Units of Measurement

Data:
Absolute pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure – Vacuum
Pressure = P =  X g X h ( (water) = 1000 kg/m 3,  (Mercury) = 13596 kg/m 3)
Specific Gravity of Mercury = (Density of Substance/Density of water) = 13596/1000 = 13.596
Water at Atmospheric Pressure: Freezing point = 0°C, Boiling Point= 100°C
NTP (Normal Temperature and Pressure) Atmospheric Pressure = 760 mmHg; Temperature = 0°C
STP (Standard) Pressure = 760 mmHg; Temperature 15°C
Molar (Universal) gas constant = Ro = 8.3143 kJ/kg°Kmol = MR = Molecular weight X 0.287 kJ/kg°K (For
Air)
Air=> Cp = dh/dT = 1.005kJ/kg°K, Cv = R/( - 1) = 0.718kJ/kg°K,  = Cp/Cv = 1.4; R = Cp-Cv =
0.287kJ/kg°K
For Copper, Cp = 0.394 kJ/kg°K

Conversion:
1 kg/cm2 = 10 m of water column = 10000 mmwc = 10000/13.596 = 735.51 mmHg (mm of Mercury)
1 bar = 750 mmHg = 1.0197 kg/cm 2 = 10197 mmwc = 100000 Pascal = 100000 N/m 2
1 Atmospheric Pressure = 760 mmHg = 1.0333 k/cm 2 = 10333 mmwc = 1.0133 bar
°C = K – 273.16 = (5/9)X(°F-32); °F = °R – 459.6 = (9/5)°C + 32
-40°C = -40°F; 0°C = 32°F; 0°F = -17.8°C; 100°C = 212°F
1 Litre = 1000cm3 ; 1 m3 = 1000 Litre = 1000000cm 3 ;
1 yard = 3 foot = 0.9144 m; 1 mile = 1760 yard = 1609 m; 1 acre = 43560 sq. Foot
1 Lb = 0.453592 kg; 1 in = 25.4 mm; a kgf = 9.81 Newton; 1 Lbf = 4.448 Newton; 1 bar = 14.505 Lb/Sq. in.

Properties of Gases
Laws: Boyle: PV = C (T=Constant) => P1V1 = P2V2; Charles: V/T = C (P=Constant)=>V 1/T1 = V2/T2
Combination: PV/T = C = P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 /T2 => PV = mRT
Real Gases (Van der Waal's Equation)
(P + a/V2) X (V-b) = RT (Where a = Force of interaction between molecules; b= volume of molecules)
Avogadro's Law: Molecular volume = V = MRT/P = (8314.3 x 273.16)/101325 = 22.413 m 3/kgmole
Equal volume of all gases at same pressure and temperature contain same number of molecules.
(or) Molecular masses of all the gases occupy same volume at NTP.
Clapeyron-Mondeleyer Equation: a mole of gas => PV = 8314.3 T
Intensive Properties = Not related to masses (Specific Properties, Temperature, Pressure)
Extensive Properties = Related to mass (Volume, Enthalpy, Internal Energy)
Kinetic Energy = (½) X Mass X (Velocity)2 ; Potential Energy = M X g X (Elevation); Q -W = U2 - U1
Steady flow Energy equation => g Z1 + u1 + p1v1 + [(C1)2/2] + Q = g Z2 + u2 + p2v2 + [(C2)2/2] + W
Mass flow rate = m =  X A1 X C1 =  X A2 X C2 => (A1 X C1 )/v1 = (A2 X C2 )/v2
Nozzles (Adiabatic) => g Z2 - g Z1 = 0 => h 1 + [(C1)2/2] = h 2 + [(C2)2/2] => C2 =  [2 (h1 - h 2)+ (C1)2 ]
Throttle Valves => Workless adiabatic expansion => K.E. = P.E. = 0 => h 1 = h2

Properties of Steam
Enthalpy of steam = m X [h f + (x X hfg) + Cp (Tsup – Tsat)]
Vsup = [Vg X (Tsup/Tsat)] [where Psup = Psat]; And for wet steam Vw = [(1-x) X (x X Vg)]
Bucket Calorimeter: [ms X {hf1 – h 3 + (x X h fg1)}] = (mc – mw) X (h 3 – h 2) X Specific heat of water
[Where h f1, hfg1 and ms for steam, mc and mw for Calorimeter; t2 and h 2 for water in; t3 and h 3 for water out]
Separating Calorimeter: x = (Mass of dry steam/Total mass of steam) = m/(m+m 1)
Throttling Calorimeter: h f1 + (x1 X hfg1) = h f2 + Cp (Tsup – Tsat)
Combined Separating & Throttling: x = (x 1 X x2); Where x2 = m/(m+m 1)
(First separates mass m and then throttles); Moisture-Mass to Throttling = [(1 – x 1) X m];
Mass to Separator = [(1-x) X (m+m 1)]; Removed by Separator = [(1- x2) X (m+m 1)]
Duplex Feed Pump = Double acting Pump - Two pumps mounted side by side.
Brake Power to drive pump = (m X g X H)/(Efficiency) watts, where m is in kg/s
Volume of water pumped = Area X Length X Number of strokes X Number of Cylinders

Performance of Boilers
Standard Evaporation Unit = 2256.9 kJ/kg [Steam = 1 kg, T FW = 100°C, p = 1.01325 bar, Tsat = 100°C]
Equivalent evaporation = [ m {(h f – h 1) + (x X h fg)}] / (2256.9) [Where m is mass of steam per kg of coal]
Efficiency of Boiler = [ m {(h f – h 1) + (x X h fg)}] / [Mass of Coal X CV of coal]

Draught
At NTP, Volume of 1 mol = 22.4 m3 And molecular mass of air = [(23X32) + (77X28)]/100 = 28.97 kg
Density of air at NTP = 28397/22.4 = 1.293 kg/m 3 ; Amd density of air at Ta°C = [1.293 X (273/Ta)] = 353/Ta
For your valuable suggestions, contact Ramesh Dari
Density of Flue Gas at Tg°C = [1.293 X (273/Tg)] = 353/Tg
Mass of air is 'm' kg per (1) kg of fuel => Density of Flue gas = FG = [(m+1)/m] X (353/Tg)
Draught = Static head = Differential Pressure X Area and h is in mmwc =>
Differential Pressure = p = (water X (h/1000) X g) in N/m 2. = (h X g) in N/m 2.
So, Draught = [(h X g) X A] = [(a X g X H X A) – (FG X g X H X A)] {Where H is the height of Chimney}
Draught = h = [H X (a – FG )] = H X [(353/Ta) – (353/Tg) X {(m+1)/m}]
Now, Hot gas column (height of gas above chimney top) = H'. And p = h' X g = FG X g X H'
p = FG X g X H' = (h X g) = [H X (a – FG )] X g => H' = [H X (a – FG )] / FG
H' = (H X [(353/Ta) – (353/Tg) X {(m+1)/m}] )/{(353/Tg) X {(m+1)/m}
H' = H X [{m/(m+1)} X (Tg/Ta) – 1]
Actual Draught = Ha = (1 – loss) X H'
Velocity of flue gas = V =  [2 X g X Ha]
Flue gas Flow through Chimney = Q = K X A X V [Where K = coefficient of velocity = (0.3-0.5)]
Condition for maximum discharge through chimney => Tg = 2 X Ta X {(m+1)/m}
h' = H metre => h = 176.5 X (H/Tg)
Loss due to chimney (Due to high exhaust temperature):
Heat carried away =(Sp. Heat of Flue gas)X(Temp. of FG in natural draught – Temp. of FG in artificial
draught )
Heat carried away = Cp X (t – t 2)
Maximum energy that a height of hot gas column can give = H X [{m/(m+1)} X (Tg/Ta) – 1] X g
Efficiency of Chimney = (H X [{m/(m+1)} X (Tg/Ta) – 1] X g)/[Cp X (t – t 2)]
Heat carried away by Flue Gas = (m+1) X Cp X (t – t 2)
Heat carried away by Flue Gas as % of Heat supplied = [(m+1) X Cp X (t – t 2)] / (CV per kg of coal)
Power required to drive fan = Brake Power = (h X g X V) / (Efficiency of Fan) {Where V = Volume handled}
Volume of 1 kg of air at NTP = Vo = 1/(Specific mass) = 1/(1.293) [At temperature To = 273°K]
Forced Draught fan => V = [Vo X(Ta/To)X N X m]{Where N = Coal rate (kg/hr); m = air mass (kg/kg of
coal)}
Induced Draught fan => V = [Vo X (Tg/To) X N X (m+1)]
(B.P. - ID)/(B.P.-FD) = [{(m+1)/m} X (Tg/Ta)]
Velocity head to be imparted to air Hv = (v2)/(2 X g)
Pressure equivalent to Velocity Head = m X g X Hv = ( X V) X g X Hv = 1.293 X 1 X 9.81 X [(v2)/(2 X g)]
Draught lost = (p/g) in mmwc = (Where p is in Pascal)
pV = mRT => Volume of Air = (m X 287 X Ta) / (1.013 X 100000)
Volume of Flue Gas = [(m+1) X 287 X Tg] / (1.013 X 100000)
Inclined leg manometer => a X d = A X h 2 = A X (h – h1) = A X [h – (d X sin)]

Condenser
Corrected Vacuum = 760 – (Barometric Height – Vacuum ) mm
Absolute Pressure in Condenser = Ptot = Barometric Height – Vacuum Reading
Dalton's Law: P = Ps + Pa; Gas Law: Pa X V = m a X R X T;
ma = V/Va & ms = V/Vs; m = ma + ms = [(1/Va) + (1/Vs)] = ma [1 + (Va/Vs)] = ms [1 + (Vs/Va)]
P1 = Ideal pressure corresponding to condensate temperature; P = Actual Pressure = Ptot - Pa
Vacuum Efficiency = Actual Vacuum/Ideal Vacuum = (Barometric Pr – P) / (Barometric Pr - P 1)
Condenser Efficiency = (Temp rise in cooling water) / (Vacuum related Temp – CW Inlet Temp)
Coefficient of Performance (COP) (Measure of efficiency of surface Condenser in removing latent heat only)
Cooling Water Outler Temp = Saturation Temperature => COP = (Tcwo – Tcwi)/[(Tsat – Tcond) + 5]
Condenser heat exchange => mw X Cpw X (Two – Two) = ms [h f + (x X h fg) – h1]
If separate pumps for water and air are given and vacuum is same throughout the condenser
Mass of vapour associated with air [= m s1 At air pump suction Ta 1)][= ms2 At air pump discharge Ta 2)]
Jet Condenser: Steam & water are mixed => m s X x X h fg = mw X Cpw X (Two – Two)
[ h fg =Latent heat at Ps and Two = Tsat] [Vs = Volume of condensed steam/water with Density = 1000 kg/ m 3]
Capacity of Dry Air Pump = Va = [(m a X R X Ta) / Pa] m3/hr; Capacity of Wet Air Pump = Va + Vs
Evaporative Condenser: Heat from steam = m s [h f + (x X h fg) – h1]
[Vs = Sp. Volume of steam at Ps and Va = Sp. Vol by PaV = mRT] [P = Pa + Ps]
Mass of vapour associated with 1 kg of air = m si = (Vai/ Vsi) and mso = (Vao/Vso)
Heat given to air = m a X Cpa X (To – Ti) and Heat given to vapour = m a X [(mso X Ho) - (msi X Hi)]
Water vapour evaporated = ma X [mso - msi ] per kg of dry air
Steam Engines
Average Piston Speed =2 X (Length of Stroke) X RPM = 2 X L X N
Mean height of Indicator Diagram = (Area of indicator Diagram)/(Base of Indicator Diagram)
Expansion is hyperbolic => pV = Constant
P1 = Inlet pressure; Pb = Back pressure; V1 = Volume of Cylinder at cut off; V2 = Swept Volume
Ratio of Expansion = r = (V2 / V1 ) = [(Vs + Vc)/(Vcut + Vc)]
For your valuable suggestions, contact Ramesh Dari
Net work done per cycle = (P1 X V1 ) + (P1 X V1 ) X log(V2 / V1 ) - (Pb X V2) = (Pm X V2) = (Pm X Vs)
=> Pm = (P1 /r) X [1 + log(r)] - Pb
Diagram Factor = (Actual Area)/(Theoretical Area) [Area or Mean Height or Pm or Power]
Indicated Power (Single Acting) = Pm X L X A X (N/60) = Pm X L X {(/4)X D2) X n
Indicated Power (Double Acting) = [(P1 X A1 ) + (P2 X A2)] X L X (N/60)] {A2 = (A1 - Area of piston rod)}
Tractive Effort = T and v = Speed of locomotive => Power developed = T X v
Pony Brake => Brake Power = P X Lp X [2 X  X (N/60)] {Dynamometer Constant = [2 X  X (Lp/60)]}
Rope Brake => Braking Torque = (W – S) X R [where R = {(D + d)/2}]
Work done per revolution = [(W – S) X R X 2 X ] => Brake Power = (W – S) X (D + d) X  X (N/60)
Brake Power = [(W – S) X N] / K { Where ( X D)/60 = 1/K}
Mechanical Efficiency = (Power at Crank shaft) / (Power Developed)
= (Brake Power / Indicated Power) = [ 1 – (Friction Power) / (Indicated Power)]
Steam Consumption = [{Vcut / (x X Vs)} X N X 60] kg/hr
/4) X D2 X (L/r)} X {1/ (x X Vs)} X N X 60] kg/hr {Where r is cut off ratio)
Thermal Efficiency = (Work done by steam)/(Heat supplied)
Overall efficiency = Thermal Efficiency X Mechanical Efficiency = (Brake Power) / (Heat supplied)
Heat supplied = E = (Total Enthalpy at P1) – (Sensible heat at Pb) = H1 - h2
Total Heat Input = (Mass of steam in kg/hr) X (Heat supplied) = M X E
Specific Steam Consumption: Ci (indicated) = M/(IHP in kW); Cb (brake) = M/(BHP in kW)
Throttle governing: Specific Steam consumption at fractional load more (than for cut off governing)
Equation for Willian's line = [{(Slope A) X (Indicated Power)} + Intercept B] {B is loss due to condensation]

Area, Perimeter, Surface Area & Volume

Triangle: A = ½ X Base X Height; P = a + b + c Rectangle: A = length X width; P = (length + width)
Circle: A = (/4)X D2) ; P = X D Annulus: A = (/4) X (D2 - d2)
Sector: A = ½ X r X s; s = r X [(/360) X ] Segment: A = ½ X r 2 (radA – sinA)
Ellipse: A = X (a + b); P = X (a + b) X constant Sides of Ellipse big = 2 X a; small = 2 X b
Regular Prisam: V = ½ X n X r X a X h; Lateral area = n X A X h = P X h; P = perimeter of base and a = side
Cylinder: V =  X r2 X h ; S = (2XXr2) + (2XXrXh) Truncated: h = ½ X (h 1 + h 2); V =  X r2 X h
Hollow Cylinder: V =  X h X (R2 - r2) Sphere: V = (4/3)X X r3 ; S = 4X X r2
Cone: V = (1/3) X  X r2 X h ; S = (Xr Xs) + ( X Cone Frustum: V = (1/3) r h X ( r 2 + r r ' + r' 2 )
r2)
Cube: V = a3 ; S = 6 X a2 Box: V = a X b X c ; S = 2 X (ab + ac + bc)

Trains
Distance = d meter; velocity = V m/s, acceleration = a m/s 2, time = t seconds, Subscripts: i = initial; f = final
d = (Vi X t) + (½ X a X t 2) ; Vf = Vi + (a X t); a = (Vf – Vi)/t ; t = (Vf – Vi)/a
d = {[Vi X (Vf – Vi)/a ] + [½ X a X {(Vf – Vi)/a} 2] => d = [(Vf)2 – (Vi)2]/(2Xa)
If Vi = 0 => d = (½ X a X t 2) and Vf = (a X t)
If a = 0 => d = Vi X t and Vf = Vi
Trains A & B are running parallel: Effective Velocity = V A - VB; Running opposite: Effective Velocity = VA+VB
On meeting A and B, time will be equal. And d = d A + dB
Starting from the same point: On overtaking; d A = dB and tA = tB + delay

Stress
Hoop Stress: ft = (pd/2t); {as [p X (d X l)] = [ft X (2t X l)]
Longitudinal stress ft = (pd/4t); {as [p X (/4) X (d)2] = [ft X X d X t]
Maximum shear stress = (fmax – fmin) / 2
Riveted joints: Original strength = P = ft X p X t ; Tearing Tension = Pt = ft X (p-d) X t
Shearing = Ps = Single = 1 X fs X(/4) X (d)2 ; Double riveted = 1.875 (or 2) X fs X(/4) X (d)2
Crushing = Pc = fc X n X d X t ; Efficiency = (Least of Pt, Ps & Pc)/P
Actual load = Pa = (P)/(Factor of safety); Actual stress = f = (Pa)/A
Fuels
HCV = [35 X (C/100)] + [143 X {(H – O/8)/100}] + [9.16 X (S/100)] MJ/kg [C, H, O & S are in %]
LCV = HCV – Hw
Oxygen in fuel is believed to be associated with hydrogen only. For 8 part oxygen there is 1 part hydrogen.
Enthalpy of steam at 25°C = 2442.5 kJ/kg of steam = 2.4425 MJ/kg of steam
=> Heat loss in evaporation of H2O formed from hydrogen of fuel = 2.2425 X (9 X H/100) = 22X (H/100)
For your valuable suggestions, contact Ramesh Dari
=> LCV = [35 X (C/100)] + [121 X {(H – O/8)/100}] + [9.16 X (S/100)] MJ/kg [C, H, O & S are in %]

There are fixed number of molecules in a Mole. Mass of mole may be different as shown.
H = 1 => H2 = 2; O = 8 => O2 = 16; C = 12; S = 32; N = 14 => N2 = 28; H2O = 18; CO2 = 44; CO = 28.
Number of molecules are same in H2 and in H2O, but mass is different. One mole of H2 and half mole of O2
makes one mole of H2O. Same way, one mole of C and one mole of O2 makes one mole of CO2 .
One mole of substance occupies 22.4 m 3 (at NTP)
Energy Release (Change in internal energy) Solid/Liquid => Isothermal (V=C) Gas=> Isothermal (P=C)
In gaseous preocess volume gets changed => work is to be considered.
Bomb Calorimeter: M(fuel) X CV = (Mw + Meq-container) X Cpw X (Two – Twi)
Gas Calorimeter: (Pn X Vn)/Tn = (1.01333 X Vn)/272 and Ts = (273+15)K
LCV can be calculated by substracting (Mcondensate X 2442.5)

Combustion of Fuels
Air Composition: By Mass – (23% Oxygen, 77% Nitrogen); By Volume - (21% Oxygen, 79% Nitrogen
Theoretical Air required for combustion = (100/23) X [(32/12)C + 8H + S – O]
Gravimetric Analysis: For hydrocarbons (fuel with Carbon and Hydrogen only)
x kg carbon in 1 kg fuel, y kg air; (12 kg C in one mole, 2 kg H in one mole, 32 kg O in one mol etc.) =>
Mols = [(x/12) X C] + [(1-x)/2 X H2] + [(0.23y/32) X O2] + [(0.77y/28) X N2] =
= a(CO) + b(CO2) + c(O2) + d(H2O) + [(0.77y/28) X N2]
When fuel % is given in volume, division by molecular mass is not required, as % shows mols. (20% = 0.2
mol)

Flue gas volumetric analysis: To find Air supplied for combustion

(Mass of N2 in Flue Gas) / (Mass of carbon in FG) = [28 X (N% in FG)]/ [12 X (CO% + CO 2 % in FG)] =>
Mass of N2 in Air (or FG) per kg of fuel = {[28 X N%]/ [12 X (CO% + CO 2 % )]} / [C% in Fuel/100]
And Mass of N2 in Air = 0.77 X Wair = (77/100) X Wair
Comparing, Wa = [(N% in FG by vol.) X (C% in fuel by mass)] / [33 X (CO% + CO 2 % in FG by vol)]
Now, N2 in excess air by vol is (79/21) X (O2%) and N2 in total air by vol is N2 %
And N2 ratio = Air Ratio => (Excess Air/Total Air) = [(79/21) X (O 2%)] /[N2 %]
Excess Air = [(79/21) X (O2%)] /[N2 %] X [N% X C% ] / [33 X (CO% + CO 2 % )]
When C, N CO2 & CO are given in mass, then for 1 kg of fuel,
Wa = [N% X C% ] / [77 X {(12/28)CO% + (12/44)CO 2 % )] = [N% X C% ] / [(33XCO%) + (21XCO 2 % )]
Requirement of oxygen for gaseous fuel: H2 -> ½ m3 ; CO -> ½ m3 ;C -> 1 m 3 ;CH4 -> 2; C2H4 -> 3; C3H6-> 6
And Air requirement = (100/21) X Oxygen in m 3
When Dry Flue Gas Analysis is given (To find Excess air supplied)
Quantity of air supplied = V + V1 (Minimum Air = V, Excess Air = V1)
Excess Air = (Oxygen % in FG)/ (21%) = (V1)/(V + V1) => V1 = (V – Oxygen %) / (21 – Oxygen %)
Calculation of heat losses
Dry Flue gas per kg of fuel = m X Cp X (T-t) [where Cp = 1.004 kJ/kgK]
Water formed by combustion of H2 of fuel = 9 X H X 4.1868 X [(100-t) + h fg + {0.48 X (T-100)}]
Water (Moisture) in fuel = Mw X [ 4.1868 X (100-t) + h fg + {0.48 X (T-100)}]
Incomplete combustion = (C% in fuel) X [(CO%) / (CO% + CO 2%) by vol] X 24800 kJ/kg
Hydrocarbon e.g. CH4 = (CH4% in fuel by vol) X [(CO% + CO2% + CH4% ) by vol]X (4/3) X 55700 kJ/kg
Unbutnt in Ash: [(C% in Ash X Mass of Ash) / 100] X 35000 kJ/kg
In case of IC Engine (By circulating water) = Mcw X Cw X (To – Ti)
Unaccounted losses = Total Heat supplied – (Heat utilized + Counted Losses)
APH Leakage in % = [(Down stream O2 – Upstream O2) / (21 - Down stream O2)] X 100
CO2% + O2% = 19 (coal fired) = 15.5 (Oil fired)
ORSAT Apparatus: A = Measuring burette, E = Levelling bottle
B absorb CO2 20 times of KOH (Caustic Potash)
C absorbs O2 two times of pyrogallic acid (alkaline); it absorbs CO 2 also.
D absorbs CO with Cuprous Chloride (acidic) and Metal Copper (one times); it absorbs O 2 also.
Nitrogen is obtained by difference.

For your valuable suggestions, contact Ramesh Dari