogen with an unsaturated organic compound

to form saturated compounds.
hydrogenation A hydrogen treating process in which hydrogen is added to
unsaturated molecules. Olefins are converted to paraffins,
aromatics are converted to naphthenes, oxygen is converted
to water, nitrogen is converted to ammonia, and sulfur is
converted to H2S.
A chemical reaction in which hydrogen is added to olefinic

or aromatic hydrocarbons so that become saturated with
hydrogen atoms.
hydrometer A direct-reading instrument used to measure the density or

specific gravity of a liquid.
hydrophilic Materials having large molecules that absorb and retain

water, causing them to swell and frequently to gel.
hygroscopic Readily adsorbing available moisture in any form.
hyperemia Congestion of blood in a body part.
hypergolic Self-igniting upon contact of its components without a spark

or external aid.
hypoxia Insufficient oxygen, especially applied to body cells.
I
I&E Instrumentation and electrical.
IBP Initial boiling point. The temperature in a laboratory

distillation test indicated by the thermometer at which the
first drop of distillate falls from the condenser.
ID (1) Induced draft.
ID (2) Pipe inside diameter.
identification The means by which items are named and numbered to

indicate that they have been grouped according to a given set
of characteristics. Identification may be by name, part
number, type, model, specification number, drawing number,
code, stock number, or catalog number.
IDLH Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health. The

maximum concentration from which one could escape within
30 minutes without any escape-impairing symptoms or any
irreversible health effects.
ignitable Capable of being set afire.
ignition temperature The lowest temperature at which a combustible material will

catch fire in air and will continue to burn independently of
the source of heat when heated.
immediate use The hazardous chemical will be under the control of and
used only by the person who transfers it from a labeled
container and only within the work shift in which it is
transferred.
immiscible A liquid that is incapable of mixing or attaining homogeneity

with another substance.
impeller A blade of a rotor that is used to impart energy to a gas.
Consists of a set of vanes attached to a central hub. The

vanes may be enclosed between two discs or shrouds
forming an enclosed impeller or there may be a shroud on
one side only, in which case, it is referred to as a semi-open
or semi-enclosed impeller. If no shrouds are used (as in
pumping liquids containing large solids), the impeller is an
open impeller.
impervious A material that does not allow another substance to pass

through it or penetrate it.
impinge To strike against or make direct contact.
impingement Removal of liquid droplets from a flowing gas or vapor

steam by causing it to collide with a baffle plate at high
velocity so that the droplets fall away from the stream. Also
known as liquid knockout.
importer First business with employees within the Customs Territory

of the U.S. which receives hazardous chemicals produced in
other countries for the purpose of supplying them to
distributors or employers within the US.
impulse The force of steam striking the blades of a turbine wheel to

cause rotation.
impulse turbine A turbine that uses a stationary nozzle to convert pressure to

velocity, then directs the flow against the rotor to exert force.
incompatible Materials which could cause dangerous reactions from direct

contact with one another.
independent power A producer of electricity that is not regulated as a utility by

producer state or federal authority.
Indicating Controller An instrument that shows a variable reading and

automatically adjusts a valve to effect the process in order to
maintain a specific quantity rate or set point.
indicator Any measuring devices, such as gauges, meters, recorders,
dials, lights, and scales, which provide a measurement
indication in quantity or as a visual warning.
indirect costs Expenses not directly associated with specific products,

operations, or services. Usually considered as overhead.
induced draft Air supplied to a furnace by means of a fan or blower. The

air is drawn, not forced past the point of combustion.
induction coil A device for producing high voltage from a low-voltage

direct current.
induction period or A test for determining the length of time a gasoline will stand
Oxygen Stability Test in storage without absorbing oxygen to form gum.
inert Incapable of reacting. For example, inert gas is used instead

of air to prevent a fire.
inert ingredients Anything other than the active ingredient in a product; not
having active properties.
infant mortality The relatively high conditional probability of failure during

the period immediately after an item returns to service.
inflammable Capable of being easily set on fire and continuing to burn,

especially violently.
inflammation A series of reactions produced in tissue by an irritant, injury,

or infection. Characterized by swelling and redness caused
by an influx of blood and fluids.
ingestion Taking in of a substance through the mouth.
inhalation Breathing in of a substance in the form of a gas, vapor, fume,

mist, or dust.
inherent reliability A measure of the reliability of an item, in its present

operating context, assuming adherence to ideal equipment
maintenance strategies.
inhibitor A chemical which is added to another substance to prevent
an unwanted chemical change from occurring.
An agent that slows or interferes with a chemical action.
initiator The substance, other than the reactants, that starts a chain
reaction. APS and hydrogen peroxide are examples of
initiators used to start the chain reaction of polymerization in
this process.
inlet End of a hose or equipment that material flows into.
innage Measurement taken from bottom of tank to top of the liquid

when gauging a tank. The space occupied in a product
container.
inner hub The section of the compressor shaft that allows attachment of
the starter drive shaft.
inorganic materials Compounds derived from other than vegetable or animal

sources and generally do not contain carbon atoms.
insoluble Incapable of being dissolved in a liquid.
inspection Any task undertaken to determine the condition of equip-

ment, and/or to determine the tools, labor, materials, and
equipment required to repair the item.
instrument air Compressed air that has been filtered and dried for use in
operating instruments; plant air is the source for instrument
air, but it must be filtered and dried before it is sent to the
instrument air header.
insulation To separate a conductor of electricity, heat, or sound from

other conducting bodies by means of another nonconductor.
intercooler A heat exchanger.
interface level The boundary between any two phases.
interlock A safety mechanism which is part of the process control
scheme that links certain process parameter controllers.
Automatic actions will take place as a result of deviation
from the controller set points, such as closing a valve or
starting or stopping a pump.
intermediate A batch that is used later in another product that is further

processed in other units of the refinery. A precursor to a
desired product; a product that is further processed in other
units of the refinery.
intermediate stages Compressor stages located between the forward stage and
the last stage.
intermediate-pressure All of the equipment in the H-Oil Unit that operates at a

loop nominal 1100 psig.
internal reflux All downward flowing liquid from one tray to another in a
distillation column, distinguished from an external stream of
cool oil which is injected into the column.
interstage cooler A cooler located between the low-stage discharge and the
high-stage suction side of a compressor.
interstitial fibrosis Scarring of the lungs.
inventory All items on hand by physical count, weight, volume, money

value, or other measurement.
A list of goods on hand; the quantity of goods or materials on

hand.
inventory control The management, cataloging, requirements determination,

procurement, distribution, overhaul, and disposition of
materials.
inventory management A management activity which plans and controls input,

availability, and disposition of items within the total owned
by the organization.
iodine number A measure of the iodine absorption by an oil under standard
conditions that is used to indicate the quantity of unsaturated
compounds present.
ion An atom or group of atoms that have a surplus or shortage of

electrons and therefore have either a positive or negative
charge. Many chemical reactions occur when ions combine.
ion, cation and anion One of the electrically charged particles produced from the
breakup of molecules of certain substances in solution.
Cations are positively charged and anions are negatively
charged.
ionic bond An electrostatic bond where electrically charged atoms of

opposite charges attract each other.
ionization The process of adding electrons to or removing electrons

from atoms or molecules, thereby creating ions. High
temperature, electrical discharges, and nuclear radiation can
cause ionization.
ions Electrically charged particles formed when certain solids are

dissolved in water.
irritant A substance which, by contact in sufficient concentration for

a sufficient period of time, will cause an inflammatory
response or reaction of the eye, skin, or respiratory system.
isolate To remove equipment from service and positively prevent its

activation. Isolation, with depressuring, purging, and
blinding, is a process used for preparing equipment for
maintenance.
isomerization A process for rearranging the atoms in a molecule so that the
product has the same empirical formula, but a different
structure, e.g., converting normal butane to isobutane.
The rearrangement of straight-chained hydrocarbon

molecules into branched-chain molecules.
The process by which a compound is changed into one of its

isomeric forms, i.e., forms with the same chemical
composition but with different configuration, thus giving it
different physical and chemical properties.
isomers Compounds that have same molecular weight and atomic

composition but differ in molecular structure.
isotope One or two or more atoms with the same atomic number but
a different number of neutrons.
item Identifies a specific part, component, assembly, subassembly,

accessory, equipment, tools, etc.
J
jaundice A yellowish discoloration of tissue, whites of the eyes, and

bodily fluids with bile pigment caused by any of several
pathological conditions that interrupt the liver’s normal
production and discharge of bile.
jig A device used to hold a part to be machined and position the

cutting tool.
JIT Just in time. A production concept that minimizes inventory

costs by delivering production materials to where they are
needed “just in time,” or just as they are needed, rather than
keeping large quantities of materials on hand.
JP-4 jet fuel A jet fuel, sold for government use, containing 75–85%
naphtha and 15–25% kerosene with less than 10 ppm
mercaptans.
JP-5 jet fuel A kerosene-based jet fuel, sold for government use, having a
maximum 140°F flash point and a minimum –46°F freeze
point.
K
ketone dewaxing A process for removal of wax from oil by dissolving the
waxy oil in ketone, chilling the mixture, then filtering it
through heavy canvas. The wax solidifies in the chilling and
is separated from the oil by the filter.
ketosis Condition marked by excessive production or accumulation

of ketone bodies in the body caused by disturbed carbo-
hydrate metabolism.
kg Kilogram. A metric unit of weight, about 2.2 pounds.
kinematic viscosity The ratio of the absolute viscosity of a liquid to its specific
gravity at the temperature at which the viscosity is measured.
Expressed in stokes or centistokes.
Example: viscosity, kinematic, cS @ 100°F…..5.2.
kinetic energy The energy used to cause the movement of a substance. In

chemistry, kinetic energy is the energy that causes atoms and
molecules to move.
knock or detonation A sharp explosion produced in an automobile engine by an

inferior grade of gasoline.
knockout drum A drum or vessel constructed so that a mixture of gas and

liquid is passed through it to disengage one from the other.
Internal components, such as mist extractor pads or filters,
aid the separation process.
A drum or vessel designed to separate gas from liquid in the

process stream.
knockout pot A vessel that separates liquid from gas. Usually referred to
as KO pot or drum.
kPa Kilo pascals. For a reference point, standard atmospheric
pressure at sea level is equal to 101.2 kPa.
KPI Key performance indicators. A select number of key

measures that enable performance against targets to be
monitored.
kV Kilovolts = 1000 volts of alternating current electricity
L
L Thickness, ft.
label Any written, printed, or graphic sign or symbol displayed on

or affixed to containers of hazardous chemicals that should
contain the:
 Identity of the material
 Appropriate hazard warnings
 Name and address of the chemical manufacturer,
importer, or other responsible party
laboratory scale (activity) The work involves containers of substances used for
reactions and transfers that are designed for easy and safe
handling by one person. Workplaces that produce
commercial quantities of materials are excluded from the
definition of “laboratory.”
labyrinth seal A seal that uses a succession of knife-like touch points to

provide a series of pressure drops. The system pressure
drops in steps across the succession of points until only a
small, minimum pressure remains. This reduces leakage to a
minimum.
lacrimator A material that produces tears.
lance A hand-held pipe with a nozzle.
landfill The disposal of trash and waste products at a controlled

location that is sealed and buried under the earth.
LAR Liquid argon.
large filter housing A large cylindrical housing that houses a large filter bag.
Used primarily when filling batches over 500 gallons in
volume.
latency period The time that elapses between exposure and the first
manifestations of disease or illness.
latent heat The heat absorbed or evolved by a substance during a change

in state of a unit weight of a substance from solid to liquid or
from liquid to vapor without change of temperature.
latent heat of vaporization The heat that is necessary to vaporize a liquid at constant
temperature.
lattice A regular periodic arrangement of points in three-

dimensional space.
lavage Washing of a hollow organ, such as the stomach, using a tube

and fluids.
layering This occurs in tanks when a high density fuel is mixed with a
low density fuel.
LC Liquid Chromatography.
LC50 Lethal concentration 50. The median lethal concentration

of a material in air that on the basis of laboratory tests
(respiratory route) is expected to kill 50% of a group of test
animals when administered as a single exposure in a specific
time period, usually 1 hour. LC50 is expressed as parts of
material per million parts of air, by volume (ppm) for gases
and vapors, as micrograms of material per liter of air (ug/l),
or milligrams of material per cubic meter of air (mg/m3) for
dusts and mists, as well as for gases and vapors.
LCC Life Cycle Costing. A process of estimating and assessing

the total costs of ownership, operation and maintenance of an
item of equipment during its projected equipment life.
Typically used in comparing alternative equipment design or
purchase options in order to select the most appropriate
option.
LCLO Lethal concentration low. The lowest concentration of a
substance in air reported to have caused death in humans or
animals. The reported concentrations may be entered for
periods of exposure that are less than 24 hours (acute) or
greater than 24 hours (subacute and chronic).
LD50 Lethal dose 50. The single dose of a substance that causes
the death of 50% of an animal population from exposure to
the substance by any route other than inhalation. LD50 is
usually expressed as milligrams or grams of material per
kilogram of animal weight (mg/kg or g/kg). The animal
species and means of administering the dose (oral,
intravenous, etc.) should also be stated.
LDLO Lethal dose low. The lowest dose of a substance introduced

by any route, other than inhalation, reported to have caused
death in humans or animals.
lead time The allowance made for an amount of time required to

accomplish a specific objective, e.g., receiving shipped
goods.
lean amine An amine solution that has been regenerated; its contaminant
H2S has been removed and is ready for reuse as an H2S-
absorbing agent.
lean gas The residue gas remaining after recovery of natural gas
liquids in a gas processing plant. Unprocessed gas
containing little or no recoverable natural gas liquids.
lean oil Absorption oil from which gasoline fractions have been
removed, e.g., the oil leaving the stripper in a natural
gasoline plant.
LEL Lower explosive limit. Concentrations below the LEL are

too lean (not enough flammable material present) to burn.
LEL Lower explosive (flammable) limit. The lowest

concentration (lowest percentage of the substance in air) that
will produce a flash of fire when an ignition source (heat,
electric arc, or flame) is present.
lesion Abnormal change, injury, or damage to tissue or to an organ.
letdown The act of taking a dispersion and adding additional

materials. This additional material is needed to achieve
specific physical and/or chemical properties of the batch.
leukemia A progressive, malignant disease of the blood-forming

organs.
level The equilibrium point of a fluid marked by the comparison

of the horizontal surface of the liquid with an established
reference point.
level of supply The quantity of an item authorized and directed to be kept on

hand in storage for meeting customer demand.
LHV Lower heating value.
LI Level indicator.
lift gas or gas lift A method of lifting oil from the bottom of a well to the
surface by the use of compressed gas. The gas is pumped
into the hole and at the lower end of the tubing, and becomes
a part of the fluid in the well. As the gas expands, it lifts the
oil to the surface.
lifting Refers to tankers and barges taking on cargoes of oil or

refined product at the terminal or transshipment point.
light crude Crude oil with a low specific gravity and a high API gravity
due to the presence of a high proportion of light hydrocarbon
fractions and low metallic compound.
light cycle oil A product of the Catalytic Cracking Process with a boiling
range of 430–650°F, usually blended into diesel fuels.
light diesel A hydrocarbon component that boils around 500°F.
light ends The low-boiling, easily evaporated components of a

hydrocarbon liquid, e.g., butane, propane, gasoline.
light hydrocarbons The low molecular weight hydrocarbons, such as methane,
ethane, propane, and butanes.
LIN Liquid nitrogen.
line out To restore a unit to steady operating conditions after an upset

or after commissioning.
line up To prepare a system for service.
lipid granuloma A mass of chronically inflamed tissue that is usually

infective.
lipid pneumonia A chronic condition caused by the aspiration of oily

substances into the lungs.
liquefy To convert a solid or a gas to a liquid.
liquid level controller Equipment used to maintain a constant liquid level within a
vessel. Normally a float mechanism, which actuates a valve
on the outside line from the vessel.
liter A measure of capacity in the metric system equal to: 61,022

cubic inches, 0.908 US quarts dry, and 1.0567 US quarts wet.
litharge Lead oxide. One of the chemicals used to make up a doctor

solution for the sweetening of gasoline or light oils.
LMTD Log mean temperature difference.
LNG Liquefied natural gas. The light hydrocarbon portion of

natural gas, predominately methane, which has been
liquefied.
loaded Containing absorbed gases. Example: in a purification

system, methanol is used to absorb gases. When the
methanol contains absorbed gases, it is refereed to as loaded
or rich. When the gases are removed from the methanol, it is
referred to as lean.
loading rack A structural and piping installation along side a railroad track
or roadway used for the purpose of filling railroad tank cars
or transport trucks.
local effects Toxic or irritation effects, which occur at the site of contact
with a chemical or substance.
local ventilation The drawing off and replacement of contaminated air

directly from its source.
lock-tag-try The process of securing equipment and testing the equipment

for operability after it has been isolated and tagged, prior to
maintenance activities.
logarithm The exponent of a number that expresses for that number the
times it must be multiplied times itself to produce the given
number. For example, in 103, the logarithm is 3, meaning 10
must be multiplied times itself three times to produce the
given number, which is 1000.
long residuum Residual oil from distillation which contains oil fractions
carrying crystalline wax.
long ton An avoirdupois weight measure equaling 2,240 pounds.
Long ton (L/T sometimes known as a gross ton, weight ton,

or imperial ton) is the name for the unit called the “Ton” in
the Avoirdupois or Imperial System of measurements, as
formerly used in the United Kingdom and several other
Commonwealth countries. It is equal to 2240 pounds
(exactly 1016.0469088 kilograms).
lot Numerical identification used for tracking containers of

filled product that are shipped out of a plant.
louvre An assembly of moveable blades which can be adjusted to

vary the openings between the blades.
low line The low pressure gas line system that gathers all gas that has
not enough pressure (60 psig or more) to go to the firing line.
The compressors at the gas plant pull the gas from the low
line and push it through the gas plant where propane and
heavier are reclaimed and liquefied, and the ethane and
lighter is put back in the gas system.
low-pressure purge Inert (flash gas) from 107-F and 109-F.
LOX Liquid oxygen.
LP Low pressure.
LPD Low-pressure distillate. A gasoline product of the No. 5

Fluid Catalytic Cracking Process. It is condensed from the
main fractionator overhead stream in the LPD coolers and
collected in the LPD drum.
LPG Liquefied petroleum gas. A liquefied gas composed of

propane or butane, or both.
Propane that is liquefied by condensing it at ambient

temperature under pressure. Butane is sometimes included.
A mixture of ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, normal

butane, butylenes, and isobutene produced at refineries or
natural gas plant liquids.
LPGAN Low-pressure gaseous nitrogen.
LPGOX Low-pressure gaseous oxygen.
LRG Liquefied refinery gas. Liquid propane or butane produced

by a crude oil refinery. It may differ from low-pressure gas
in that propylene and butylene may be present.
LSA Logistic Support Analysis. A methodology for determining

the type and quantity of logistic support required for a
system over its entire lifecycle. Used to determine the cost
effectiveness of asset based solutions.
LSR Light straight run, from the top of the splitter column.
LTS Low temperature shift converter.
LTX Low temperature extraction unit. A unit which uses the

refrigerating effect of the adiabatic expansion of gas for
improved liquid recovery from streams which are produced
from high-pressure gas condensate reservoirs.
lube Short for lubricating oil.
lube distillate High boiling, 700–1000°F range, petroleum distillate used

for manufacture of lubricating oils.
lube resid The residuum (bottom cut) from the Lube Crude Vacuum
Distillation Process in the No. 4 CTU. It is treated and used
as a high-viscosity lubricating oil product.
lubricant A substance that reduces friction heat, and wear when

introduced as a film between solid surfaces.
Lump Sum Turnkey A fixed-price project for which all components are within a
Project single supplier’s responsibility.
LUX lux unit of illuminance and luminous emittance. It is used in

photometry as a measure of the intensity of light
LVGO Light vacuum gas oil. Top sidestream off the vacuum
tower.
M
m3 Cubic meters. A unit of volume.
magnaflux A nondestructive inspection technique that uses a magnetic

field and metal particles to locate flaws in metal parts.
main fractionator The central tower of a fractionating system.
maintainability The set of technical processes that apply maintainability

engineering theory to establish system maintainability requirements,
allocate these requirements down to system elements and
predict and verify system maintainability performance.
maintenance Any activity carried out on an asset in order to ensure that

the asset continues to perform its intended functions, or to
repair the equipment. Modifications are not maintenance,
even though they may be carried out by maintenance
personnel.
maintenance engineering A staff function whose prime responsibility is to ensure that

maintenance techniques are effective, that equipment is
designed and modified to improve maintainability, that
on-going maintenance technical problems are investigated,
and appropriate corrective and improvement actions are
taken. Used interchangeably with plant engineering and
reliability engineering.
maintenance policy A statement of principle used to guide maintenance

management decision-making policies.
maintenance prevention Designing equipment to minimize breakdowns and

production of defective parts.
maintenance schedule A list of planned maintenance tasks to be performed during a
given time period, together with the expected start times and
durations of each of these tasks. Schedules can apply to
different time periods, e.g., daily schedule, weekly schedule,
etc.
maintenance strategy A long-term plan covering all aspects of maintenance

management, which sets the direction for maintenance
management, and contains firm action plans for achieving a
desired future state for the maintenance function.
malaise Feeling of general discomfort, distress, or uneasiness.
malleable Able to be hammered or rolled into sheets.
management The effective, efficient, economical leadership of people and

the use of money, materials, time, and space to achieve
operational objectives.
manifold A system of piping with multiple branches for directing a

low to one or more destinations. Also used for collecting
multiple flows into one destination.
manometer An instrument for measuring the expansion or the expansive

power of gases or vapors; a pressure gauge or vacuum gauge.
manual control A regulating or switching operation performed by a human

operator.
manual dose The act of adding material to a batch without using powered
equipment. Dosing is usually done by hand.
manual operation switch A switch which may be found on a controller to regulate the
output signal. A manually operated regulator is then adjusted
to the required signal level.
manual-mode adjustment When an automatic controller is taken off “automatic mode”

and an adjustment is made on the percentage output to the
final control element.
material All items used or needed in any business, industry, or
operation as distinguished from personnel.
max. cap. Maximum capacity.
mbpd Thousand barrels per day.
Mcf Million cubic feet. A standard unit for measuring or

expressing the volume of a thousand cubic feet of gas. The
pressure and temperature conditions for the standard
measurement must be defined. MMcf is million cubic feet.
MCR Maximum continuous rating.
MDHT Mixed (middle) distillates hydrotreater.
MDO Marine diesel oil. A middle distillate fuel oil which can
contain 10% or more residual fuel oil from transportation
contamination and/or heavy fuel oil blending. Does not
require heated storage.
mean velocity The average velocity of a fluid as it flows through a given

cross section of channel.
measurement devices Any device which uses a known value or scale of values to
compare with an unknown value in order to find its quantity.
mechanical energy Energy used to drive mechanical devices.
mechanical exhaust A powered device, such as a motor-driven fan or air/stream

venturi tube, for exhausting contaminants from a workplace,
vessel, or enclosure.
media Spherical particles added to a mill to create shear forces.

These particles are made form a variety of materials and
come in different sizes.
meniscus The curved surface of a liquid column. It is concave for

water and most liquids and convex for mercury.
mercaptans Sulfur compounds that contain hydrogen sulfide (HS) that
occur naturally in some crudes and formed in cracking
operations.
A group of sulfur compounds with the general formula RSH

that are analogous to the alcohols and phenols but contain
sulfur in place of oxygen and have disagreeable odors.
Merox catalyst A catalyst patented by the Universal Oil Products Co. (UOP)
that is used in the Merox Process to oxidize and regenerate
caustic that contains mercaptans, which yields disulfide oils.
Merox treating A proprietary process that uses caustic soda to extract

mercaptans from petroleum products. The process allows
the caustic to be regenerated.
metabolism Chemical and physical processes whereby the body

functions.
metal A class of chemical elements that readily give up electrons in

a chemical reaction. They are metallic in nature and have a
similar appearance and physical characteristics.
metastasis Transmission of a disease from one part of the body to

another.
methanol utility A stream of hot methanol (methyl alcohol) circulated

throughout the plant for heating cryogenic materials.
Methanol is used because of it very low freezing point
temperature.
methemoglobinemia The presence of methemoglobin in the bloodstream caused

by the reaction of materials with the hemoglobin in red blood
cells that reduces their oxygen-carrying capacity.
metric ton A weight measure equal to:

1,000 kilograms, 2,204.62 pounds, and 0.9842 long tons.
mg Milligram (1/1000, 10-3, of a gram).
mg/kg Milligram per kilogram. Dosage used in toxicology testing
to indicate a dose administered per kg of body weight.
mg/l Milligrams per liter = ppm (parts per million). Expresses a

measure of the concentration by weight of a substance per
unit volume.
mg/m3 Milligram per cubic meter of air.

mg/m3 = ppm x MW/24.45 at 25°C.
microbe A micro-organism, especially a bacterium of a pathogenic

(disease-producing) nature.
microgram (ug) One-millionth (10-6) of a gram.
micrometer (um) One-millionth (10-6) of a meter; often referred to as a

micron.
micron A unit of length equal to one-millionth of a meter

(1/1000 millimeter). One micron equals 0.00004 of an inch.
microns A measurement used to indicate the size of small gaps or

particles.
micro-organisms Extremely small plants and animals, including protozoa,

yeast, viruses, algae, and bacteria.
microspheres Small spherical particles made by spraying a finely dispersed

paste into a jet of hot air. This suddenly evaporates the
water, forming the microscopic spheres.
middle distillate Hydrocarbons in the “middle range” of refinery distillation,

such as heating oil, diesel fuels, and kerosene.
miniature panel station Located on the front of a control panel, it supplies an

indication of a measured condition, set point adjustment
indication, control valve loading pressure indication, and
manual control valve.
miscible Soluble. Extent to which liquids or gases can be easily

mixed or blended.
miscible flood A method of secondary recovery of fluids from a reservoir
by injection of fluids that are soluble with the reservoir
fluids.
mist Suspended liquid droplets in the air generated by condensa-

tion from the gaseous to the liquid state or by mechanically
breaking up the liquid by splashing or atomizing.
Liquid droplets suspended in the air generated by

condensation from vapor or by mechanically breaking up the
liquid by splashing or atomizing.
mixing valve A valve which creates turbulence within a pipe to effect

mixing of the materials flowing through that pipe.
mixture Heterogeneous association of materials that cannot be

represented by a chemical formula and that does not undergo
chemical change as a result of interaction among the mixed
materials.
Two or more substances mingled together physically without

becoming chemically bonded.
ml Milliliter. 1/1000 of a liter. A metric unit of capacity. For

all practical purposes, equal to 1 cubic centimeter.
One cubic inch is about 16 ml.
mm Millimeter. 1/1000 of a meter.
mm Hg A measure of pressure in millimeters of a mercury column

above a reservoir or the difference of level in a U-tube.
mmscfm One million standard cubic feed per minute.
MOC Management of Change. One of the 14 elements of PSM.
model work order A work order stored in the CMMS which contains all the
necessary information required to perform a maintenance
task. (See also standard job.)
modification Any activity carried out on an asset which increases the
capability of that asset to perform its required functions.
mole The quantity of a chemical substance that has a weight in a

unit numerically equal to the molecular weight.
The amount of substance that contains as many entities as

there are atoms of carbon in 12 grams of pure 12C. One mole
weight of a compound is equal to the weight unit, e.g.,
pounds, times the molecular weight of one molecule of the
compound.
mole % Percentage calculation expressed in terms of moles rather

than weight.
mole (molecular) sieve Solid zeolitic materials that can selectively attract moisture
or other substances for the purpose of separation. Normally
used for drying gas or liquid streams. When the mole sieve
becomes saturated with moisture, it must be removed from
service and regenerated by heating the bed with a hot gas
stream.
mole ratio A ratio of the number of moles of one substance compared to

the number of moles of a second substance.
molecular weight The sum of the atomic weights of the atoms in a molecule.
molecule The smallest unit into which a substance can be divided and
retain all of its chemical and physical properties.
momentum The result of the weight of a substance multiplied by its

velocity.
monomer A simple molecule capable of combining with a number of

others to form a polymer.
motor gasoline A complex mixture of relatively volatile hydrocarbons, with

or without small quantities of additives, that have been
blended to form a fuel suitable for use in spark-ignition
engines.
mouth Opening in the top of a container. It is closed with a cap or
lid when the container is full.
MOV Motor-operated valve.
MP Melting point. The temperature at which a solid substance

changes to a liquid state or from a liquid to a solid form
under the conditions of the test. For mixtures, a melting
range may be given.
MPA Middle pumparound.
mppcf Millions of particles per cubic foot of air, based on

impinger samples counted by light-field techniques (OSHA).
mpy Mils per year. A measure of the corrosion rate for pressure
piping and equipment. A “mil” is 0.001 inch. Most piping
and equipment is designed with some specified corrosion
allowance. The thickness of pipe and equipment is
monitored to establish a corrosion rate which can be used to
determine the remaining life of the pipe or equipment. The
corrosion rate is also used to establish inspection intervals.
Typically, if pipe or equipment that has an actual corrosion
rate of less than 5 mpy, or 0.005 inch per year, it is
considered to be in non-corrosive service.
mscfm One thousand standard cubic feet per minute.
MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet. A description of the properties

and hazards of a chemical, along with the applicable
controls.
MSHA Mining Safety and Health Administration. A federal

agency with safety and health regulatory and enforcement
authorities for the mining industry.
MTBF Mean time between failures. A measure of equipment

reliability which is equal to the number of failures in a given
time period, divided by the total equipment uptime in that
period.
MTTR Mean time to repair. A measure of maintainability which is
equal to the total equipment downtime in a given time
period, divided by the number of failures in that period.
mucous membrane The mucous-secreting lining that lines the hollow organs of
the body.
mud drum In a natural (or thermal) circulation boiler, it is the lower

drum that is connected to the upper (steam) drum by way of
riser tubes and downcomer tubes.
mudwashing A flow of water recycled through the Desalters to prevent

suspended solids from settling out and accumulating in the
Desalter vessels.
muffle A ceramic cylinder placed in front of the burner which

surrounds the flame in a fired heater to help sustain ignition
of the fuel.
multiplier Used instead of color coding some ranges on control panel

indicators or range switches. For example, “X”, the symbol
for multiplication, would precede the number (X30, X100,
and so on). Therefore, if the range switch were set at X30,
multiply the reading times 30 to get the actual value.
multi-stage pump A centrifugal pump which has two or more impellers

mounted on the same shaft. The discharge from one impeller
is conducted to the suction eye of the next impeller, etc.
Pumps with up to 14 stages and developing over 3,000 psig
discharge pressure are in use.
mutagen A substance or agent capable of altering the genetic material

in a living cell.
N
n Normal. Used as a prefix in chemical names signifying a

straight-chain structure.
The number of moles of gas.
NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers.
naphtha Any light petroleum fraction which distills between 80° and
500°F. It generally consists of hexane and heavier
hydrocarbon molecules. Naphthas have a low octane
number.
The heavy portion of the gasoline boiling-range fraction. It

generally consists of hexane and heavier hydrocarbon
molecules. Naphthas have a low octane number.
Any low boiling, light fraction of petroleum, oil, and gas.
A volatile, colorless product of petroleum distillate. Used

primarily as paint solvent, cleaning fluid, and blendstock in
gasoline production to produce motor gasoline by blending
with straight-run gasoline.
naphthenic acids The organic acids occurring naturally in petroleum.
naphthenic layer In the Duo Sol Process extractors, the bottom layer (or
extract) that consists of extracted non-lubes and Selecto
solvent. After solvent recovery, they will be used for Coker
charge stock.
narcosis Stupor or unconsciousness produced by narcotics or other

materials.
natural draft Unforced gas flow through a chimney or vertical duct,
directly related to chimney height and the temperature
difference between the ascending gases and the atmosphere,
and not dependent upon the use of fans or other mechanical
devices.
natural gas Naturally occurring light hydrocarbons varying in composi-

tion from mostly methane to a mixture ranging from methane
through hexanes.
A mixture of purchased hydrocarbon gases that is used as

fuel throughout the refinery, distributed from a 50-psig
header.
natural gasoline Liquid product recovered from wet natural gas by

absorption, compression, or refrigeration.
nausea Tendency to vomit, a feeling of sickness at the stomach.
NCG Noncondensable gas. A composite gas stream, such as

methane, ethane, hydrogen, etc., or air, that cannot be
condensed at existing temperatures by increasing its
pressure. Also called a fixed gas (as opposed to a
condensable vapor, such as propane or butane).
NDT Non-destructive testing. Testing of equipment, which does

not destroy the equipment, to detect abnormalities in
physical, chemical, or electrical characteristics. Examples of
techniques include ultrasonic thickness testing, dye penetrant
testing, x-raying, and electrical resistance testing.
necrosis The localized death of tissue.
neoplasm New or abnormal tissue growth that is uncontrollable and

progressive.
nephrotoxic Poisonous to the kidney.
NESHAP National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air

Pollutants.
neuritis Inflammation of the nerves.
neutral oil Lubricating oil base stock of low and medium viscosity,
generally light in color, and produced from lube oil
distillation or distilled from a refined and dewaxed residuum.
neutralization number The number that expresses the weight in milligrams of an

alkali needed to neutralize the acidic material in one gram of
oil. A measure of the acidity of an oil.
neutralize To render chemically harmless; to return the pH to the

neutral level of 7.
neutralizing amine A specialty chemical used for pH control in the Steam

Distribution System.
neutron A very small particle of matter which makes up the nucleus

of an atom and has no electrical charge.
NFPA National Fire Protection Association.
NGL Natural gas liquids. Hydrocarbons liquefied at the surface

in field facilities or in gas processing plants. Natural gas
liquids include propane, butanes, and natural gasoline.
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. A

federal agency which tests and certifies respiratory protective
devices and air sampling detector tubes, recommends
occupational exposure limits for various substances, and
assists OSHA and MSHA (Mining Safety and Health
Administration) in occupational safety and health
investigations and research.
nitrogen blanket A coating of nitrogen in a tank that is used to displace

oxygen and prevent possible fire hazards.
nitrogen blanketing A method that uses inert nitrogen gas to separate flammable
vapors from oxygen in a tank.
nitrogen system A system that delivers nitrogen through hoses, which are
attached to tanks to push out air in order to minimize the
amount of moisture in a batch.
Nm3/hr Normal cubic meters per hour. The equivalent gas flow if
measured at 0°C and 760 mm of mercury.
no. 2 oil A general classification of one of the petroleum fractions

produced in distillation operations. It is used primarily for
space heating, on-and off-highway diesel engine fuel
(including railroad engine fuel and fuel for agricultural
machinery), and electric power generation. Also referred to
as Light Atmospheric Gas Oil or LAGO.
no. 6 oil A residual product remaining after removal by distillation or

other means of an appreciable quantity of the more volatile
components of crude oil. Also referred to as reduced crude.
no scheduled An equipment maintenance strategy where no routine

maintenance maintenance tasks are performed on the equipment. The
only maintenance performed on the equipment is corrective
maintenance, and then only after the equipment has suffered
a failure. Also described as a run-to-failure strategy.
nominal Referenced by name as opposed to special codes.
nomograph A reference chart that shows the relationships of process

variables that satisfy a thermodynamic equation.
non-combustible Incapable of igniting or burning.
noncondensable Those constituents in the suction gas that cannot be

condensed to a liquid with the cooling medium available.
noncondensing gas A composite gas stream, such as methane, ethane, hydrogen,

etc., or air, that cannot be condensed at existing temperatures
by increasing its pressure. Also called a fixed gas (as
opposed to a condensable vapor, such as propane or butane).
non-contact wastewater City water that has been used only in vessel jackets or in
tube-and-shell coolers. Because the water has not been in
contact with any process chemicals, it can be discharged
without any treatment to the tax ditch.
non-flammable Incapable of being easily ignited or burning with extreme

rapidity when lighted. Also, a DOT hazard class for any
compressed gas other than a flammable one.
nonlinear control or error The further the process variable is from the set point, the
response control greater the proportion of change is made to the final control
element.
nonmetal A class of chemical elements that are varied in appearance

and physical characteristics and are earthen in nature.
During a chemical reaction, nonmentals readily take on
electrons.
non-operational Only the impact of the failure is the direct cost of the repair
consequences plus any secondary damage caused to other equipment as a
result of the failure.
non-oxidation/reduction A chemical reaction in which a pair of electrons is shared

reaction between two particles. Instead of one atom giving up an
electron as in an oxidation-reduction reaction, a pair of
electrons orbit both atoms in a covalent bond.
non-pigmented Transparent, does not contain pigment.
non-routine maintenance Any maintenance task which is not performed at a regular,

predetermined frequency.
non-sparking equipment Tools or machines that do not produce sparks when in use.
Required for work in atmospheres containing flammable
gases.
non-toxic The probable lethal dose of an undiluted product to 50% of

the test animals determined from dermal toxicity studies
(LD50) is greater than 2 grams per kilogram of body weight.
normal atmospheric A standard pressure and temperature set by the scientific
pressure and temperature community for the atmosphere. It is established as sea level
pressure at 760 mm mercury column and a temperature of
0°C.
nose fairing The rounded front of the compressor located in the bell
mouth and used to protect the inner hub and forward bearing
assembly.
nozzle A specially shaped pipe that projects a tightly compressed

stream of steam at the blades of a steam turbine. The high-
velocity stream causes the turbine to rotate.
NPA National Petroleum Association.
NPDES permit National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit.

The regulatory agency document issued by either a federal or
state agency, which is designated to control all discharges of
pollutants from point sources into U.S. waterways. NPDES
permits regulate discharges into navigable waters from all
point sources of pollution, including industries, municipal
wastewater treatment plants, sanitary landfills, large
agricultural feed lots, and return irrigation flows.
NRC National Response Center. A notification center in the

Coast Guard Building in Washington, DC with a toll-free
telephone number (1-800-424-8802), which must be called
when significant oil or chemical spills or other environ-
mentally related accidents occur.
nucleus The central, positively charged, dense portion of an atom.
nuisance particulates Dusts that do not produce significant organic disease or toxic
effect from “reasonable” concentrations and exposures.
nystagmus Spastic, involuntary motion of the eyeballs.
O
octane number A laboratory test that determines the performance of a

gasoline motor fuel under compression in an engine. It
measures the tendency of the fuel to “knock.”
octane rating A rating that indicates the tendency to knock when a fuel is
used in a standard internal combustion engine under standard
conditions. Each unit product specification has a target
octane number (example: 98.6–99.2).
A measure of the antiknock qualities of gasoline. Isooctane

is rated at 100. Normal heptane is rated at zero. A 50-50
mixture of these two would be rated at 50.
odor A description of the smell of the substance.
odor threshold The lowest concentration of a substance’s vapor, in air, that

can be smelled.
off-gas Methane and ethane gases released from the overhead

receiver of a distillation process.
oil Crude petroleum and other hydrocarbons produced at the

wellhead in liquid form.
oil emulsions A mixture of water and oil in which the oil is more or less
permanently suspended in the water in the form of a very
small droplet.
oil well gas Gas that is produced from an oil well.
olfactory Relating to the sense of smell.
on spec On specification. A product which is within the limits set for

its production.
on stream A process unit that begins to treat feed.
opaque Impervious to light rays.
open transfer Any transfer that at any time involves contact of a moving
fluid with the atmosphere, air, or oxygen. Open transfer of
flammable liquids, especially Class IA liquids, is dangerous
due to the release of flammable vapors into the work area.
Since there is a risk of fire or explosion if an ignition source
is present, perform these transfers only in a hood.
operating context The operational situation within which an asset operates.

For example, is it a stand-alone piece of plant, or is it one of
a duty-standby pair? Is it part of a batch manufacturing
process or a continuous production process? What is the
impact of failure of this item of equipment on the remainder
of the production process? The operating context has
enormous influence over the choice of appropriate
equipment maintenance strategies for any asset.
operating costs Expenses of using an item not incurred when the item is
acquired but not used.
operating factor The percentage of the time which a unit is performing its
function. For example, if a unit runs 800 hours (on stream
time), takes 100 hours for reconditioning and inspection, and
100 hours for starting up and shutting down, the operating
factor would be 80%.
operating hours The length of time that an item of equipment is actually

operating.
operational A failure that has a direct adverse impact on operational

consequences capability, e.g., lost production, increased production costs,
loss of product quality, or reduced customer service.
operational efficiency Used in the calculation of overall equipment effectiveness.

The actual output produced from an asset in a given time
period divided by the output that would have been produced
from that asset in that period, had it produced at its rated
capacity. Normally expressed as a percentage.
optimization Maximizing production and minimizing waste for an entire
process, end-to-end.
ordorant A highly odiferous fluid or gas, usually a light mercaptan,

added to a gas or low-pressure (LP) gas to impart to it a
distinctive odor for safety precautions and to facilitate
detection of leaks.
organic Pertaining to or designating a branch or chemistry. The

treating in general of the compounds produced in plants and
animals, and of carbon-hydrogen compounds of artificial
origin contrasted with inorganic.
organic materials Compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and other

elements with chain or ring structures.
orifice A small plate with a measured hole in it to meter the amount

of flow. The difference in pressure on the two sides of the
orifice plate can be used to measure the volume of flow
through the pipe. The orifice can be designed to cause the
mixing of the materials flowing through the pipe.
A device to partially restrict the flow through a pipe; the

difference in pressure on the two sides of the orifice plate
indicates the volume of flow through the pipe; the orifice can
be designed to mix the materials flowing through the pipe.
orifice meter An instrument which measures the flow through a pipe by

use of the difference in pressure on the upstream and
downstream sides of an orifice plate.
O-ring A type of rubber seal to keep liquid from leaking in between

two cylinders (one inside the other).
ORP Oxidation reduction potential.
orsat A test, named after John Orsat, for the measurement of

specific components in gas, such as carbon dioxide and
oxygen.
orthographic projection A multi-view drawing that shows every feature of an object.
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration. An
agency of the federal government in the Department of
Labor.
outage (ullage) A term used in some industries, notably power generation,

which is equivalent to a shutdown.
The amount which a tank, container, or vessel lacks of being

full; a term generally used in connection with ship’s tanks.
Space left in a product container to allow for expansion

during the temperature changes it may undergo during
shipment and application. The measurement of space that is
NOT occupied in a drum.
outlet The end of a hose or equipment that material flows out of.
outside finished goods A finished good that is brought into the Batchmaking
System. This material is either made at another plant or has
previously been made and approved at our plant.
overall equipment A term initially coined in connection with total productive

effectiveness maintenance. It provides a measure of overall asset
productivity and is generally expressed as a percentage, and
can be calculated by multiplying availability by utilization
by operational efficiency by quality rate.
overexposure Exposure to a hazardous material beyond the allowable

exposure levels.
overhaul A comprehensive examination and restoration of an asset to

an acceptable condition.
overhead Pertaining to a fluid (gas or liquid) effluent from the top of a

process vessel, such as a distillation column.
Indirect costs which are not directly traceable to products,

operations, or services.
overhead product Liquid consisting of vapors from a tower that have been
cooled and condensed.
overhead receiver A vessel that collects the fraction that is removed from the
top of a distillation tower.
A drum or tank that collects the condensed liquid from a

condenser in a system.
overlap Where the ASTM D-86 curve bends away from the true
boiling point curve, indicating cross-contamination between
products because of slightly poor separation during the
distillation.
override To cancel the influence of an automatic control by means of

a manual control.
oxidation Reaction in which a substance combines with oxygen

provided by an oxidizer or oxidizing agent. An oxidation
reaction is always accompanied by an offsetting reduction
reaction in which oxygen is removed from a compound or
atoms, molecules, or ions gain electrons.
oxidation/reduction A chemical reaction wherein electrons are transferred

reaction between particles. This transfer of electrons produces an
ionic bonding between the two particles or an ionic
compound.
oxide pox Dermatitis caused by contact with oxides under poor

personal hygienic conditions.
oxidizer A substance, not necessarily oxygen, that supports the

combustion of a fuel.
A substance that yields oxygen readily to stimulate the

combustion of organic matter.
oxidizing agent Any substance, such as oxygen and chlorine, that can accept
electrons. When oxygen or chlorine is added to wastewater,
organic substances are oxidized. These oxidized organic
substances are more stable and less likely to give off odors or
to contain disease bacteria.
oxygen scavenger A chemical used in treating BFW to remove excess oxygen
not performed through steam stripping.
Oxygen Stability Test or A test for determining the length of time a gasoline will stand
induction period in storage without absorbing oxygen to form gum.
ozonation The application of ozone to water, wastewater, or air that is

generally for the purposes of disinfection or odor control.
P
 Material density.
P Pressure.
P&ID Piping and instrumentation diagram. A drawing of unit

flow and instrumentation.
packaged unit A shop-assembled group of equipment and accessories which

needs only foundations, inlet, and outlet piping, utility
connections and liquid storage, if required, in the field to
make an operating unit.
packaging The use of protective wrappings, cushioning, inside

containers, and complete identification markings up to but
not including the exterior shipping container.
packed column A fractionation or absorption column filled with packing

designed to have a relatively large surface per unit volume to
give the required contact between the rising vapors and the
descending liquid.
packed tower (1) A tower filled with packing that is used to contact two fluids
for the purpose of mixing them. The action may result in a
chemical reaction or a final separation.
packed tower (2) A fractionating or absorber tower that is filled with small
objects to effect an intimate contact between rising vapors
and falling liquid.
packing A bed of material inside a vessel that provides a large surface
area for contacting a vapor with a liquid.
Application or use of exterior shipping containers or any

other shipping medium, such as pallets, and assembling of
items or packages thereof, together with necessary blocking,
bracing, cushioning, weatherproofing, exterior strapping, and
marking for shipment.
A method of sealing the mechanical joint between two metal

surfaces; packing (stuffing) material is inserted within the
seal area container (the stuffing or packing box), and
compressed to a liquid-proof seal by a threaded packing ring
following. Also known as stuffing.
Arrangement of atoms or ions in a crystal lattice.
Packinox The Packinox heat exchanger is a welded bundle block and a

pressurized vessel. Heat transfer occurs in the bundle block.
No process fluids circulate inside the shell. The vessel is
pressurized with gas to compress the bundle block.
paint residue Liquid-solvent-borne waste from the paint.
Waste material that contains organic solvents.
palladium catalyst A noble metal catalyst used to promote the acetylene

conversion reaction. The catalyst offers a porous surface for
hydrogen and acetylene to react making ethylene.
pallets Low, portable platforms of wood, metal, or other material

used to facilitate handling, storage, and transportation of
individual items or groups of items.
palpitation An irregular, rapid heartbeat.
paraffin Any of the saturated, straight-chine hydrocarbons of the

methane series.
That series of hydrocarbons having the general formula:

CnHn+2 and no double bond (saturated).
paraffin wax/petroleum Hydrocarbons of molecular weight higher than 250° and
wax boiling above 600ºF, which are solid at room temperature.
Waxes are mostly straight hydrocarbons, with a small
amount of branching. They may also contain naphthene and
aromatic rings.
paraffins Open chain hydrocarbons saturated with respect to hydrogen.
parallel Lying or moving in the same direction but always the same
distance apart.
parallel flow A side-by-side flow of products having a common feed and

output, e.g., regenerator cyclone.
partial condenser A condenser (heat exchanger) that furnishes sufficient

cooling medium to condense a part of a vapor stream. The
condensed portion is usually drawn off or separated in a
separator downstream from the partial condenser.
partial pressure The pressure that would be exerted by one component of a

mixture of gases if it were present along in a container.
particulate (1) Free suspended solids.
particulate (2) Small, separate pieces of an airborne material. Generally,

anything that is not a fiber and has an aspect ratio of 3 to 1.
PB&M Pump Blending and Movement.
PdM Predictive Maintenance. An equipment maintenance

strategy based on measuring the condition of equipment in
order to assess whether it will fail during some future period,
and then taking appropriate action to avoid the consequences
of that failure. The condition of equipment could be
monitored using condition monitoring, statistical process
control techniques, by monitoring equipment performance,
or through the use of the human senses. The terms
condition-based maintenance, on-condition maintenance, and
predictive maintenance can be used interchangeably.
PEL Permissible exposure limit. Legally enforced exposure
limit for a substance established by OSHA. The PEL
indicates the permissible concentration of air contaminants to
which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed to 8
hours a day, 40 hours a week, over a working lifetime (40
years), without adverse effects.
percent planned work The percentage of total work (in labor hours) performed in a
given time period which has been planned in advance.
percent volatile by volume The percentage of a liquid or solid (by volume) that will
evaporate at an ambient temperature of 70°F (unless some
other temperature is specified). Examples include butane,
gasoline, and paint thinner (mineral spirits) that are 100%
volatile as their individual evaporation rates vary, but in
time, each will evaporate completely.
peristalic pump A type of positive-displacement pump.
permeability A measure of the resistance offered by a rock to the

movement of fluids through it.
personal hygiene Precautionary measures taken to maintain good health when

exposed to harmful materials.
PERT chart Project Evaluation and Review Technique chart. A

scheduling tool which shows in flow chart format the inter-
dependencies between project activities.
petrochemical An intermediate chemical derived from petroleum,

hydrocarbon liquids, or natural gas, such ethylene,
propylene, benzene, toluene, and xylene.
petrolatum A solid or semi-solid mixture of amorphous paraffin waxes

occurring naturally in petroleum. These products are
obtained by dewaxing paraffin-base stocks.
petroleum Rock or crude mineral oil. A material occurring naturally in

the earth and consisting essentially of hydrocarbons, solid,
liquid, or gases.
petroleum distillate A complex mixture of hydrocarbons, liquid at normal
ambient conditions, separated from crude oil and other
refinery process streams by distillation.
Petropower™ The use of refining waste products, such as petroleum coke,

to fuel a power plant, which produces steam and/or
electricity.
P-F interval In Reliability Centered Maintenance, the time from when a

potential failure can first be detected on an asset or compo-
nent using a selected predictive maintenance task, until the
asset or component has failed. Reliability Centered
Maintenance principles state that the frequency with which a
predictive maintenance task should be performed is
determined solely by the P-F interval.
PFD Process flow diagram.
pH A symbol used to express the degree of acidity or alkalinity

of an aqueous solution. Values of 7 to 14 indicate alkaline
solutions, and values of 0 to 7 indicate acid solutions, with 7
being neutral—neither acidic or alkaline. Pure water has pH
of 7. The substance in an aqueous solution will ionize to a
various extent, giving different concentrations of H+ and
OH- ions.
The hydrogen ion potential of an acid or base. The pH scale

is negative in value; therefore, low numbers have a strong
hydrogen ion potential and define the acids. Substances
represented by high numbers have weak hydrogen ion
potential and are alkaline. Seven is neutral on the pH scale
and is neither acid nor alkaline.
The hydrogen ion activity of a sample measured

electrometrically with a glass electrode and a reference
electrode.
pH elevator A chemical used in treating BFW to keep the return

condensate pH elevated.
PHA Process Hazard Analysis. One of the 14 elements of PSM.
phase A software routine in the DCS that performs a single
function or a short series of closely related functions.
phenol An organic compound that is an alcohol derivative of

benzene.
phlegm Thick mucous from the respiratory passage.
photophobia Intolerance to light.
physical distribution A wide range of activities involving movement of raw

materials from the source of supply to the beginning of the
production line. Also movement of finished products from
the end of the production line to the consumer.
physical hazard A chemical for which there is scientifically valid evidence

that it is:
 A combustible liquid
 A compressed gas
 An explosive
 Flammable
 An organic peroxide
 An oxidizer
 Pyrophoric
 Unstable (reactive) or water reactive
physical state A condition of a material (solid, liquid, or gas) at room

temperature.
PIB Product Information Bulletin. General information on a

product.
piezoelectric Converting pressure to an electric signal.
pigable A transfer line that utilizes a cylindrical rubber squeegee to

force all residual products out of the inside of transfer piping.
pigging A procedure for forcing a solid object through a pipeline for
cleaning purposes.
pigment A powder that is added to a batch to add color to paint.
pilot burner A small fire in a furnace which burns continuously and is

independent of the main fires or temperature controls.
PIN Product identification number. A four-digit number,

prefaced by UN or NA, used in Canada under the TDGR for
use by emergency personnel to identify a material in the
event of an accident.
pipeline gas Gas which meets a transmission company’s minimum

specifications.
piston The sliding portion of a reciprocating pump that consists of a

short cylinder inside a larger cylinder, which receives force
from the power medium and, in turn, transfers it to the fluid
being handled.
piston chamber A chamber used to house a piston.
pitch Sloped, e.g., fans in air coolers.
pitch angle The angle a blade or vane is offset from straight.
plant air Air that is pressurized by a compressor system and is

transported through the plant via piping. Used to power
pneumatic (compressed air) equipment.
plan view The top view of an object.
planned maintenance Any maintenance activity for which a pre-determined job

procedure has been documented, for which all labor,
materials, tools, and equipment required to carry out the task
have been estimated, and their availability assured before
commencement of the task.
plant air Compressed air that is available throughout the plant. It is
often used for the operation of air-powered equipment and
tools.
plant engineering A staff function whose prime responsibility is to ensure that

designed and modified to improve maintainability, that on-
going maintenance technical problems are investigated, and
appropriate corrective and improvement actions are taken.
Used interchangeably with maintenance engineer and
reliability engineering.
platformate A raffinate oil.
Platformer A proprietary name for a naphtha reforming process. In the

process, a reformer increases the octane number of a naphtha
by creating aromatics.
PLC Programmable logic controller. An electronic control

system used to control various plant machinery.
A control device that employs the hardware use of a

computer and relay ladder diagram language. PLCs are
special-purpose microcomputer controllers that are typically
used for sequential instructions. They are best suited to
batch operations or equipment control.
plenum A condition in which air pressure within an enclosed space is

greater than that in the outside atmosphere.
plenum wall The wall of the enclosed area that allows passage of air into
the compressor inlet.
PLT Power lift truck. A mobile, power-propelled truck used to

lift, carry, and stack heavy materials.
plugged Blocked accidentally by foreign matter or solidified product.

Blocked by the deliberate insertion of a metal plug, usually
screwed into small drain valves, etc.
PM Preventive Maintenance. An equipment maintenance
strategy based on replacing, overhauling, or re-manufactur-
ing an item at a fixed interval, regardless of its condition at
the time. Scheduled restoration tasks and scheduled discard
tasks are both examples of preventive maintenance tasks.
PMCC Pensky-Martens Closed Cup. A flash point test method.
pneumatic Powered by pressurized air.
pneumoconiosis A respiratory tract and lung condition caused by inhalation

and retention of irritant mineral or metallic particles. An
X-ray can detect changes, which include fibrosis.
PO Purchase order. The prime document raised by an

organization, and issued to an external supplier, ordering
specific materials, parts, supplies, equipment, or services.
poison Any substance that is injurious to health and may lead to

death when relatively small amounts are taken either
internally or externally.
poison control center A center that provides medical information on a 24-hour

basis for accidents involving the ingestion of potentially
poisonous materials.
poison, class A A DOT term for an extremely dangerous poison, such as a

poisonous gas or a liquid of such a nature that a very small
amount of the gas or vapor of the liquid mixed with air is
dangerous to life.
poison, class B A term for liquid, solid, paste, or semisolid substances other
than class A poisons or irritating materials known or
presumed by animal tests to be so toxic to man to be a health
hazard during transportation.
pollution The impairment (reduction) of water quality by agriculture,
domestic, or industrial wastes, including thermal and
radioactive wastes, to such a degree as to hinder any
beneficial use of the water or render it offensive to the senses
of sight, taste, or smell, or when sufficient amounts of waste
creates or poses a potential threat to human health or the
environment.
polymer (1) Product of polymerization of normally gaseous olefins to

hydrocarbons boiling in the gasoline range.
A chemical compound or mixture of compounds formed by

the combination of two or more small molecules to form
larger molecules that contain repeating structural units.
Heavy hydrocarbon oils, such as green oil, that form by a

polymerization reaction.
polymer (2) A high-molecular-weight substance, either natural or

synthetic, which can be represented as a repeated small unit
(monomer). A copolymer contains more than one type of
monomeric unit.
polymerization A chemical reaction in which one or more small molecules

combine to form larger molecules. A hazardous polymeri-
zation is such a reaction that takes place at a rate that releases
large amounts of energy that can cause fires or explosions or
burst containers. Materials that can polymerize usually
contain inhibitors that can delay the reaction.
The act of combining two or more unsaturated organic

molecules to form a new molecule whose molecular weight
is an exact multiple of that of the original substance.
In a chemical reaction, the joining together of olefins to form

larger molecules.
polyol An organic compound having more than one hydroxyl
(–OH) group per molecule. In the cellular plastics industry,
the term includes monomeric and ploymeric compounds
containing alcoholic hydroxyl groups, such as polyethers,
glycols, glycerol, and ployesters, used as reactants.
polyurethane foam This family of foams differs from other cellular plastics in
that foaming occurs simultaneously with polymer-forming
reaction between a diisocyanate and a polyol. Rigid
polyurethane foam: This family of foams differs from other
cellular plastics in that foaming occurs simultaneously with
the polymer-forming reactions. In polyurethane resins,
reacting a polyol with a diisocyanate makes the polymeric
constituent of polyurethane foams. The polyol may be of the
polyester or polyether type. When the isocyanate is in
excess of the amount that will react with the polyol, and
when the water is present, the excess isocyanate will react
with water to produce carbon dioxide, which expands the
mixture.
pond An open-air, earthen basin that stores various types of water

and wastewater. Site ponds include effluent, fire water, lime
sludge, and retention.
post indicator valve A device having a valve at the top and connected to the fire
water header arising from the ground used to isolate sections
of the fire water header. The valve will show either “closed”
or “open” to indicate the valve position.
post-hold additions Raw material charges that occur after the reaction-hold
period has expired.
post-reaction additions Any additions that are required to be made during the
reaction-hold period.
potable water Well water that is of drinking-water quality.
potential failure A term used in Reliability Centered Maintenance. An

identifiable condition which indicates that a functional
failure is either about to occur, or in the process of occurring.
pour point The temperature at which a liquid ceases or begins to flow or
at which it congeals.
The lowest temperature at which oil will pour or flow,

without disturbance, when it is chilled under definite
conditions.
pour test The chilling of a liquid under specified conditions to

determine the pour point. Observations are generally made
over a range of temperatures.
powder A solid material that is added to a batch to enhance certain

physical properties.
power pump A reciprocating pump in which the liquid pistons are driven
by other means than direct-acting steam pistons and rods.
PPE Personal protective equipment. Devices or clothing worn

to help insulate a worker from direct exposure to hazardous
materials. Examples include gloves and respirators.
pph Pounds per hour.
ppm Parts per million. A unit for measuring the concentration of

a gas or vapor in air. Parts of the gas or vapor in a million
parts of air. Also used to indicate the concentration of a
particular substance in a liquid or solid.
PPTS Positive pressure testing system.
PRA Probabalistic Risk Assessment. A “top-down” approach

used to apportion risk to individual areas of plant and
equipment, and possibly to individual assets so as to achieve
an overall target level of risk for a plant, site, or organization.
These levels of risk are then used in risk-based techniques,
such as Reliability Centered Maintenance and Hazop, to
assist in the development of appropriate equipment
maintenance strategies, and to identify required equipment
modifications.
precipitate A substance, usually solid or crystalline, separated from a
solution as the result of a chemical reaction or by application
of energy like heat or cold.
preheat Heat added to a fluid prior to an operation performed on that

fluid.
premix An initial addition of raw materials to a batch. At this point,

only mixing of the batch has occurred.
pressure The force or thrust exerted over a surface, divided by its

area.
pressure drop The decrease in pressure, due to friction, which occurs when
a liquid or gas passes through a pipe, vessel, or other piece of
equipment.
pressure gauges Pressure gauges give readings which represent the pressure
being measured plus the pressure of the atmosphere, pounds
per square inch gauge (psig). Gauge readings can be
converted to pounds per square inch absolute (psia) by
subtracting the barometric or atmospheric pressure from the
gauge reading. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is
approximately 14.7 pounds and decreases as the elevation
increases.
pressure relief valve A generic term applying to relief valves, safety valves, or
safety relief valves.
pressure swing A process that produces a high, pure-hydrogen-product

adsorption process stream through a process in which the stream is guided
through ten adsorbent beds in a two-phase process:
adsorption and regeneration.
pre-stage A set of raw materials that have been presorted, weighed,

and prepared according to a batch ticket made for a certain
volume (gallons).
presulfide To convert catalyst cobalt and molybdenum metal oxides to

sulfides that are catalytically active compounds.
pre-weighed Material that has been weighted to make paint.
primary air In a fired heater, the premix air that is mixed with the
gaseous fuel before being burned at the burner outlet.
primary function In Reliability Centered Maintenance, the primary

functionality required of an asset and the reason the asset
was acquired. For example, it is likely that the primary
function of a pump is to pump a specified liquid at a
specified rate against a specified head of pressure.
primed The action of coating a vessel, transferring a line pump, or

other equipment with solvent used in a batch before making
or transferring a batch.
primer A colored product that has many functions. Its first use is to
cover imperfections in a surface. It then provides protection
and promotes adhesion between the metal and top coat of the
paint.
priming Boiler operation—A violent spasmodic action resulting in

the throwing of slugs of boiler water over with the steam.
Similar to the bumping when water is boiled in an open
beaker.
Pump operation—The filling of the liquid end of a pump

with liquid to remove vapors present and eliminate the
tendency to become vapor bound.
priority The relative importance of a task in relation to other tasks.

Used in scheduling work orders.
PRiSM Electronic data files on the “x” drive or in the Electronic

Performance Support System (EPSS).
proactive maintenance Any tasks used to predict or prevent equipment failures.
procedure A sequence of actions that collectively accomplish some

desired task.
Process Safety To help ensure safe and healthful workplaces, OSHA has
Management issued the Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous
Chemicals standard (29 CFR 1910.119), which contains
requirements for the management of hazards associated with
processes using highly hazardous chemicals.
procurement The process of obtaining personnel, services, supplies,
materials, and equipment or facilities.
proportional control The correctional output is proportional to the deviation from

the set point.
protective device Devices and assets intended to eliminate or reduce the

consequences of equipment failure. Some examples include
standby plant and equipment, emergency systems, safety
valves, alarms, trip devices, and guards.
proton The large, heavy atomic particle in the nucleus of the atom
that defines the element. The proton is sole particle in the
nucleus of the hydrogen atom.
A positively charged particle which is part of the nucleus of

an atom.
provisioning The process of determining and selecting the varieties and

quantities of repair parts, spares, special tools, tests, and
support equipment that should be procured and stocked to
sustain equipment and systems for specified periods of time.
proximity sensor An electronic device used to tell a programmable logic

controller (PLC) that the maximum capacity (max. cap.)
level has been reached.
PSA Probabalistic Safety Assessment. Similar to probabalistic

risk assessment, except focused solely on safety-related
risks.
pseudocomponent A mixture of hydrocarbons that is treated as a single

component.
A mixture of numerous pure components that is identified by

one set of physical and thermodynamic properties.
psi Pounds per square inch. One psi equals 27.6 inches of
water.
psia Pounds per square inch absolute. The unit of

measurement for absolute pressure.
psig Pounds per square inch gauge. Represents the difference

between the measured pressure and the existing atmospheric
pressure. At standard conditions,
psig = psia  14.7
PSM Process safety management.
PSV Process safety valve. The valve provides the safe release of
pressure.
puke To intermittently heave overhead from a tower a large

quantity of liquid together with the vapors caused by badly
upset conditions with the tower.
pulverized fuel (PF) Boilers which are usually in the higher capacity range (over
boilers 200 MW), fueled by pulverized solid coal or petroleum coke.
Traditionally, customers are utilities.
pump An electrical or pneumatic device used to transfer liquids

from one place to another. The device transfers material
through flexible hoses or stationary piping.
Pumparound (PA) A system or process vessel that moves liquid out of and back
into the vessel at a new location. For example, in a bubble
tower, the withdrawing of liquid from a plate or tray,
followed by cooling, and returning to another plate to induce
condensation of vapors.
A side stream cooling circuit that removes heat from the

middle zone of a fractionator.
A system that moves liquid out of and back into the vessel at
a new location to control a process temperature through the
use of piping, exchangers, and control valves.
pump-in reflux In the distillation process, that part of the condensed
overhead stream that is returned to the fractionating column
to control temperatures and increase the efficiency of
separation.
PUR Polyurethane. Polymeric substance containing many

urethane linkages. A large family of polymers with widely
ranging properties and uses, all based on the reaction product
of an organic diisocyanate with compounds containing a
hydroxyl group, and having the RNHCOOR group in their
chains. The types and properties of polyurethanes are so
varied that they have been dubbed the “erector set” of the
plastics industry. They may be thermosetting or
thermoplastic, rigid and hard, or flexible and soft, solid or
cellular; and the properties of any of these types may be
varied within wide limits to suit the desired application.
purchase requisition The prime document raised by user departments authorizing

the purchase of specific materials, parts, supplies, equipment,
or services from external suppliers.
purge To eliminate all undesirable materials (usually flammable

materials, water and oxygen) from a vessel, piece of
equipment, or process.
To clean or remove existing materials by displacing them

with another medium. Potentially explosive hydrocarbon
vapors in a line or vessel are usually displaced with steam or
an inert gas such as nitrogen.
purged The action of pushing all previous batch material from a

transfer line, hose, pump, or mill.
purging Emptying lines of material that use other compatible

material.
purifier A machine used for a liquid-liquid separation in which the
two intermixed liquids, which are insoluble in each other,
have different specific gravities. Solids with specific
gravities higher than those of the liquids can be separated off
at the same time. A purifier bowl has two outlets: one for
the light phase liquid and one for the heavy phase liquid.
pyolysis Chemical decomposition or breaking apart of molecules

produced by heating.
pyrophoric Materials that ignite spontaneously in air below 130°F

(54.4°C). Occasionally friction will ignite them.
Q
Q Btu/hr.
q Flow rate.
QC Quality control.
Q-grade jet A kerosene-based jet fuel with a 120°F flash point.
quality rate Used in the calculation of overall equipment effectiveness.

The proportion of the output from a machine or process
which meets required product quality standards. Normally
specified as a percentage.
quench A sudden cooling of hot materials usually accomplished by

injecting cool oils into the hot, process stream.
quill A small pipe that fits inside a larger pipe to allow a chemical
to be injected into the flow through the larger pipe. The end
of the quill is cut off at an angle to diffuse the injection and
improve mixing.
R
R Resistance.
radial flow In a reformer reactor, to flow uniformly crossways from the

outside circumference into the reactor’s center.
radiant heat Electromagnetic energy transmitted through space by

electromagnetic waves.
radiation A stream of particles, such as electrons, neutrons, protons,

particles, or high-energy photons or a mixture of these.
radical A combination of elements that are not neutral but have a

charge. In a chemical reaction, radicals behave as a single
element.
radicals A group of atoms bonded together that can be considered as

a single entity in a chemical reaction.
radius A straight line extending from the center of a circle. The

circular area itself.
raffinate Refined oil produced in solvent extraction processes.
The portion of the treated liquid mixture that remains

undissolved and is not removed by the selective solvent.
In solvent refining, that portion of the treated liquid mixture

that remains undissolved and is not removed by the selective
solvent. Also known as good oil to petroleum refinery
operators.
rag (layer) The stratum of weld metal consisting of one or more passes
and lying parallel to the welding surface.
rag oil Waste oil.
ramsbottom coke A carbon residue test originated by Dr. J.R. Ramsbottom in
England.
range switch A switch used to cover a condition having a wide range of

possible values. If regular dial calibrations are difficult to
read, the switch allows different scales to be applied.
Raschig rings A small, cylindrical ring made of either suitable metals or

ceramic material, which is used in packed-type fractionating
or absorption towers in order to break up a stream of gas or
liquid over a large surface area.
Rateau stages The stages of a multi-stage turbine that follow the Curtis
(first) stage. Rateau stages work by a combination of
impulse and reaction forces.
ratio control Maintains a constant ratio between two or more variables.

Examples include: furnace fuel/air, blending components/
gasoline, feed rate/stripping steam rate.
raw gas Unprocessed gas or the inlet gas to a plant.
raw make A mixture of natural gas liquids prior to fractionation.

(raw mix liquids)
raw material Resin, solvent, pigment, powders, or additive used in paint

manufacturing.
raw material code A code used to identify a raw material and is dependent upon
the type or chemical makeup of the raw material.
raw water Untreated water pumped from the river used as a feedwater
to a process.
RCM Reliability Centered Maintenance. A structured process,
originally developed in the airline industry, but now
commonly used in all industries to determine the equipment
maintenance strategies required for any physical asset to
ensure that it continues to fulfill its intended functions in its
present operating context. A number of books have been
written on the subject, but none better than Moubray’s book,
RCM II.
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Federal

environmental legislation administered by the EPA, aimed at
controlling the generation, treating, storage, transportation,
and disposal of hazardous wastes.
reaction (chemical) A chemical transformation or change. An interaction of two

or more substances to form a new substance.
A process that uses temperature, pressure, and catalysis to

cause molecules in the feedstock to combine to make
reformate.
reaction (force) The force of steam jetting backward from the blades of a
turbine wheel to cause rotation.
reaction hold period The time during which the product is held at the normal
reaction temperature after the monomer feed.
reaction turbine A turbine that uses the acceleration of an expanding vapor

across nozzles mounted on a rotor to impart force to the
rotor.
reactive material A chemical substance or mixture that will vigorously

polymerize, decompose, condense, or become self-reactive
due to shock, pressure, or temperature. Includes explosive
materials, organic peroxides, pressure-generating materials,
and water-reactive materials.
reactivity The tendency of a substance to undergo a chemical reaction

with the release of energy.
reactor A vessel in which two or more materials are contacted in the
presence of a catalyst, allowing a chemical reaction to take
place. In catalytic cracking, it is the enlarged space in which
hot oil is contacted and cracked with catalyst.
reactor (riser) The long, vertical tube portion of an FCCU converter where
catalyst and oil contact is made.
ready line Used in relation to mobile equipment. Equipment which is

available, but not being utilized is typically parked on the
ready line. Used interchangeably with go-line.
reagent A pure chemical substance that is used to make new products

or is used in chemical tests to measure, detect, or examine
other substances.
reboil vapors Vapors generated by a heat exchanger that vaporizes a

portion of the bottom product of a distillation tower. The hot
vapors are returned to the tower for stripping light products
from the heavy bottom product of the tower.
reboiler A piece of equipment for supplying additional heat,

especially to the lower part of a fractionating column.
reboiler A source of heat supplied to the bottom of a tower to ensure

continuous boiling of material in the tower. Reboilers use
steam, fuel gas or other mediums to produce heat.
rebuild/recondition Total teardown and reassembly of a product.
receiver A drum or vessel that receives condensed overhead vapors

from fractionation columns and act as a liquid reservoir for
reflux pump suction and net overhead product.
reciprocating pump A positive-displacement pump consisting of a plunger or a

piston moving back and forth within a cylinder. With each
stroke of the plunger or piston, a definite volume of liquid is
pushed out through the discharge valves.
recirculation A milling process that pumps the batch of paint from the
source tank through a mill and back to the source tank.
recorder A device used to provide a continuous graphic depiction of a
process condition. It consists of a chart with lines and values
calibrated and across which runs a pen(s) operated by a
signal from the controller. Circular chart recorders use a disc
of paper with preprinted time markings. The disc rotates at a
constant rate. A pen rests at the present measurement level
calibrated line on the chart. Strip charts operate by
employing a long, rectangular chart and are also preprinted
with calibration markings, which is taken up by a cylindrical
core. A horizontal plate (multi-point pens) makes markings
as conditions are registered by the controller.
Recording Controller An instrument that provides a printed chart of variable

readings and automatically adjusts a valve to effect the
process in order to maintain a specific quantity rate or set
point.
recovery The percent or fraction of a given component in the plant

feed which is recovered as plant product.
Term used where by-products are given up in a process not

related to the initial product. The by-product is sent through
a recovery process to be re-used.
rectification Fractional distillation referring to the removal of low boiling

hydrocarbons from gasoline to adjust its vapor pressure.
rectifying column The portion of a distillation column above the feed tray in
which rising vapor is enriched by interaction with a
countercurrent falling stream of condensed vapor.
rectifying section The section of a distillation tower above the feed tray. So
called because this section corrects (“rectifies”) overstripping
of the feed and sends the heavier components back down the
tower as reflux.
recycle The use of water or wastewater within (internally) a facility

before it is discharged to a treatment system.
redesign In Reliability Centered Maintenance, any one-off interven-
tion to enhance the capability of a piece of equipment, a job
procedure, a management system, or people’s skills.
reduced crude A residual product remaining after removal by distillation or

other means of an appreciable quantity of the more volatile
components of crude oil. Also referred to as No. 6 Oil.
reduced crude oil Crude oil that has undergone at least one distillation process
to separate some of the lighter hydrocarbons. Reducing
crude lowers its API gravity, but increases the handling
safety by raising the flash point. Also referred to as topped
crude oil.
reducer A blend of solvents and/or additives that are used to reduce

the viscosity of paint or to enhance specific physical
properties. A reducer is used just before the application
process of paint.
reducing Removal of light hydrocarbons by distillation.
reducing agent Any substance, such as the base metal (iron) or the sulfide
ion, that will readily donate (give up) electrons. The
opposite of an oxidizing agent.
redwood viscosity The number of seconds required for 50 ml of an oil to flow

out of a standard redwood viscosimeter at a definite
temperature.
reference That which constitutes a standard for measuring.
refinery A plan used to separate the various components present in

crude oil and convert them into usable products or feedstock
for other processes.
reflux A cooling stream of liquid. The part of the condensed
overhead stream or liquid that is returned to the top tray of a
fractionating column as a source of cooling.
Overhead liquid which is pumped back into a column. The

reflux flows down a fractionating tower and serves as a
cooling and material transfer medium.
The part of the condensed vapors that is returned to the top

tray of a column as a source of cooling.
reflux ratio The volume of the reflux material returned to the tower
divided by the volume of product recovered.
refluxing The condensing and return to a fractionating tower or

overhead vapors for control of tower temperatures.
reformate A liquid bottom product off a reformer.
A high-octane blending component produced by catalytic

reforming of naphtha-based hydrocarbons.
reforming A process of cracking gasoline to increase its octane number.
The process of changing the shape or size of a molecule.
A reaction process in which the main reaction is the

formation of aromatics from naphthenic or parafinic
hydrocarbons.
refractory A material used as a lining for furnace combustion chambers

and similar high temperature locations where insulation and
the re-radiation of heat is required.
A ceramic material used as a lining for furnace combustion

chambers and similar high temperature locations where
insulation and the re-radiation of heat is required.
refrigeration Cold temperatures produced by the expansion of liquids or

vapors.
refurbish To clean and replace worn parts on a selective basis to make
a product useable to the consumer.
regenerate For a mole sieve dryer, the process of removing accumulated

contaminants from the high temperatures of combustion.
The refractory material is usually firebrick or ceramic fiber
blankets.
regenerator In a catalytic cracking process, that part of the system whose

primary function is the reactivation of catalyst.
regulate To fix or adjust the time, amount, degree, or rate of a process

variable.
regulator Valve which directly controls flow of liquid or gas through a

line, usually actuated by an instrument to control
temperature, pressure, level, or flow conditions.
REL Recommended exposure limit. The highest allowable

airborne concentration that is not expected to injure a
worker. Expressed as a ceiling limit or as a time weighted
average, usually for a 10-hour work shift.
reliability The capability of an asset to continue to perform its intended

functions. Normally measured by MTBF (mean time
between failures).
reliability engineering A staff function whose prime responsibility is to ensure that

designed and modified to improve maintainability, that on-
going maintenance technical problems are investigated, and
appropriate corrective and improvement actions are taken.
Used interchangeably with plant engineering and
maintenance engineering.
relief system The system for temporarily releasing excess fluid, usually
gas, to avoid a pressure in excess of the design pressure for
the particular equipment.
repair Any activity which returns the capability of an asset that has
failed to a level of performance equal to, or greater than, that
specified by its functions, but not greater than its original
maximum capability. An activity which increases the
maximum capability of an asset is a modification.
reproductive health Any agent that has a harmful effect on the adult male or
hazard female reproductive system or the developing fetus or child.
research +3 octane The research octane number of a product to which 3 ccs of

number TEL (tetra ethyl lead) in ethyl fluid per US gallon has been
added.
reservoir A porous, permeable, sedimentary rock formation containing

quantities of oil and/or gas enclosed or surrounded by layers
of less-permeable or impervious rock.
residual chlorine The amount of chlorine left over in water after micro-
organisms have been killed. Ensures safe drinking water or
prevents slime growth in cooling water systems.
residual fuel oil Heavy fuel oils produced from the non-volatile residue from
the fractional distillation process. Heavy oils that are
“leftovers” from various refining processes. Heavy black
oils used in marine boilers and in heating plants.
residual, residuum Heavy oil or residuum left in the still after gasoline and other
distillates have been distilled off or residue from crude oil
after distilling off all but the heaviest components.
residue The material which remains after a separation process.
The heaviest liquid or solid remaining after laboratory

distillation or some reclaiming process.
The material which remains after a separation process. The

heaviest liquid remaining after the distillation.
residue (residual) gas Gas remaining after the recovery of liquid products.
residuum or resid Combustible, viscous, or semi-liquid bottoms product from
crude oil distillation that is used in adhesives, roofing
compounds, asphalt manufacture, low-grade fuel oils, and
sealants. Also know as residual oil.
resin Liquid polymer raw material used in paint.
A liquid raw material added to coat pigment or powder

particles.
resins Semisolid, translucent, yellowish-to-brown, synthetic

organic polymers manufactured at the Seaford Plant. They
are soluble in organic solvents but not in water, and are
electrical nonconductors.
One of the three main constituents of asphalt, characterized

by absorption on clay.
respiratory protection Devices that will protect the wearer’s respiratory system
from overexposure by inhalation to airborne contaminants.
Respiratory protection is used when a worker must work in
an area where he/she might be exposed to concentration in
excess of the allowable exposure limit.
respiratory system The breathing system, including the lungs and air passages,
as well as the associated system of nerves and circulatory
supply.
response time The time required between receipt of an order and initiation
of action toward satisfying it.
responsible party Someone who can provide additional information on the

hazardous chemical and appropriate emergency procedures,
if necessary.
restoration Any activity which returns the capability of an asset that has
not failed to a level of performance equal to, or greater than,
that specified by its functions, but not greater than its
original maximum capability. Not to be confused with a
modification or a repair.
restriction orifice A plate with an aperture that produces a pressure drop as gas
or liquid flows through it. The flow can be measured by
measuring the differential pressure across the orifice.
retrograde condensation Condensation that is the reverse of usual behavior.

Condensation caused by a decrease in pressure or increase in
temperature. Can only occur in mixtures.
retrograde vaporization Vaporization that is the reverse of usual behavior.

Vaporization caused by an increase in pressure or decrease in
temperature. Can only occur in mixtures.
reverse-acting controller If the process variable increases, the output to the final
control element decreases.
reversible reaction A chemical reaction that simultaneously moves in each

direction to form products from reactants. In turn, the
products become reactants and move to form the original
reactants.
rich amine Amine solution that contains hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
rich gas A gas which is suitable as feed to a gas processing plant and
from which products can be extracted.
rich oil The absorption oil drawn off the bottom of an absorber tower
containing dissolved gasoline fractions.
RIM Reaction injection molding. The RIM process involves the

rapid metering and mixing of polyurethane reaction
ingredients, followed by their injection into a mold.
RIS Refinery Information Systems.
riser A chimney or pipe which allows vapor or liquid to flow

upward in a process vessel.
That portion of the bubble plate assembly in a tower which

channels the vapor and causes it to flow downward to escape
through the liquid.
riser (reactor) The long, vertical tube portion of an FCCU converter where
catalyst and oil contact is made.
risk The potential for the realization of the unwanted, negative

consequences of an event. The product of conditional
probability of an event, and the event outcomes.
River Water System Various screens, pumps, and ponds that draw water from the
Red Deer River and pump it to the site for use as raw water
or treatment and use as utility water.
ROA Return on assets. The profit attributable to a particular

plant or factory, divided by the amount of money invested in
the plant and equipment at that plant or factory. It is
normally expressed as a percentage. As such, it is roughly
equivalent to the interest rate that you get on money invested
in the bank, except that in this case, the money is invested in
the plant and equipment.
rotable Used in the maintenance of heavy mobile equipment. A

rotable component is one which, when it has failed, or is
about to fail, is removed from the asset and a replacement
component is installed in its place. The component that has
been removed is then repaired or restored, and placed back in
the maintenance store or warehouse, ready for re-issue.
rotary Having an important part that turns on an axis.
rotary pump A positive-displacement pump used to pump liquids that are

either too viscous or too difficult to pick up suctions with a
centrifugal pump. There are many types of rotary pump
designs, one of the most common being the gear type, in
which two gears mesh and rotate towards each other within a
very close fitting casing. The liquid is trapped between the
gear teeth and the casing and carried around to the discharge
side of the pump. The meshing gear teeth prevent the liquid
from returning to the suction side.
rotometer A gauge that indicates flow rate.
routes of entry The means by which a material may gain access to the body
(inhalation, ingestion, skin contact).
routine maintenance task Any maintenance task that is performed at a regular,

predefined interval.
rpm The progressive rotation of a turbine shaft about its axis. It

is measured in time and is expressed as revolutions per
minute.
RQ Reportable quantity. The amount of material that when

spilled must be reported to the federal, state, and local
authorities under CERCLA, EPCRA, and the CWA.
RTECS Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances.

Published by NIOSH. Presents basic toxicity data on
thousands of materials. The objective is to identify all known
toxic substances and to reference original studies.
rundown tanks Receiving tanks for products of distillation when they

emerge from the units. Also called pans.
rundown temperature The temperature of a stream being sent to storage or to

another unit.
run-to-failure No scheduled maintenance. An equipment maintenance

strategy where no routine maintenance tasks are performed
on the equipment. The only maintenance performed on the
equipment is corrective maintenance, and then only after the
equipment has suffered a failure. Also described as a no
scheduled maintenance strategy.
rupture disc A metal diaphragm designed to burst at a predetermined

pressure.
RV Relief valve. Safety valve or pop-off valve; will

automatically open to relieve pressure from a vessel to keep
it from exceeding its safe operating pressure.
RVP Reid vapor pressure. A laboratory test that measures the
relative volatility of a hydrocarbon product. A vapor
pressure for liquid products as determined by ASTM test
procedure D-323 that is reported as pounds per sq in at
100°F. The RVP is always less than the true vapor pressure
at 100°F.
S
S Specific heat.
S/F Solvent-to-feed ratio. A variable in the extraction process.
safety The elimination of hazardous conditions that could cause

injury, protection against failure, breakage, and accident.
safety consequences A failure that causes a loss of function or other damage that
could hurt or kill someone.
safety relief valve An automatic pressure actuated relieving device suitable for
use as either a safety or relief valve, depending on
application.
Saint Andrew’s Cross (X) Harmful—stow away from foodstuffs. Used in packaging
for transport.
salt The results of an acid/base reaction in which the nonmetal

from the acid joins with the metal from the base.
SARA Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act.

Signed into law October 17, 1986. Title III of SARA is
known as the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-
Know Act of 1986. A revision and extension of CERCLA,
SARA is intended to encourage and support local and state
emergency planning efforts. It provides citizens and local
governments with information about potential chemical
hazards in their communities. SARA calls for facilities that
store hazardous materials to provide officials and citizens
with data on the types (flammables, corrosives, etc.);
amounts on hand (daily, yearly); and their specific locations.
Facilities are to prepare and submit inventory lists, MSDSs,
and tier 1 and 2 inventory forms. The disaster in Bhopal,
India in 1987 added impetus to the passage of this law.
sarcoma A tumor that is often malignant.
saturated The condition of a substance that is used to absorb or retain

the maximum possible amount of another liquid or gas.
Example: the mole sieve dryers become saturated with
moisture after a period of time in use.
saturated compounds Hydrocarbon compounds having essentially no unsaturated

carbon valence bonds. Natural gas and natural gas liquids
are examples of saturated compounds.
saturated hydrocarbons A molecule of hydrogen and carbon in which all of the

carbon bonds are filled. There are no double or triple bonds.
saturated liquid Liquid which is at its boiling point or is in equilibrium with a

vapor phase in its containing vessel.
Saybolt furol viscosity A viscosity test similar in nature to the Saybolt Universal
viscosity test but one more appropriate for testing high-
viscosity oils. Certain transmission oils, gear oils, and heavy
fuel oils are rated by this method. The results obtained are
approximately 1/10th the viscosity which would be shown
by the Saybolt Universal method.
Saybolt Universal The time (indicated in Saybolt Universal Seconds, or SUS)

viscosity required for 60 milliliters of a petroleum product to flow
through the calibrated orifice of a viscometer under carefully
controlled temperature, as prescribed by test method ASTM
D 88.
scale (contaminant) A solid coating that can form on pipes and equipment and
restrict flow.
scale (instrument) An instrument or piece of equipment used to measure the

weight of something.
A pan. The part of a balance where a mass is seated to be

measured or used as a reference.
scale inhibitor A substance that prevents the formation of metallic oxide

deposits on equipment and piping interiors.
SCBA Self-contained breathing apparatus.
scf Standard cubic feet.
scfh Standard cubic feet per hour.
scfm One thousand standard cubic feet.
scfmm One million standard cubic feet.
schedule compliance One of the key performance indicators often used to monitor
and control maintenance. It is defined as the number of
scheduled work orders completed in a given time period
(normally one week), divided by the total number of
scheduled work orders that should have been completed
during that period, according to the approved maintenance
schedule for that period. It is normally expressed as a
percentage, and will always be less than or equal to 100%.
The closer to 100%, the better the performance for that time
period.
scheduled discard task A maintenance task to replace a component with a new

component at a specified, pre-determined frequency, regard-
less of the condition of the component at the time of its
replacement. An example would be the routine replacement
of the oil filter on a motor vehicle every 6,000 miles. The
frequency with which a scheduled discard task should be
performed is determined by the useful life of the component.
scheduled maintenance Any maintenance work that has been planned and included
on an approved maintenance schedule.
scheduled operating time The time during which an asset is scheduled to be operating
according to a long-term production schedule.
scheduled restoration A maintenance task to restore a component at a specified,
task pre-determined frequency, regardless of the condition of the
component at the time of its replacement. An example
would be the routine overhaul of a slurry pump every
1,000 operating hours. The frequency with which a
scheduled restoration task should be performed is determined
by the useful life of the component.
scheduled work order A work order that has been planned and included on an
approved maintenance schedule.
sclerae The tough, white fibrous covering of the eyeball.
Scott air pack (SKA Pak) A fresh air bottle with a harness. Available as a
self-contained breathing apparatus providing approximately
30 minutes of breathing air, or as an emergency escape
apparatus providing approximately 5 minutes of breathing
air.
scrap Items which have been discarded due to having little or no

value except for recovery of their basic material content.
scrubber A vessel or tower in which an undesirable component is

washed from a liquid or stream by passing it through another
traveling in the opposite direction.
scrubbing Purification of a gas by washing it in a tower or an agitator.

The process of removing an impurity from a petroleum
product. For example, the removal of hydrogen sulfide from
a hydrocarbon gas by scrubbing with sodium hydroxide
solution (“caustic”).
seal loop A loop formed by bending a pipe in an elongated “U” shape

to trap water. The loop is used in equipment under a vacuum
to release water without letting in air.
seal steam Steam used to prevent air from entering the labyrinth seals of
a turbine or to keep oxygen from damaging the seal faces on
pumps with mechanical seals.
seal tank A tank used for the same purpose a s seal loop. The tank
inlet is near the bottom with the outlet near the top of the
tank. The water level in the tank provides the seal to keep air
out.
seal(ing) oil Any oil used to pump packing glands to keep packing cool
and prevent leakage of stock being processed.
sealants A liquid, paste, coating, or tape that fills small gaps between
mating parts, e.g., pipe thread sealant, plugging small holes,
stopping fluid leaks.
sealing air Pressurized air that flows through bearing housings to

prevent oil leakage into the turbine.
secondary air In a fired heater, the air that is admitted around the outside of
the burner to help supply the proper fuel/air ratio to the
heater.
secondary damage Any additional damage to equipment, above and beyond the
initial failure mode, that occurs as a direct consequence of
the initial failure mode.
secondary function In Reliability Centered Maintenance, the secondary

functionality required of an asset. Generally not associated
with the reason for acquiring the asset, but now that the asset
has been acquired, the asset is now required to provide this
functionality. For example, a secondary function of a pump
may be to ensure that all of the liquid that is pumped is
contained within the pump (i.e., the pump does not leak). An
asset may have tens or hundreds of secondary functions
associated with it.
section A cross-sectional view at a specified point of a part or

assembly.
selecto A trade name of a solvent used in lube oil solvent refining. It

is a mixture of phenol and cresylic acid.
semiconductor A solid, crystalline material whose electrical conductivity is

between that of a conductor and an insulator.
sensible heat The heat absorbed or evolved by a substance during a change
in temperature.
sensitization The state of immune-response reaction in which further

exposure elicits an immune or allergic response. A person
previously exposed to a certain material is more sensitive
when he/she experiences further contact with it.
sensitizer A substance which, on first exposure, causes little or no

reaction in man or test animals but which, on repeated
exposure, may cause a marked response, not necessarily
limited to the contact site.
separation The process by which combined feeds are separated into gas
and liquid streams.
separator A horizontal or vertical drum where liquids and hydro-

carbons are separated from acid gas.
A device used for removing gas borne solids from the system
gas, for the Platformer Unit, the gas is hydrogen.
series An arrangement of circuit components end to end to form a

single path for current.
series flow A flow that runs consecutively. For example, the outlet of
one cyclone is the inlet to another; the outlet of one heater
and reactor set is the inlet to another set.
service water A supply of water from the No. 4 Pond used primarily for
cleaning and washing in the process unit. This water is piped
throughout the unit to several distribution outlet points called
utility stations.
servomotor A motor (electric, hydraulic, etc.) that serves as the final

control element for mechanical movement in an automatic
control system.
set point For a process variable controller, the point of control that is
changeable by the plant operator.
The position at which the control point setting mechanism is

set. This is the same as the desired value of the controlled
variable.
Instrument target value for a process variable.
SETA Setaflash Closed Tester. A flash point test method.
settling The third step of clarification in which floc particles sink and
form sludge with other solids that have settled out of the
wastewater.
severity The intensity of operational and catalytic factors to which the

feed is subjected in a reactor in order to achieve the desired
product yields.
shear forces Forces created by a mill or HSD used to break down pigment
or powders. These forces can be created by a mill or HSD
blade. It is the interaction of particles traveling at high rates
of speed that break down large particles into smaller ones.
shelf life A period of time during which an item can remain unused in
proper storage without significant deterioration.
shell-and-tube heat A type of heat exchanger that consists of a shell, tubes, tube
exchangers sheets, and water boxes that function together in the heat
exchange process between two fluids.
shim A piece of thin metal used between mating parts to adjust

their fit.
short ton An avoirdupois measure of weight equal to 2,000 pounds.
short-circuit A fault in an electric circuit or apparatus due usually to

imperfect insulation, such that the current follows a by-path
and inflicts damage or is wasted.
shrinkage The reduction in volume and/or heating value of a gas stream
due to removal of some of its constituents. The unaccounted
loss of products from storage tanks.
shutdown That period of time when equipment is out of service.
shutdown maintenance Maintenance that can only be performed while equipment is

shutdown.
side-draw A liquid or vapor stream taken from a location intermediate

between the top and the bottom of a distillation tower.
siderosis Pneumoconiosis caused by the inhalation of iron particles.

Also, tissue pigmentation caused by contact with iron.
sight glass An extension of a vessel attached to a bridle, which enables

you to monitor the level in a vessel.
sign An abnormality in the body, indicating poisoning or disease,

which is observable by another person.
signal words Distinctive words on a MSDS which serves to alert the

reader to the existence and relative degree of a hazard.
Signal words are limited to:
 Danger: Materials that are highly toxic, corrosive to
living tissue, extremely flammable, or are suspected
human carcinogens.
 Warning: Materials that are moderately toxic, have
severe skin irritation potential, cause allergic skin
reactions, or are flammable.
 Caution: Materials that have a low order of toxicity,
produce only slight to moderate skin irritation, or are
combustible.
silica gel A chemical which has the ability to take up water from air
and other substances it contacts.
silicosis A condition of massive fibrosis of the lungs causing

shortness of breath because of prolonged inhalation of silica
dusts.
simple cycle An electric generating unit that consists a combustion gas
turbine without steam co-generation.
simplex pump A reciprocating pump that has one liquid cylinder on a single
drive.
single-replacement A chemical reaction in which one element replaces an

reaction element in a compound. A single-replacement reaction
generally fits the equation: A + BC  AC + B
SIT Spontaneous ignition temperature. The temperature at

which an oil ignites of its own accord in the presence of air
or oxygen under standard conditions.
skid A group of process equipment that is mounted on an I-beam

framework. This type of construction allows equipment to
be assembled before the plant site is prepared for
construction. When the plant site is ready, the skid group is
lifted into place and anchored by a concrete pour.
skimming (topping) The process of distillation in which only a fraction of the

distillable portion of the feed is removed, e.g., topped crude,
an atmospheric column bottoms.
A primary distillation of crude oil in which the light products

are taken off, leaving the higher boiling hydrocarbons as a
residue or bottoms.
skin irritation Ratings corresponding to the following definitions are
derived from data obtained from the test methods as
described in the CFR 16 1500.41 and or NAS
publication 1138 and categories of toxicity as described in 16
CFR 1500.3.
 Practically non-irritating: The undiluted product causes
no noticeable irritation or causes slight inflammation
(edema and erythema skin reaction values of 0 to 1) of
intact or abraded skin of rabbits during the study period.
Primary irritation index of 0–1.9.
 Moderately irritating: The undiluted product causes
well-defined inflammation (edema and erythema skin
reaction values of 2) during the study period. Primary
irritation index of 2–4.9.
 Primary skin irritant: The undiluted product causes
moderate-to-severe inflammation (edema and erythema
skin reaction values of 3 or 4) of the intact or abraded
skin of rabbits during the study period. Primary irritation
index of 5 or more.
 Corrosive: The undiluted product causes visible
destruction or irreversible alterations of the tissue
structure at the site of contact on intact or abraded skin of
rabbits during the study period.
skins A solid film that forms as a layer on top of a container of

paint as it cures due to contact with air.
skirting A panel, usually of metal sheeting, that encloses the area

between the base of a tower and the ground or platform
level.
slagging Formation of hard deposits on boiler tubes and/or piston

crowns, usually due to the presence of sodium, vanadium,
and sulfur.
slide valve A large gate valve used to control FCC catalyst circulation
and to control regenerator pressure.
slinger ring A disk slipped onto a shaft in a bearing housing to prevent
lubricating oil from being splashed to the atmosphere. The
ring is located adjacent to where the shaft emerges from the
housing to the atmosphere. The centrifugal force produced
by the ring slings splashed oil away from the shaft emerging
point.
slop oil Waste oil or the odds and ends of oil produced at various
places in the refinery that must be rerun or further processed
to be suitable for use.
sludge Deposits in fuel tanks caused by the presence of wax, sand,

scale, asphaltenes, tars, water, etc. Sludge formed in a No. 6
fuel oil storage tank is mostly composed of heavy
hydrocarbons. Alken Even-Flo® 905 eliminates this type of
sludge by breaking the sludge into small particles and
resuspending them in the fuel for more efficient combustion.
Sludge formed in diesel storage tanks is a combination of
water with fungus and bacteria, which grow on the unevenly
mixed water/fuel interface. Adding Alken Even-Flo® 910
and 910S to stored fuel promotes a clean separation of water
and fuel, reducing the substrate upon which bacteria and
fungus can grow. Since the bacteria and fungus bind to the
separated water, they can be removed by draining the water
from the storage tank. If draining the storage tank is
impossible, EF 905 and 910E will emulsify the water into
tiny droplets and break the sludge into such small particles
that they will no longer clog filters and will efficiently burn.
sludge acid The resulting heavy material which drops to the bottom of an
agitator after a treating operation using acid. The products
formed by the reaction of acid and hydrocarbon.
slurry A pourable mixture of solid and liquid.
For water treating only, a mixture of lime, soda ash, and

magnesium oxide used for the treatment of boiler feedwater.
slurry oil (decant oil) The heaviest oil output (bottoms) of the FCCU main
fractionator, which is sent to storage. The term “decant”
originated when the oil contained a large amount of catalyst
and was poured gently into a slurry settler. This settling
process is no longer necessary due to improved catalyst/oil
separation in the disengager. This heavy residual oil is
sometimes used as a feedstock to the No. 7 Coking Process.
Generally, decant is sold and used for the production of
carbon black.
small filter housing A small cylindrical housing that houses a small filter bag.
Used primarily when filling batches less than 500 gallons in
volume.
smoke Dry particles and droplets generated by an incomplete

combustion of an organic material combined with and
suspended in the gases from combustion.
snuffing steam A blanket of steam used to extinguish a fire in a vessel.
soaker A section of a heater in which the material being processed

reaches its reaction or cracking temperature, and in which the
material is held for sufficient time to affect the desired
reaction.
soap Refers to the product Believe, produced in the resin cutter.
soda ash Used to neutralize spent acids from the Desalinating Unit de-
scaling operation.
softened water Water that has been treated to remove dissolved salts of
calcium and/or magnesium.
software Plans and paperwork needed to sustain or support projects,

operations, equipment, assemblies, or items, including such
things as engineering and design, technical data, schedules
and plans, and computer programs.
solid waste Solid waste from the paint manufacturing.
solids Waste material that contains no liquids.
solubility in water The percentage of a material (by weight) that will dissolve in
water at ambient temperature.
soluble Matter or compounds capable of dissolving into a solution.
solution A uniformly dispersed mixture. Composed of a solvent and

a dissolved substance, called the solute. Solubility
information can be useful in determining spill cleanup
methods and fire-extinguishing agents and methods for a
material. Terms used to express solubility are: negligible
(less than 0.1%); slight (0.1 to 1.0%); moderate (1 to 10%);
appreciable (more than 10%); complete (soluble in all
proportions).
solution gas Gas which originates from the liquid phase in the oil
reservoir.
solvent A substance, usually liquid, in which other substances are

dissolved. Water is the most common solvent. A solvent
aids in reducing the viscosity of a batch or enhancing a
physical property.
The medium within which a substance is dissolved;

frequently applied to a liquid that dissolves solids.
solvent deasphalting Extracts higher quality oils using a solvent, leaving pitch or
asphalt residue.
soot Fine particles, usually black, formed by combustion,

consisting chiefly of carbon. Gives off a smoke color.
soot water Water that has circulated through the quench chamber of the
gasifier and picked up soot. Soot water is filtered and the
water is circulated back to the Gasification System as grey
water.
SOP Standard operating procedure.
sour Containing large amount of malodorous sulfur compounds,
such as mercaptans or hydrogen sulfide as in crude oils,
naphthas, or gasoline.
Foul smelling. Describing a petroleum fraction having a bad

odor usually caused by mercaptans.
sour gas Gas containing an appreciable quantity of hydrogen sulfide

and/or mercaptans.
sour water Water containing dissolved hydrogen sulfide gas that is

drawn off any stream or vessel in the refinery.
source tank A tank that product is filled from.
spares Components, assemblies, and equipment that are completely

interchangeable with like items and can be used to replace
items removed for maintenance.
sparge To agitate the contents of a vessel by compressed gas

entering through a pipe.
sparger A perforated-pipe distributor, designed to keep solids from

settling.
Spec Sheet Specification sheet giving detailed information of a product

including, test, color, odor, specific gravity, bacterial strains,
other major ingredients, etc.
specific chemical identity Chemical name, Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) number,
or other information that reveals the precise chemical
designation of the substance.
specific gravity (Sp. Gr., The weight of a material compared to an equal volume of
SG) water. An expression of the density of a material. Example:
if a volume of a material weighs 8 pounds and an equal
volume of water weighs 10 pounds, the material is said to
have a specific gravity of 0.8 (8 lbs  10 lbs).
The ratio of the weight of a given liquid to the weight of an

equal volume of water at 59°F.
specific heat The ratio of the Btus required to raise the temperature of one
pound of a fluid by 1°F compared to that of water.
Specific heat of water 1 Btu/lb°F

specification(s) A detailed description of a part or material giving all
information not shown on the graphic part of a drawing.
Parts having corresponding size, form, and arrangement on

opposite sides of a plane, line, or point.
The properties of a given crude oil or petroleum product,

which are “specified” since they often vary widely, even
within the same grade of product. In the normal process of
negotiation, the seller will guarantee the buyer that product
or crude being sold will meet certain specified limits, and
will agree to have such limits certified in writing. Generally,
the major qualities of oil for which a buyer would demand a
guarantee are: API gravity (or specific gravity, in some
cases), sulfur percentage measured by weight, pour point
measured by degrees C maximum, viscosity min./max.,
BS&W percentage by weight, etc.
spectacle blank A reversible blank, which has a hole in one half,

corresponding to the line size, and is used because it remains
in position and shows at a glance which half is inserted in the
line.
spectrophotometer A laboratory instrument which measures the transmittance or

absorbance of light in samples.
spent catalyst An FCC catalyst that has been deactivated by carbon

deposits (coke) and must be regenerated before it can be
reused in the Reaction System.
spent caustic A caustic solution in which most of the sodium hydroxide

chemical has been consumed during the reaction to form
salts.
spigot conveyor An air-powered conveyor that uses spigots to push containers

along a stationary track or table.
splines The regular manufactured raised surfaces on a shaft
circumference.
split bushings Divided cylindrical liners that allow the valve inlet guide
vanes to rotate.
split-range control The use of two control elements in parallel to provide finer
control over a process than could be accomplished with a
single controller. In practice, one control element is much
larger than the other. The smaller control element provides
control over the lower 10 to 20% of the control range, while
the larger controller provides control over the higher end of
the control range.
splitter Fractionators, particularly those separating isomers. For

example, butane splitter refers to a deisobutanizer.
sponge absorbent An absorbent for recovering vapors of a lighter absorbent

that is used in the main absorption process of a gas
processing plant.
spur gear The gear located on the turbine shaft that transfers
mechanical energy to the bevel gear.
SRU Sulfur Recovery Unit.
stability The ability of a material to remain unchanged. A material is

stable if it remains in the same form under expected and
reasonable conditions of storage or use.
stabilize To convert to a form that resists change. Organic material is

stabilized by bacteria, which converts the material to gases
and other relatively inert substances. Stabilized organic
material generally will not give off obnoxious odors.
stabilized condensate Condensate that has been stabilized to a definite vapor

pressure in a fractionation system.
stabilized gasoline Gasoline that has been processed to control its vapor
pressure by having its volatile, high-vapor-pressure light
components removed.
stabilizer The tower that separates high vapor pressure hydrocarbons
from gasoline so that the gasoline will not suffer undue
evaporation losses in storage of vapor lock gasoline engines.
stabilizing Removing the butane and lighter components from a

gasoline stream by distillation. Originally performed to keep
gasoline from boiling while in storage.
stack gases The products of combustion that are vented to the

atmosphere through a fired heater stack.
stage A pre-weighed formulation that has been prepared for

batchmaking.
stage separation system The system of separators wherein the liquid portion of the
well effluent is separated from formation gas and flash
vapors.
standard alarm system Used for unrelated process conditions, this system has
audible and visual alarms for when a condition deviates from
normal.
standard job A work order stored in the CMMS which contains all the
necessary information required to perform a maintenance
task. (See also model work order.)
standard pressure The standard pressure is 14.696 psia.
standard temperature The standard temperature is 60°F.
standby A spare piece of equipment, such as a pump, installed for use

when the main equipment fails or needs additional capacity.
standing work order A work order that is left open either indefinitely or for a pre-
determined period of time for the purpose of collecting labor
hours. Costs and/or history for tasks for which it has been
decided that individual work orders should not be raised.
Examples would include standing work orders raised to
collect time spent at safety meetings or in general
housekeeping activities.
static charge A discharge of static electricity, caused by the friction
created by mixing or flowing liquids.
static mixer A motionless mixer which has a series of fixed, geometric

elements enclosed within a tubular housing. The internal
elements impart flow division and radial mixing to the media
flowing through the housing to produce a uniform dilution of
the production.
static pressure Acting by mere weight without motion. Bodies or forces at

rest or in equilibrium.
stators The stationary vanes attached to the compressor casing.
steam drum A vessel that used boiler feedwater to produce steam and
regulate steam pressure.
steam shedding The system for shutting down units in the event of a
reduction in or loss of refinery steam. Having an planned,
orderly shutdown sequence based on predetermined
priorities helps to ensure safety during a steam loss and also
to simplify restart and recovery. The least critical pieces of
equipment are shut down (“shed”) first. The number of
blocks of equipment shut down depends on the extent of the
steam loss.
steam tracing A steam-carrying heater, such as tubing or piping, next to or

twisted around a process-fluid or instrument-air line used to
keep liquids from solidifying or condensing.
STEL Short-term exposure limit.
STEV Short-term exposure value.
stick measurement A measurement taken on a tank of paint. This measurement

uses the geometry of the tank to determine the volume of
paint it contains.
still A column wherein the absorbed product is distilled from the
lean absorption oil. In plants using a low molecular weight
absorption oil, the still is designed as a fractionation unit. In
plants using a high molecular weight absorption oil, the still
may use steam or other fluids as a stripping medium.
A device used to evaporate liquids. Heat is applied to the

liquid, and the resulting vapor is condensed to a liquid state.
stock The supply of physical items kept on hand at storage points

in a supply system to meet anticipated demand.
stock number A number assigned by the stocking organization to each

group of articles or materials treated as if identical within the
using supply system.
stoddard solvent A very well-refined petroleum fraction boiling between 300°

(cleaners’ solvent) and 400°F, primarily intended for dry cleaning.
stoichiometric A chemical reaction between proportionate volumes of air

combustion and fuel that produces a desired result.
stoke A unit of kinematic viscosity.
stores issue The issue and/or delivery of parts and materials from the
store or warehouse.
stores requisition The prime document raised by user departments authorizing

the issue of specific materials, parts, supplies, or equipment
from the store or warehouse.
STP Standard temperature (25°C) and pressure (300 mm

mercury.)
straight run (1) A material produced directly from crude oil by distillation,
without further processing, except to treat for sulfur.
straight-run (2) A virgin material cut directly from the crude without
intermediate processing. The terms straight- run naphtha
and virgin naphtha are synonymous.
straight-run distillation A continuous distillation of the products of petroleum in the
order of their boiling points without cracking. This involves
the successive distillation of the hydrocarbons in order of
their volatility from the lightest to the heaviest. Also called
straight-run fractional distillation.
straight-run gasoline One of the products obtained by distillation of petroleum.
straight-run products or Crude oil distillation products as produced by the

virgin products fractionation process without being altered by chemical
reaction.
strapping The process of calibrating the liquid storage capacity of

storage tanks by increments of depth.
stratification Occurs in blended fuels that have a compatibility problem

and is usually experienced when paraffinic-based oils are
mixed with asphaltic-based oils, causing asphaltenes to
precipitate and settle to the bottom of the tank.
stream day A day of full operation. Used as a basis for calculating plant
production.
strip To remove a light component from a heavier one by

distillation to produce a purer heavy product.
stripper A distillation tower that removes light ends from a product

without the benefit of top reflux. Steam is usually injected
into the stripper bottom to effect this separation. A stripper
does not purify the overhead product.
A small vessel which fractionates off the light ends of a side

cut from the main fractionating tower; steam is usually
injected into the stripper bottom to effect this separation.
stripper bottoms Feed product to the reformer.
stripping Substantially complete removal of the more volatile

components from a cut. In order to raise the flash point of
kerosene, distillate, or gas oil, steam is added to remove the
lighter lower boiling components in the product.
stripping factor An expression used to explain the degree of stripping.
Mathematically, it is KV/L, the reciprocal of the absorption
factor.
stripping medium Steam, gas, or other materials that will increase the driving
force for stripping.
stripping section The separation of a light fraction from a liquid by the use of
a gas, normally stream.
stripping steam Steam that is added to the bottom of a distillation tower in

order to vaporize the light ends in the liquid.
stripping tower A vertical tower with internal trays where a stream (rich
DEA or sour water) containing acid gas is subjected to
counter-current flow with rising heat vapors that extract
(strip) the acid gas.
subcool Cooling below a material’s freezing point without a change

in phase.
sublime A change from the solid to the vapor phase without passing
through the liquid phase.
sub-stoichiometric Combustion with insufficient air to burn all the available

combustion H2S.
sulfides Hydrocarbons combined with sulfur where the sulfur atom is

linked between two carbon atoms. Typically has a sweet
odor.
sulfolane An extractive process unit using sulfolane to make benzene,

toluene, and xylene.
sulfur An element that is present in crude oil and natural gas as an

impurity in the form of its various compounds.
Sulfur is an abundant non-metal, yellow in color in the solid

state and burnt orange in the molten state. Odorless and
tasteless. Trace amounts of hydrocarbon impurities give
sulfur a faint oily and/or rotten egg odor.
sump A pit or tank at the lowest point in a drainage system where
waste liquids collect.
sunthetic crude The converted product that exits in the FCC’s reactor before
it is fractionated. The combination of different hydrocarbon
groups is reminiscent of crude oil.
supercooled Liquids cooled to a temperature that is below their boiling

point temperature.
superheat Heat added to a vapor to raise its temperature above the dew
point at the existing pressure. The temperature difference
between the vapor and its dew point. Denotes the amount of
extra heat in superheated steam.
superheated steam Steam that is at a temperature above the dew point at the
existing pressure. (For example, steam that is hotter than
212ºF at one atmosphere of pressure.)
Steam at a higher temperature than the temperature of the

boiling point corresponding to the pressure of the steam.
superheater A heating apparatus (usually tubes) which imparts to a

material more heat than is required for vaporization.
superimposed back Pressure in the discharge header before the pressure relief
pressure valve opens.
supply The procurement, maintenance in storage, distribution, and

salvage of items that are consumed by use or become part of
other items.
supply header A central pipeline from which branches distribute a supplied

gas or liquid to various users.
surface tension A force acting on the surface of a liquid that tends to

minimize the area of the surface. It causes the surface
molecules to behave as if they were an elastic skin under
tension.
surfactant Surface-action agent. The active agent in detergents that
reduces the surface tension of a liquid and possesses a high
cleaning ability. Used in a spray solution to improve its
sticking and wetting properties when applied to plants, algae,
or petroleum.
surge A momentary pulsating backflow through a centrifugal gas

compressor when the flow through the compressor is
restricted. This repeated reversal of flow can critically
damage a centrifugal compressor.
surge (puke) An upheaval of liquid in a vessel frequently causing a

carryover of liquid through the vapor lines.
surge drum Vessel or accumulator used as a reservoir for liquid being

pumped through a line, thereby overcoming fluctuations in
the flow rate caused by a pump.
SUS Saybolt Universal Seconds. The time in seconds it takes for

60 cc of fluid to flow through a capillary tube in a Saybolt
universal viscosimeter at a certain temperature.
SUT Sembawang Utilities and Terminals.
sweep The action of displacing or purging a fluid from a system by

the flow of another fluid until the original fluid has been
completely displaced.
sweet Having a good odor; pleasant to the sense of smell; negative

to the Doctor Test.
sweet crude oil Crude oil containing sulfur in such amount and form that in
refining negligible trouble is experienced with sulfur
compounds.
sweetening A process of removing mercaptans or converting them to

disulfides.
SWS Sour water stripper. Unit that takes a sour water feed,
removes hydrocarbons, strips the hydrogen sulfide and
ammonia with steam. The acid gas compounds are pressured
to the SRU for sulfur recovery. Stripped sour water is
returned to refinery treating units for further use.
synergy The interaction of materials to give a combined result

different from either material alone.
syngas An abbreviation for synthesis gas, which is a synthetic gas

produced by the partial oxidation of a hydrocarbon feed.
system The assemblage of related hardware, software, facts,

principles, ideas, methods, procedures and people, or any
combination of these, all arranged or ordered toward a
common objective.
system pressure The total vapor pressure of a liquid mixture at the existing
temperature. In a closed vessel, system pressure is the
pressure of the gas or vapor above the liquid level. For an
open vessel, system pressure is the atmospheric pressure of
the air resting on the liquid.
systemic effects Acute or chronic adverse health effects which occur in parts
of the body removed from the site of exposure to the
material.
T
T Temperature—°Fahrenheit. The degree of hotness or

coldness measured on a definite scale.
T/T Tangent-to-tangent. Describes the length of a vessel,

exclusive of the welded end pieces.
Tag-Robinson colorimeter An instrument used to determine the color of oils. Also a

scale of color values.
tail The portion of oil which vaporizes near the end of the
distillation. The heavy end.
tail gas Light overhead gases from a process, usually controlling

pressure on the process, that are vented off to another
process, the refinery fuel gas system, or to the flare.
take-off (draw/draw-off) A pipe connection (usually valved) to a vessel through which

liquid can flow.
Examples: A side-cut draw on a distillation column or a
water draw on a tank.
tandem compressors An arrangement where several compressors are coupled

together with their shafts in-line and driven by a common
driver.
tangential struts The struts attached to the air intake casing and the inner hub
in a radial pattern that provide support and oil passage.
tank Any container vented to the atmosphere or an enclosed

container operating at atmospheric pressure.
Container for storing a liquid at atmospheric pressure. It
may have special features to limit movement of vapors out or
air in, but has breather valves usually set to relieve at a
vacuum or pressure of one inch of water.
tank bottom valve A valve located at the bottom of a tank.
tank farm An area in which a large number of large-capacity storage

tanks are located.
tar Synonym for petroleum residuum, either straight run or

cracked.
tare A deduction of weight made as an allowance for the weight

of the container holding the sample.
tax ditch The receiving stream for non-contact cooling water. This
ditch dumps into Herring Creek, which eventually dumps
into the Nanticok River. Discharges to this ditch are
regulated by a NPDES permit.
TBN Total base number. ASTM D2896. This is measured in

mg KOH needed to neutralize an acidic solution through a
reverse titration. TBN is the ability of the product to
neutralize acid. In motor oil, this is a property which allows
the oil to neutralize acids from combustion that would
otherwise degrade the oil.
TBP True boiling point. A true boiling point analysis is a

standard laboratory technique used to predict the refining
qualities of crude petroleum. It gives distillation cuts for
gasoline, kerosene, diesel, cracking, and lube distillate
stocks.
TDGR Transportation of Dangerous Goods Regulation.
Technology Training A leading company in the design, development, and

Systems, Inc.® (TTS) production of training materials for various process and
manufacturing plants.
temperature correction A factor for correcting volumes to that occupied at a specific

factor reference temperature. The reference temperature most
commonly used in the petroleum industry is 60°F (15.56°C)
temperature excursion An unplanned increase in temperature in a reactor.
temperature gradient The temperature differences of materials in various stages of
processing, e.g., between the inlet and outlet of a tube heater.
teratogen An agent that causes developmental malformations.
terotechnology The application of managerial, financial, engineering, and

other skills to extend the operational life of and increase the
efficiency of equipment and machinery.
tertiary air Compressed air that has passed around the primary entry to
the combustion chambers and entered the combustion
chambers through secondary holes to complete combustion
and cool the combustion gas.
Texaco Gasification A non-catalytic partial oxidation process involving the

Process reaction of hydrocarbon materials with oxygen at high
temperatures and pressures under conditions of insufficient
oxygen for complete combustion.
TGTU Tail Gas Treating Unit.
theoretical tray A design concept representing a perfect distillation tray on

which 100% efficient heat and composition exchange could
take place.
therm A unit of gross heating valve equivalent to 100,000 Btus

(British thermal units). The heat necessary to raise
100,000 pounds of water one degree Fahrenheit.
thermal cracking The process of breaking down large molecules into smaller
ones by the use of heat and pressure.
thermal cracking The breaking up of heavy oil molecules into lighter fractions
by the use of high temperature without the aid of a catalyst.
thermal decomposition When chemical decomposition is brought about by heat and

pressure as the cracking of the No. 7 Coker charge stock that
is done until only the coke remains.
thermal heat Energy that causes molecular motion in substances.
thermal oxidation A self-sustaining combustion reaction that yields a high
temperature.
thermal value Calories per gram of Btu per pound produced by burning
fuels.
thermalsyphon/ A heat exchanger in which circulation flow is induced in a

thermosyphon reboiler process liquid by generating vapors which lift the liquid back
into the process vessel, thereby creating a continuous recycle
without the aid of a pump.
thermobile Several dissimilar metals arranged alternately which

generate an electric current when the junctions are heated.
More sensitive than a thermocouple.
thermocouple An electrical temperature measuring device consisting of two

wires of different metals with the ends joined. This junction
is heated. The voltage produced is proportionate to the
temperature. The temperature can be measured as a function
of the voltage.
thermocouple probes Instrumentation capable of measuring the temperature of the

gas.
thermodynamics A branch of physics that studies the effects of changes in

temperature, pressure, and volume on physical systems.
thermography The process of monitoring the condition of equipment

through the measurement and analysis of heat. Typically
conducted through the use of infra-red cameras and associ-
ated software. Commonly used for monitoring the condition
of high-voltage insulators and electrical connections, as well
as for monitoring the condition of refractory in furnaces and
boilers and other applications.
thermometer An instrument for measuring temperature. May be either the

graduated mercury column type or a pointer and dial
actuated by a bi-metallic element.
thermoplastic A resin or plastic compound that as a finished material is
capable of being repeatedly softened by heating and
hardened by cooling. Examples include: acetal, acrylic,
cellulosic, chlorinated polyether, fluorocarbons, polyamides
(nylons), polycarbonate, polyethylene, polypropylene,
polystyrene, some types of polyurethanes, and vinyl resins.
thermoset A resin or plastic compound that in its final state is

substantially infusible and insoluble.
thermosiphon Thermosiphons are condensers that rely on convection for

the movement of heated fluids through the system.
thermowell A tube having one end closed, inserted into a vessel, pipe, or
furnace as protection for a thermocouple or thermometer
bulb.
thickener A piece of equipment that concentrates settled solids.
thief A device for drawing samples of oil from a tank at various

levels.
thinners Narrow boiling fractions in the gasoline and kerosene boiling

range (200–450ºF) used as solvents and diluents in the paint
and varnish industry.
thrust The sideways force or pressure of one structure onto another.
TLV Threshold limit value. Airborne concentration of a material

to which nearly all persons can be exposed day after day,
without adverse effects. TLVs are expressed in three ways:
 TLV-C: Ceiling limit, concentration that should not be
exceeded even instantaneously.
 TLV-STEL: Short-term exposure limit, maximum
concentration for a continuous 15-minute exposure
period.
 TLV-TWA: Time-weighted average, concentration for a
normal 8-hour work day or 40-hour work week.
TOC The amount of organic carbon in water. The measurement of
total carbon, which includes both organic and inorganic
matter, such as carbonates and bicarbonates. Expressed in
milligrams per liter.
tolerance The range of variation permitted in maintaining a specified

dimension in a machining piece.
toluene (C6H5CH3) (C6H5CH3) A light liquid aromatic hydrocarbon that

resembles benzene but is less volatile, less flammable, and
less toxic; is used as a blending agent for gasoline because of
its high anti-knock property and as an industrial solvent.
toner A colored batch of paint. Toners; are used in combinations
to derive a desired color.
topped crude oil Oil from which the light ends have been removed by a
simple refining process. Also referred to as reduced crude
oil.
topping The process of distillation in which only a fraction of the

distillable portion of the feed is removed, e.g., topped crude,
an atmospheric column bottoms.
A primary distillation of crude oil in which the light products

are taken off, leaving the higher boiling hydrocarbons as a
residue or bottoms.
torque A force that produces rotation.
torr A measurement of pressure.
torsion A turning or twisting due to exertion of a lateral force

tending to turn one end or part about a longitudinal axis
while the other end or part is held fast.
ToSS Total System Support. The composite of all considerations

needed to ensure the effective and economical support of a
system throughout its programmed life-cycle.
total asset management An integrated approach to asset management which
incorporates elements, such as Reliability Centered
Management, Total Productive Maintenance, Design for
Maintainability, Design for Reliability, Value Engineering,
life cycle costing, probabalistic risk assessment, and others,
to arrive at the optimum cost-benefit-risk asset solution to
meet any given production requirements.
total existent sediment A combination of inorganic and hydrocarbon sediments

existing in a fuel as delivered.
Total Productive A company-wide equipment management program, with its

Maintenance (TPM) origins in Japan, emphasizing production operator
involvement in equipment maintenance, and continuous
improvement approaches. Numerous books have been
written on the subject, including Nakajima’s authoritative
introduction, and a more recent Western hemisphere update
by Willmott.
Total System Support The composite of all considerations needed to ensure the
(ToSS) effective and economical support of a system throughout its
programmed life-cycle.
tote A vessel used to store or ship flammable liquid. Some

solvents are received in tote tanks.
totes A mobile container used to store raw materials ranging from

200 to 500 gallons in volume.
tower A tall, cylindrical vessel also referred to as a column.
tower profile A series of readings that indicate the progress of a process

within a distillation tower. For example, the temperature
profile across a fractionator indicates which products are
being separated at each level of the tower.
toxic The probable lethal dose of undiluted product to 50% of the

test animals determined from dermal toxicity studies (LD50)
is greater than 200 milligrams and less than or equal to 2
grams per kilogram of body weight.
toxic substance A chemical or material that has evidence of an acute or
chronic health hazard and is listed in the RTECS manual.
The substance:
 Causes harm at any dose level
 Causes cancer or reproductive effects in animals at any
dose level
 Has a median lethal dose level of less than 500 mg per kg
of body weight when administered orally to rats
 Has a median lethal dose level of less than 1000 mg per
kg of body weight when administered by continuous
contact to the bare skin of albino rabbits
 Has a median lethal concentration in air of less than
2000 ppm by volume of gas or vapor, or less than 20 mg
per liter of mist, fume, or dust when administered to
albino rats
Toxic Substances Control Public Law PL 94-469. Found in 40 CFR 700-799. The
Act (TSCA) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has jurisdiction.
Effective January 1, 1977. Controls the exposure to and use
of raw industrial chemicals not subject to other laws.
Chemicals are to be evaluated prior to use and can be
controlled based on risk. The act provides for a listing of all
chemicals that are to be evaluated prior to manufacture or
use in the U.S.
toxicity The sum of adverse effects resulting from exposure to a

material, generally by the mouth, skin, or respiratory tract.
toxicology The study of the nature, effects, and detection of poisons in

living organisms. Also, substances that are otherwise
harmless but prove toxic under particular conditions.
TPA Top pumparound.
TPM Total Productive Maintenance. A company-wide equipment
management program, with its origins in Japan, emphasizing
production operator involvement in equipment maintenance,
and continuous improvement approaches. Numerous books
have been written on the subject, including Nakajima’s
authoritative introduction, and a more recent Western
hemisphere update by Willmott.
TPQ Threshold planning quantity. Per 40 CFR 302, the amount

of material at a facility that requires emergency planning and
notification per CERCLA.
TQM Total quality management.
tracing
trade name Trademark name or commercial trade name for a material

given by the manufacturer.
trade secret Any confidential formula pattern, process, device,

information, or compilation of information used in an
employer’s business and gives the employer an opportunity
to obtain an advantage over competitors.
tradesperson Alternative to craftsperson. A skilled maintenance worker

who has typically been formally trained through an
apprenticeship program.
train A series of similar equipment that is operated in series.
transducer Any device in a signal transmission system that converts one

kind of signal to another.
transfer Moving paint-related material from one location to another.
transition duct The duct that provides a pathway for the exhaust gases from
the turbine section to the exhaust section.
traps A gravity screen at the intake of a pump that is designed to

remove any contaminants that are in a batch and can damage
the pump’s internal mechanism.
trayed column A vessel wherein gas and liquid or two miscible (soluble)
liquids are contacted, usually counter-currently on trays.
trays Thin plates in a column that hold a liquid level. Heat and
component exchange between countercurrent streams take
place on the trays.
treating The application of chemicals to improve color, odor, gum

forming, or corrosive tendencies of an oil. A general term for
refining petroleum with chemicals.
tribology The process of monitoring the condition of equipment

through the analysis of properties of its lubricating and other
oils. Typically conducted through the measurement of
particulates in the oil or the measurement of the chemical
composition of the oil (spectographic oil analysis).
Commonly used for monitoring the condition of large
gearboxes, engines and transformers, and other applications.
trip A protective mechanism attached to machinery to stop it in

the event of faults occurring.
troubleshooting Locating or isolation and identifying discrepancies or

malfunctions of equipment and determining the corrective
actions required.
trunnion A pivot pin that allows an object to be rotated.
trycock A series of manual valves with a riser to different levels in

the vessel. Trycocks are used to check the consistency of a
liquid at different levels in a vessel.
TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act. Public Law PL 94-469.

Found in 40 CFR 700-799. The Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) has jurisdiction. Effective January 1, 1977.
Controls the exposure to and use of raw industrial chemicals
not subject to other laws. Chemicals are to be evaluated
prior to use and can be controlled based on risk. The act
provides for a listing of all chemicals that are to be evaluated
prior to manufacture or use in the U.S.
tube skin temperature In a fired furnace, the temperature of the tube metal for the
tubes carrying the heated product.
turbine stage A part of a multi-stage steam turbine that generates

mechanical power. This consists of a wheel with blades and
the nozzles to direct the steam.
turbulence The departure of a fluid (liquid or gas) from a smooth flow.
turnaround time The interval between the time an item is removed for
consumption or repair and the time it or its replacement is
again available.
TWA Time-weighted average exposure. The airborne

concentration of a material to which a person is exposed,
averaged over the total exposure time, generally the total
workday (8 to 12 hours).
two-phase flow Concurrent movement of two phases. For example, gas and
liquid through a closed conduit or duct.
U
U Overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr/ft2/°F.
Ubbehohde viscosimeter A suspended level apparatus for accurately determining the

viscosity of a liquid.
UEL or UFL Upper explosive (flammable) limit. The highest

concentration (highest percentage of the substance in air) that
will produce a flash of fire when an ignition source (heat,
electric arc, or flame) is present.
UHP Ultra high purity.
ULD Ultrasonic level detector.
ullage (outage) A term used in some industries, notably power generation,

which is equivalent to a shutdown.
The amount which a tank, container, or vessel lacks of being

full; a term generally used in connection with ship’s tanks.
Space left in a product container to allow for expansion

during the temperature changes it may undergo during
shipment and application. The measurement of space that is
NOT occupied in a drum.
underflow The heavier portion of oil treated in a centrifuge. This

portion contains the impurities, such as wax, which needs to
be separated.
unit A block of DCS software that can sequence and control all of
the phases needed to create a particular product or result.
Also, the equipment controlled by the software.
unit train A series of railcars, hooked together by hoses, that can be

unloaded or loaded at one time.
unplanned maintenance Any maintenance activity for which a pre-determined job
procedure has not been documented, or for which all labor,
materials, tools, and equipment required to carry out the task
have been not been estimated, and their availability assured
before commencement of the task.
unsaturated Containing double or triple bonds between carbon atoms.

Used to describe a hydrocarbon atom in which all of the
bonds are not completely filled.
unsaturated compounds Hydrocarbon compounds having one or more unsaturated

carbon valence bonds, i.e., ethylene, propylene. These
compounds are not found in natural gas streams or gas
liquids (NGL) because of their relatively high chemical
activity. Unsaturates are produced by a thermal cracking or
chemical reaction and can be found in synthetic gas (SG) or
light refinery gas (LRG).
unsaturates/ Hydrocarbons deficient in hydrogen, including olefins and

unsaturated aromatics.
hydrocarbons
A hydrocarbon which reacts readily with other substances.
Its attraction for other substances is not satisfied, therefore, it
will combine with elements or compounds to form new
substances.
unscheduled maintenance Any maintenance work that has not been included on an
approved maintenance schedule prior to its commencement.
unstable Tending toward the decomposition or other unwanted

chemical change during normal handling or storage.
upright exchanger A vertical piece of equipment that conserves energy by

simultaneously heating a cold product and cooling a hot
product passing through the tubes.
upstream The exploration, production, and transportation of oil and

gas.
uptime The time that an item of equipment is in service and

operating.
upwind In the direction from which the wind is blowing.
use To package, handle, react, or transfer.
useful life The maximum length of time that a component can be left in
service before it will start to experience a rapidly increasing
probability of failure. The useful life determines the fre-
quency with which a scheduled restoration or a scheduled
discard task should be performed. Components must, at
some consistent point in time, experience a rapidly increas-
ing probability of failure. Research in the airline industry
showed that, in this industry at least, this was only true for
11% of the components in modern aircraft.
utilities Shared or plant-wide support systems that provide air, steam,

electricity, cooling water, and other necessities to meet
equipment requirements on demand.
utility air A pressurized, moisture-free supply of air used to power

hoists, lugger winches, pumps, pneumatic hand tools, and
various other types of equipment.
utilization The proportion of available time that an item of equipment is

operating. It is calculated by dividing equipment operating
hours by equipment available hours. Generally expressed as
a percentage.
V
% volatile Percent volatile by volume. The percentage of a liquid or

solid (by volume) that will evaporate at an ambient
temperature of 70°F unless some other temperature is stated.
Examples: butane, gasoline, and paint thinner (mineral
spirits) are 100% volatile. Their individual evaporation rates
vary, but over a period of time, each will evaporate
completely.
V Mean velocity.
vacuum Theoretically, a space in which there is no matter.

Practically, a space in which the pressure is far below normal
atmospheric pressure so that the remaining gases do not
affect processes being carried on in the space.
Any pressure below atmospheric pressure.
Vacuum breaking valve A valve which acts inversely to a pressure relief valve. If the
exterior pressure is higher than that within a vessel, the valve
will open to equalize the pressure.
vacuum distillation Distillation at reduced pressure (below atmospheric pressure)

with or without the use of steam. Usually applies to
lubricating oil or asphalt manufacture.
vacuum rack A lever device with cams to operate the nozzle valves of a
steam turbine. The valve rack is designed to open and close
the nozzle valves in sequence.
vacuum resid The bottom or heaviest product manufactured in the No. 1

and No. 2 Crude Vacuum Units. Resid is also purchased
from other refineries and transported to our storage facilities.
vacuum tower A fractionator that operates under a vacuum for the purpose
of lowering the boiling point temperatures of the products.
valence The combining power of an atom. The number of hydrogen
atoms with which it will combine or which it will replace.
An atom of carbon combines with four atoms of hydrogen,
therefore, has a valence of four.
value engineering A systematic approach to assessing and analyzing the user’s

requirements of a new asset, and ensuring that those require-
ments are met, but not exceeded. Consists primarily of
eliminating perceived “non-value-adding” features of new
equipment.
valve A mechanism that allows or prevent liquid or gas flow

through a pipe.
Van der Waals force An attractive force between two atoms or non-polar
molecules.
vanadium inhibitor An organic and/or inorganic metal-bearing chemical

intended to chemically and/or physically combine with the
compounds formed during combustion of heavy fuel oil to
improve the surface properties of the treated ash compounds.
vanes The projections from the casing in a centrifugal pump. They

direct the flow of fluid from the rotating impeller to the
discharge of the casing to minimize turbulence.
vapor A gas that is condensable by increasing its pressure.
Gaseous state of a material suspended in air that would be a

liquid or solid under ordinary conditions.
Gaseous substance which can be at least partly condensed by

cooling or compression.
vapor binding The formation of vapor in a liquid line causing an

interruption of liquid flow.
vapor bound (aid bound) The formation of vapor in a liquid line causing an
interruption of liquid flow. Also called vapor lock.
vapor cracking Mild cracking of residual oils when subjected to heat and
pressure. Products are pressure distillate (gasoline);
visbreaker gas oil and tar.
vapor density The weight of vapor or gas compared to an equal volume of

air. An expression of the density of the vapor or gas.
Materials lighter than air, such as acetylene, methane, and
hydrogen, have vapor densities of less than 1.0. Materials
heavier than air, such as propane, hydrogen sulfide, ethane,
butane, chlorine, and sulfur dioxide, have vapor densities of
greater than 1.0. All vapors and gases mix with air, but the
lighter materials tend to rise and dissipate unless they are
confined. Heavier vapors and gases have a tendency to
concentrate in low places, such as along or under floors, in
sumps, sewers, and manholes, and in trenches and ditches,
where they may create fire or health hazards.
vapor lock Vapor binding in the gasoline line leading to an engine. Also
called vapor bound (aid bound).
vapor pressure The pressure exerted by a saturated vapor above its liquid in
a closed container:
 The vapor pressure of a substance at 100°F will always
be higher than the vapor pressure of the substance at
60°F.
 The vapor pressures reported on MSDSs in mmHg are
usually very low pressures; 760 mmHg is equivalent to
14.7 psi.
 The lower the boiling point of a substance, the higher its
vapor pressure.
Applied to products from straight distillation of crude. Used

to distinguish from similar products of cracking processes.
vapor pressure gasoline Natural gasoline meeting a specified vapor pressure.
vapor recovery Equipment or process for the recovery of the desired

components from stock tank vapors or vapors from some
other source.
vaporization Changing a liquid to a gas by exciting the molecules to move
fast enough to break their attracting forces and become
independent of one another.
vaporizing Changing a liquid to a gas by exciting the molecules to move

fast enough to break their attracting forces and become
independent of one another.
vapors A substance in a gaseous state as distinguished from a liquid

or solid state.
variable back pressure Back pressure which develops as a result of the conditions
outlined below:
 Built-up Back Pressure – The pressure in the discharge
header which develops as a result of flow after the
pressure relief valve opens.
 Superimposed Back Pressure – Pressure in the discharge
header before the pressure relief valve opens.
variable costs Costs that change over time or are based on resources.
VBU VisBreaker Unit.
ventilation Circulating fresh air to replace contaminated air.
venturi A tube with a narrow throat (a constriction) that increases the

velocity and lowers the pressure of the liquid passing
through it, creating a partial vacuum immediately after the
constriction in the tube. The vacuum created has a sucking
effect, and a venturi is commonly used to introduce a liquid
(such as a regenerant) or gas (such as air) into a flowing
water stream.
venturi tube A tube, inserted in a line, whose internal surface consists of

two truncated cones connected at the small ends by a short
cylinder (the throat). As the velocity of flow of the fluid
increases in the throat, the pressure decreases. The tube is
used to measure the quantity of fluid flowing or, by joining a
branch tube at the throat, to produce suction.
vessel Any tank, drum, column, or other such equipment that is
designed to operate at a pressure higher than 1 barg
(14.7 psig).
VFD Variable frequency driver.
vibration analysis The process of monitoring the condition of equipment, and

the diagnosis of faults in equipment through the measure-
ment and analysis of vibration within that equipment.
Typically conducted through hand-held or permanently
positioned accelerometers placed on key measurement points
on the equipment. Commonly used on most large items of
rotating equipment, such as turbines, centrifugal pumps,
motors, gearboxes, etc.
virgin A descriptive term applied to products produced directly

from crude to distinguish them from similar products from
cracking processes.
virgin products (straight- Crude oil distillation products as produced by the

run products) fractionation process without being altered by chemical
reaction.
visbreaking A mild thermal cracking process carried out on a fuel oil

during the refining process to reduce product viscosity
without blending.
Heats the heavy oil residue to a high temperature to crack

some of it to lighter components and reduce the quality of
the heavy residue remaining.
viscosimeter A device for determining the viscosity of oil. Basically, a

fixed quantity of oil is allowed to pass through a fixed orifice
at a specified temperature over a measured time span and
then compared to a standard liquid, such as a calibration oil
or water.
viscosity The property of a liquid that indicates its resistance to flow
against an applied force. The higher the liquid’s viscosity,
the more resistant it is to flow.
The resistance of a fluid to flow when a force is exerted upon

it.
The tendency of a fluid to resist internal flow without regard

to its density.
viscosity furol Similar to the Saybolt test, except that the orifice used is
larger. Normally applied to fuel oils.
viscosity index An empirical number indicating the effect of change in

temperature on the viscosity of an oil. It is calculated from
the viscosities of the oil at 100° and 210°F. A high viscosity
index (VI) signifies a relatively small change of viscosity
with temperature. Ref. ASTM D 2270-64.
viscosity, Saybolt A measure of viscosity measured by the number of seconds

universal required for a sample to pass through a standard orifice
(opening) in a Saybolt viscosimeter under standard
conditions. Usually used for lubricating oils.
viscosity-gravity constant A useful function for characterizing viscous fractions of

petroleum. Ref. ASTM D 2501-67
viscous Thick, sticky and having a glue-like consistency.
visual sequency system An alarm system used for processes having interrelated
relationships. Safety devices, such as shutdowns may be
included. If one condition goes off normal, other conditions
are likely to follow. Thus, shutdowns are necessary. This
system can be reset and provides sufficient lead time for
operator intervention before conditions become irreparable.
VOC Volatile organic compounds. Organic compounds used in

coatings and paint because they evaporate very rapidly.
volatile A substance that is capable of being evaporated or changed
to a vapor at a relatively low temperature. Volatile
substances can also be partially removed by air stripping.
volatile sulfur Sulfur compounds that will vaporize readily.
volatility A measure of how quickly a substance forms a vapor at

ordinary temperatures.
vortex breaker Device in a vessel designed to prevent a vortex forming in

liquid that might form a cavity at the pump suction.
VPS Vacuum pipe still.
Vstd Standard volume.
W
w The ease and speed with which any maintenance activity can
be carried out on an item of equipment. It may be measured
by mean time to repair and is a function of equipment design
and maintenance task design, including use of appropriate
tools, jigs, work platforms, etc.
wash In petroleum refining, to cleanse or purify by agitation with

water or chemicals.
waste heat boiler A heat exchanger that uses hot flue gases to produce steam.
waste nitrogen Nitrogen that is surplus to sales and is used for blanketing,
dryer regeneration, or is vented to the atmosphere.
Wastewater Treatment A process in which wastewater is treated to remove

impurities before being discharged into the environment or
recycled for reuse.
water hammer Pressure rise in a pipeline caused by a sudden change in the

rate of flow or stoppage of flow in the line. There are two
main causes. Water hammer in a steam line can be caused
when a slug of condensate being carried along with the
steam hits a bend or elbow. Water hammer in wet return
lines and pump discharge piping is a form of cavitation. A
trapped steam bubble loses its latent heat and collapses with
a violent shock.
The energy developed by the sudden stoppage of fluid in

motion.
water reactive A material that reacts with water to release a gas that is either
flammable or presents a health hazard.
water-based residue Waste material that contains water-based paint material.
waterborne residue Water-based liquid residue created from the manufacturing
process of water-based products.
waterflood A method of secondary recovery in which water is injected

into an oil reservoir to force additional oil out of the
reservoir rock and into the wellbores of producing wells.
wax/petroleum wax A product separated from petroleum which is solid or semi-

solid at 77ºF and consists essentially of mixture of saturated
hydrocarbons.
waxy gas oil An unrefined gas oil product from the Lube Crude
Fractionating Process (No. 4 CTU) that is charge stock for
the Duo Sol Process.
weathering The process of vaporization which occurs when the crude of

petroleum product is allowed to stand in an open vessel.
Also, deterioration of a material resulting from exposure to
the atmosphere.
weathering or boil-away A Gas Processors Association (GPA) test for low-pressure

test gas for the determination of heavy components in a sample
by evaporation of the sample as specified.
weight in air Weight compared to a standard with no correction for

atmospheric conditions of air buoyancy.
weir Flat or notched dam or barrier to liquid flow; normally used

to measure fluid flows, or to maintain a given depth of fluid
as on a tray of a distillation column.
well An artificial excavation drilled for the purpose of

withdrawing fluids from an underground reservoir.
well water Water supplied from a well to the utilities to make up volume
of desalting water.
wellhead The assembly of fittings, valves, and controls located at the

surface and connected to the flow lines, tubing, and casing of
the well so as to control the flow from the reservoir.
wet gas Natural gas or gas produced by some refinery process, which
contains recoverable gasoline fractions.
Petroleum gas containing gasoline vapors.
wet steam Steam containing entrained water.
what-if/checklist A method of conducting a PHA combining the techniques of

asking what-if questions and using prepared checklists.
Wobbe number A number proportional to the heat input to a burner at

constant pressure. In British practice, it is the heating value
of a gas divided by the square root of its gravity. Widely
used in Europe, together with a measured or calculated flame
speed, to determine interchangeability of fuel gases.
work area A room or defined space in a workplace where hazardous

chemicals are produced or used, and where employees are
present.
work order The prime document used by the maintenance function to

manage maintenance tasks. It may include such information
as:
 A description of the work required
 The task priority
 The job procedure to be followed
 The parts, materials, tools and equipment required to
complete the job
 The labor hours, costs, and materials consumed in
completing the task
 Key information on failure causes and what work was
performed, etc.
work request The prime document raised by user departments requesting

the initiation of a maintenance task. This is usually
converted to a work order after the work request has been
authorized for completion.
working drawing A set of drawings which provide details for the production of
each part and information for the correct assembly.
workload The amount of labor hours required to carry out specified

maintenance tasks.
workplace An establishment at one geographical location containing

one or more work areas.
wt Weight.
X
y-grade jet fuel A kerosene-based jet fuel with a 125°F flash point.
yield The amount of a product obtained from the processing of a

given quantity of raw material usually expressed as volume
or weight percent.
Z
Z list The OSHA’s Toxic and Hazardous Substances Tables Z-1, Z-

2, and Z-3 of air contaminants, found in 29 CFR 1910.1000.
These tables record the PELs, TWA exposures, and ceiling
concentrations for the materials listed. Any material found
on these tables is considered to be hazardous.
zeolite Brand name of an ion exchange resin for the removal of

calcium and/or magnesium from water.
zero To adjust the pointer or readout of an instrument to read zero.

Provides an accurate starting point for the subsequent
reading(s).
zinc fume fever Acquiring a fever and chills caused by inhalation of zinc
oxide fume characterized by: flu-like symptoms, metallic
taste in the mouth, coughing, weakness, fatigue, muscular
pain, and nausea.
Characters and Symbols
 The ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter (pi).
 Material density.
°API American Petroleum Institute. Term for specific gravity.
delta P (ΔP) Pressure difference between two points in a system.
delta T (ΔT) Temperature difference between two points in a system.
T Temperature differential or driving force.
µ The absolute viscosity of a fluid.
Numerical
29 CFR 1910.119 Title 29 of the CFT, Part 1910, Section 1219, Process Safety
Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals. An OSHA
standard containing federal regulations concerning PSM.
Chemicals and Formulas
acetylene (C2H2) Colorless gas, made by calcium carbide hydrolysis or by

natural gas or hydrocarbon pyrolysis. Commonly used for
welding.
amine diethanol (DEA) A solvent used in the absorption of hydrogen sulfide from
refinery gases.
amine monoethanol A solvent used in the absorption of carbon dioxide from

(MEA) refinery gases.
ammonia (NH3) A colorless, gaseous compound of nitrogen and hydrogen

that has an extremely pungent smell and taste and is very
soluble in water.
benzene (C6H6) A colorless liquid hydrocarbon with one ring of carbon

atoms. Made from coal tar and by catalytic reforming of
naphthenes, it is used in the manufacture of phenol, styrene,
nylon, detergents, aniline, phthalic anhydride, diphenyl,
nitrobenzene, and chlorobenzene. It is also used as a
solvent; and as a component of high-octane gasoline.
An aromatic hydrocarbon with the main commercial

production resulting from the manufacture of coke from coal.
Toluene and xylene are also produced in the same operation.
Benzene is present to a minor degree in most crude oils.
(Not to be confused with benzine, alternate name for
gasoline, particularly used in Europe.)
A colorless volatile flammable toxic liquid aromatic

hydrocarbon that burns with a luminous flame. Used as a
solvent and chemical intermediate.
butane (C4H10) A hydrocarbon of the paraffin series whose molecule
contains four carbon atoms and ten hydrogen atoms. Butane
has a boiling point of 31°F.
An alkane that occurs in natural gas and is produced by

cracking petroleum. There are two isomers: normal butane
and isobutane.
butene butylene (C4H8) A hydrocarbon of the olefin series (unsaturated). A mixture

of butene-1 and butene-2 has a M.M. octane number of about
82, a boiling point of about 28°F, and Reid vapor pressure of
about 56.
butyl alcohol A series of alcohols having the chemical formula C4H9OH

and boiling points between 182–243°F.
butylene Any of three isomer alkene hydrocarbons with the formula

C4H8. All are flammable and easily liquefied gases.
C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 fractions A common way of representing fractions containing a
preponderance of hydrocarbons of 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 carbon
atoms, respectively. C1 is methane, C2 is ethane, C3 is
propane, C4 is butane, C5 is pentane.
A common way of representing fractions containing a

preponderance of hydrocarbons. Common designation for a
hydrocarbon product that has been separated from heavier
feedstock by a distillation process. The higher the carbon
number, the “heavier” the hydrocarbon product. Product
designations include:
C1 Methane
C2 Ethane/Ethylene
C3 Propanes; usually liquid under pressure
C4 Butanes; usually liquid under pressure
C5 Pentanes; usually liquid under pressure
C6 Hexanes; usually liquid under pressure
C6+ Hydrocarbon liquids with 6 or more carbon atoms
See Also:
 Cx
C3s, C4s, etc. C3 is used to indicate a hydrocarbon whose molecules have 3
carbon atoms (propane). Likewise, C4 indicates 4 carbon
atoms (butane). C3= and C4= indicate molecules that are not
saturated with hydrogen (propylene and butylene).
calcium carbonate Calcium carbonate is a white chemical compound, insoluble

(CaCO3) in water.
carbon dioxide (CO2) A heavy, colorless gas which will not support combustion.
Dissolved in water, it forms carbonic acid. It is exhaled by
lung-possessing animals as a waste gas, and it is absorbed by
certain plants which absorb its carbon component and release
its oxygen component as a waste gas.
Carbon dioxide. A heavy, colorless gas produced by the

combustion and decomposition of organic substances and as
a byproduct of many chemical processes. It will not burn
and is relatively non-toxic (although high concentrations,
especially in confined spaces, can create hazardous oxygen-
deficient environments).
carbon disulfide (CS2) Clear, colorless liquid, nearly odorless when pure.
carbon monoxide (CO) A poisonous, colorless, flammable, and odorless gas

composed of carbon and oxygen. It is rapidly absorbed into
the blood stream and can cause death if inhaled in large
quantities. Carbon monoxide is a product of incomplete
combustion of carbon. It is used to condition the acetylene
reactor catalyst and helps control the hydrogenation of
ethylene to form ethane.
carbon tetrachloride A colorless liquid made by the reaction of carbon disulfide

(CCL4) with chlorine or by chlorination of methane, and as a
byproduct of chlorination of higher hydrocarbons. Used as
solvent to manufacture chloroform, chlorinated organics, and
for fire extinguishers.
carbonyl sulfide (COS) The actual name is carbon oxysulfide, which is present in the
states of a gas or liquid. Carbonyl sulfide is moderately
explosive when exposed to heat. Inhalation of carbonyl
sulfide can lead to short- and long-term dizziness.
caustic soda (sodium A strong alkaline material that neutralizes acids and reacts
hydroxide, NAOH or lye) with sulfur-bearing hydrocarbons to remove them. Caustic
has a sharp pungent odor, is a heavy musky liquid, and is
extremely hazardous to the skin and eyes.
cetane (C16H34) A pure paraffin hydrocarbon used as a standard in

determining or measuring ignition qualities of diesel fuels.
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) Associated with damage to the earth’s ozone layer.
Cx Common designation for a hydrocarbon product which has

been separated from heavier feedstock by a distillation
process. The higher the carbon number, the “heavier” the
hydrocarbon product. Such product designations include:
C1 Methane
C2 Ethane
C3 Propanes; usually liquid under pressure
C4 Butanes; usually liquid under pressure
C5 Pentanes; usually liquid under pressure
C6 Hexanes; usually liquid under pressure
C6+ Hydrocarbon liquids
Note: The designation “C6+ Hydrocarbon Liquids” is used

to refer to a mixture of hydrocarbons which contain C6 and
heavier compounds. It is pronounced C-6-plus. Similarly,
“C6-” refers to a mixture of all hydrocarbons which are C6
and lighter, and is pronounced C-6-minus.
See Also:
 C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 fractions
diglycolamine (DGA) A colorless, slightly viscous liquid with a mild amine odor.
DGA is miscible with water, alcohols, and aromatic
hydrocarbons, but relatively immiscible with aliphatic
hydrocarbons and ethyl ether. Used to remove carbonyl
sulfide (COS) from liquid hydrocarbon streams, a selective
solvent for recovery of aromatics from refinery streams, and
to remove carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
from natural and refinery gas, aliphatic hydrocarbon liquids
and other sour hydrocarbon steams.
ethane (C2H6) A hydrocarbon of the paraffin series (saturated). It has an
M.M. octane number of greater than 100 and a boiling point
of –128°F.
ethyl fluid (tetra-ethyl A chemical which retards the rate of combustion, thus
lead) improving the anti-knock quality of a gasoline.
ethylene (ethane) (C2H4) A hydrocarbon of the olefin series (unsaturated). It has an

M.M. octane number of 81 and a boiling point of –155°F.
hexane (C6H14) A straight-chain hydrocarbon of the paraffin series. It has a

boiling point of 156°F and a Reid vapor pressure of 5.0 psia.
hydrofluoric acid (HF) A highly corrosive inorganic acid used as a catalyst in the
Alkylation Process. Related to hydrochloric acid (HCL).
hydrogen A light, inflammable gas product which will react with

sulfur, oxygen, metals, etc.
A colorless, odorless, highly flammable diatomic gas.
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) H2S is a colorless, toxic, and flammable gas. At lower
concentrations it smells like rotten eggs. Higher
concentrations can be quickly fatal.
A gaseous compound of sulfur and hydrogen commonly

found in crude oil, sour water, and at various stages of
processing within the refinery. H2S is an extremely
poisonous, colorless gas which can sometimes be detected by
a rotten egg odor. However, the sense of smell is totally
unreliable for detection of H2S since concentrations above
50 ppm deaden the sense of smell. Above 50 ppm, detection
instruments are required to determine the presence of H2S.
H2S is also extremely corrosive, forming sulfurous acid when
it contacts water, to refinery equipment.
isobutane (C4H10) A hydrocarbon of the paraffin series (saturated). It has a

M.M. octane number of 99, a boiling point of 14°F, and a
Reid vapor pressure of 71.
isobutene (isobutylene) A hydrocarbon of the olefin series (unsaturated). It has a
(C4H8) M.M. octane number of 87, a boiling point of 20°F, and a
isocyanate A compound containing the isocyanate group, –N=C=),

attached to an organic radical or hydrogen.
iso-octane (C8H18) A hydrocarbon of the paraffin series (saturated). It has a

Reid vapor pressure of 1.7.
isopentane (C5H12) A hydrocarbon of the paraffin series (saturated). It has a

kerosene The overhead distillate from crude oil fractionating which

follows gasoline and precedes gas oil. It usually has a
boiling range of 360–525°F.
A distillate product taken from an atmospheric crude unit

process (boiling range 395–485°F).
mercaptan (RSH) A foul-smelling hydrocarbon compound that contains sulfur

and has the odor of rotten cabbage and of the formula RSH
where R is any petroleum hydrocarbon. Mercaptans form
corrosive gases when burned.
methane (CH4) The simplest hydrocarbon in the paraffin series (saturated).

It has an M.M. octane number of 100 and a boiling point of
–258°F.
methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) Colorless liquid, made by dehydrogenation of secondary

(CH3COCH2CH3) butyl alcohol, or from carbon monoxide and hydrogen by a
modified Fischer-Tropsch process. Used as a solvent; as a
chemical intermediate; and in the manufacture of lacquers,
celluloid, and varnish removers.
Methyldiethanol amine A strong alkaline, highly selective process solvent used in

(MDEA) the tail gas recovery system to remove acid gas. It is also
commonly referred to as amine and is used to remove
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) from hydrocarbon streams.
methylene chloride Used as an auxiliary blowing agent.
monoethanol amine A process solvent used in an amine system to absorb and

(MEA) carry acid gas. Usually DEA is preferred over MEA.
Used in pH control.
naphthene(s) A saturated hydrocarbon (CnH2n), containing at least one ring

structure and saturated with respect to hydrogen.
One of three basic hydrocarbon classifications found

naturally in crude oil. Widely used as petrochemical
feedstock. Examples: cyclopentane; methyl-, ethyl-, and
propyl-cyclopentane.
N-butane (C4H10) A straight-chain hydrocarbon of the paraffin series

(saturated). It has a research +3 octane number of 104, a
boiling point of 31°F, and Reid vapor pressure of 52.
N-butene (butylene) (C4H8) One of the three straight-chain isomeric hydrocarbons of the
olefin series (unsaturated). They have a research +3 octane
number of about 102, a boiling range from 21° to 39°F, and a
Reid vapor pressure from 46 to 63.
Nitrilotriacetate (NTA) .
nitrogen (N2) A colorless, tasteless, odorless, inert gas that is used for
purging. It will not burn and will not support combustion.
The earth’s atmosphere is about 78% nitrogen and at higher
concentrations, nitrogen can displace oxygen and become a
lethal asphyxiant.
n-octane (C8H18) A hydrocarbon in the paraffin series (saturated). It has an

NOx A general formula for oxides of nitrogen (NO, NO2). They
react with moisture in the respiratory tract to produce acids
that corrode and irritate tissue, causing congestion and
pulmonary edema. Symptoms of acute exposure can develop
over 6 to 24 hours. Chronic exposure to low levels can cause
irritation, cough, headache, and tooth corrosion. Exposure to
5 to 50 ppm of NO2 can cause slowly evolving pulmonary
edema. Commonly produced by combustion processes,
including motor vehicle engines.
N-pentane (C5H12) A hydrocarbon of the paraffin series (saturated). It has a

research +3 octane number of 85, a boiling point of 97°F,
and a Reid vapor pressure of 16.
olefin Unsaturated hydrocarbons with one double bond per

molecule. Examples are ethylene (C2H4, propylene (C3H6),
and butene (C4H8).
olefins A family of unsaturated, chemically active hydrocarbons

with one carbon-carbon double bond, including butane,
ethylene, and propylene.
Open-chain hydrocarbons containing one or more double

bonds.
An unsaturated hydrocarbon, having one double bond, with

the general formula: CnH2n. An alkene.
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Occasionally

polyaluminum hydroxide.
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl. A pathogenic and teratogenic

compound used as a heat transfer medium. It accumulates in
tissue.
pentane (C5H10) A hydrocarbon of the paraffin (saturated) series. It has a

boiling point of 97°F and a Reid vapor pressure of 16 psia.
pentane plus A hydrocarbon mixture consisting mostly of normal pentane

(C5H12) and heavier components, extracted from natural gas.
perchloroethylene A chloride chemical used in the Reforming Process to
promote catalyst activity.
polychlorinated biphenyl A pathogenic and teratogenic compound used as a heat

(PCB) transfer medium. It accumulates in tissue.
polyurethane (PUR) Polymeric substance containing many urethane linkages. A

large family of polymers with widely ranging properties and
uses, all based on the reaction product of an organic
diisocyanate with compounds containing a hydroxyl group,
and having the RNHCOOR group in their chains. The types
and properties of polyurethanes are so varied that they have
been dubbed the “erector set” of the plastics industry. They
may be thermosetting or thermoplastic, rigid and hard, or
flexible and soft, solid or cellular; and the properties of any
of these types may be varied within wide limits to suit the
desired application.
potassium hydroxide An alkaline material that neutralizes acids, similar to sodium

(KOH) hydroxide. Especially used to neutralize hydrofluoric acid in
the Alkylation Process.
POx A general term for the several oxides of phosphorus.
propane (C3H8) A hydrocarbon of the paraffin series (saturated). It has an

M.M. octane number of 100, boiling point of –44°F, and a
propane (propylene) A hydrocarbon of the paraffin series (unsaturated). It has an

(C3H6) M.M. octane number of 85, a boiling point of –54°F, and a
propane, HD-5 A special grade of propane consisting predominately of

propane and which conforms to the GPA specification for
HD-5 propane.
SNG Synthetic or substitute natural gas. The gas product

resulting from the gasification of coal and/or gas liquids or
heavier hydrocarbons.
sodium hydroxide A strong alkaline material that neutralizes acids and reacts
(caustic soda or lye) with sulfur-bearing hydrocarbons to remove them.
SOx Oxides of sulfur where “x” equals the number of oxygen

atoms. Undesirable air pollutants regulated by the EPA
under the CAA (Clean Air Act).
spent KOH As the KOH in solution reacts with HF, potassium fluoride
(KF) is formed, decreasing the potassium hydroxide
molecules in solution. When the percent KOH reaches 2%
to 3%, the KOH solution is considered “spent.”
sulfur dioxide (SO2) A heavy, colorless, suffocating gas that is chemically an

oxide of sulfur. Conversion of the gaseous sulfur oxides to
sulfur is necessary for corrosion control, for health and
safety reasons, and for complying with governmental
standards.
TEG Triethylene glycol.
xylene (C6H4(CH3)2) Any of three flammable isomeric aromatic hydrocarbons that

are dimethyl homologues of benzene; obtained from
petroleum.

Master Glossary of Refinery Terms

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MASTER GLOSSARY

KBC Advanced Technologies, HPI 2 of 252 Master Glossary of Refinery Terms

abrasive Able to wear away another material by constant rubbing or

absolute A chemical substance that is relatively free of impurities. An

The pressure above the absolute zero value of pressure that

Pressure measured relative to the pressure in a perfect

The total pressure within a vessel, pipe, etc., not offset by

absolute temperature A temperature at which zero is a condition absolutely free of

absolute viscosity The force required to move 1 sq cm of plane surface at a

KBC Advanced Technologies, HPI 3 of 252 Master Glossary of Refinery Terms

A product stream that takes in heat in a furnace or heat

absorber A tower or column that separates hydrocarbon gases from

absorption The process by which one substance attracts another,

To take in and make a part of an existing whole. The

absorption factor A factor used in engineering calculations which expresses

absorption oil The oil used in absorption tower separation to extract

KBC Advanced Technologies, HPI 4 of 252 Master Glossary of Refinery Terms

access To gain entry in order to connect with or use part of a system

accommodation An offshore platform, or semi-submersible rig, built or

accumulation Pressure increase over the maximum allowable working

accumulator A vessel for the temporary storage of gas or liquid that is

acfm Actual cubic feet per minute. A measure of compressor

ACGIH American Conference of Governmental Industrial

KBC Advanced Technologies, HPI 5 of 252 Master Glossary of Refinery Terms

Any chemical which undergoes dissociation in water with

Any combination of hydrocarbon or non-hydrocarbon gas

A combination of hydrocarbon or non-hydrocarbon gases

acid wash color A test for the presence of non-hydrocarbons in aromatic

acidic Containing acid. Some products or raw materials frequently

acidosis Condition of decreased alkalinity of the blood and tissues

KBC Advanced Technologies, HPI 6 of 252 Master Glossary of Refinery Terms

acrid Irritating and bitter.

ACT Atmospheric Crude Tower. A fractionation tower that

action level Exposure level at which OSHA regulations to protect

activated alumina A porous solid chemical (aluminum oxide) used principally

activated sludge Sludge that contains micro-organisms. Used for biological

actuarial analysis Statistical analysis of failure data to determine the age-

acute effect An adverse effect on a human or animal body that takes

acute lethality The death of animals immediately or within 14 days after a

KBC Advanced Technologies, HPI 7 of 252 Master Glossary of Refinery Terms

additive Any substance that is added to a resin, usually in a relatively

additives Raw material added to a batch to promote or decrease certain

A substance added to petroleum products to impart some

adenocarcinoma A tumor with glandular (secreting) elements.

adenosis Any disease of the gland.

adhesion A joining of two surfaces that are normally separate.

adhesive A material capable of bonding one surface to another. Used

adiabatic A process in which there is no loss or gain of heat exchanged

adiabatic temperature A change in temperature that occurs without adding or taking

adsorb Collection gas or liquid molecules on the surface of another

adsorbent A solid substance used to remove components from natural

KBC Advanced Technologies, HPI 8 of 252 Master Glossary of Refinery Terms

The process by which one substance attracts another,

The surface retention of a solid or liquid.

aerate Expose to the action of air. A bubble of air through a

aeration To supply or charge water with air for the purposes of

aerosol A fine aerial suspension of liquid (mist, fog) or solid (dust,

agent Any substance, force, radiation, organism, or influence that

aggolomerate To form or collect into a cluster or mass.

AGO Atmospheric gas oil. A hydrocarbon component that boils

AIChE American Institute of Chemical Engineers

air blowing A process for raising the softening point of asphalt by

air compressor A machine that draws in air at atmospheric pressure,

KBC Advanced Technologies, HPI 9 of 252 Master Glossary of Refinery Terms