Extragalactic Astronomy Assignment

Astrophysics - I (PHYS 553)

Dr. Tushar Prabhu

Aman Chokshi
Pondicherry University
M.Sc. Physics
# 16374003
March 31, 2018
1. Surface brightness of a dark, moonless sky with no artificial light pollution is 22.7 blue magnitudes/
arcsec2 . Holmberg radius of a galaxy is defined as the radius at which surface brightness is 26.5 blue mag-
nitudes/ arcsec2 .
(a) Express the surface brightness at Holmberg radius as a fraction of the night sky brightness.
(b) Express both the surface brightness values mentioned above in units of solar luminosity per square
parsecc (L /pc2 )

Answer:

(a) We know that magnitudes are defined according to the following relation

m2 − m1 = −2.5Log10 (L2 /L1 )

for a reference luminosity Lo the corresponding magnitude m1 = 0 ∴

m = −2.5Log10 (L/L0 )

mhol = 26.5
mdark = 22.7
∴
Lhol = 2.511Lo
Ldark = 8.317
∴
mhol − mdark = −2.5log10 (2.511/8.317)

mhol − mdark = 1.300

(b) If I is the surface brightness in units of luminosity per unit area.

The total luminosity of the galaxy is
Z∞
Ltot = 2π I(R)RdR
0

If we represent surface brightness in therms of magnitudes per arcsec2 [µ]

µ = −2.5log10 I + C
If I is measured in L pc−2 , d is in pc. Therefore the light in an arcsec2 is

L = Id2 δθ2

Where δθ = 100 = 1/206265 radians. The distance modulus formula is

m = M + 5log10 d − 5

M is the absolute mag in terms of solar mag M

M = −2.5log10 L/L + M
∴
µ = −2.5log10 (Id2 δθ2 ) + 5log10 d − 5 + M
µ = −2.5log10 I − 5log10 (δθ) − 5 + M
µ = −2.5log10 I/(L pc−2 ) + M + 21.572

1
Thus, surface brightness in terms of L /pc2

I = 10[(µ−21.572−M )/−2.5]
We know that M = 5.48, µhol = 26.5mag/arcsec2 , µdark = 22.7mag/arcsec2
∴ Ihol = 1.663 L /pc2
∴ Idark = 55.055 L /pc2

2
2. Consider an infinite disk supported in the vertical direction by pressure P = ρσz2 . Using Poisson’s
Equation (52 φ = 4πGρ) and the equation for hydrostatic equilibrium (5P = −ρ 5 φ) one obtains vertical
distribution on the form ρ = ρo sech2 (z/H). Show that the scale height H = (σz2 /2πGρo )2 .

Answer:
We know that
 
d 1 dρ 4πG
= −ρ 2 & ρo sech2 (z/H)
dz ρ dz σz
dρ d 
∴ = ρo 2sech(z/H) sech(z/H)
dz dz
dρ −1 d(z/H)
∴ = 2ρo sech(z/H) 2
dz cosh (z/H) dz
1 dρ −2sech(z/H)
∴ =
ρ dz H
 
d 1 dρ −2 −1
= 2
dz ρ dz H cosh2 (z/H)
Multiplying ρo on both sides,

1 2πGρo
=
H2 σz2
1/2
σz2

∴H=
2πGρo

3
3. List the different components of interstellar matter in galaxies, describe their local and global distribution
in galaxies, and bands of electromagnetic radiation used to detect them.

Answer:
Interstellar matter in between galaxies is generally in the form of cold diffuse gas. Due to the vast majority
of Hydrogen in the universe, all other elements are present in traces. It is usually in one of three forms.
Ionized regions, atomic hydrogen and Molecular Hydrogen. Its density varies from
1 particle cm−3 in ionized regions to 10 particles cm−3 in atomic Hydrogen clouds and 1000 particles cm−3
in molecular Hydrogen clouds. The temperature varies from 5K in molecular clouds to 104 K in ionized
regions.

HI - Neutral Hydrogen - is easily detected by radio emission with a wavelength λ = 21 cm, frequency
ν = 1420.4MHz. This radio line is due to a ‘f orbidden transition’, where spin of nucleus and electrons
change alignment from parallel to antiparallel.

HII - Ionized Hydrogen - is easily detected by its characteristic electronic transitions. These transitions
usually occur in UV, Visible and Infra red regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. One of the most fre-
quently used transition lines in the first Balmer line - Hα = 6562.8Å.

H2 - Molecular Hydrogen - is relatively difficult to detect. The molecule symmetric and has no electric
dipole moment, so it does not display any type of electronic transitions. Our only recourse is to infer its
presence by other indicative molecules such as CO. Carbon Monoxide, displays a vibrant rotational spectra.
The transition from J = 1 to J = 0, leads to emission of an photon of wavelength λ = 2.6mm. By modelling
ISM it is known that,
CO
= 6 × 10−5
H2
Thus by measuring concentration of CO, we can infer the presence and concentration of H2

4
4. State the Tullly-Fisher relation. What is the implication on the central surface surface density of the
disk galaxy obeying this relationship?

Answer:
Tully and Fisher noticed a correlation between the total luminosity of a galaxy and its maximum rotational
velocity. They obtained an empirical relationship between the two.

4
L ∝ Vmax
This law allows a good determination of distance to faraway galaxies, because galaxies of different morpho-
logical types are seen to satisfy the same lay, with slightly different constants.

By observing the visible mass in the galaxy, we know that luminosity is proportional to mass.
M
∴ = constant
L
From the Tully Fisher law,
M ∝V4
From the virial theorem,
M
V2 ∝
R
M2
∴M ∝
R2
∴ M ∝ R2
Here we have equated visible mass to gravitational mass.

For ellipticals, the kings model gives the mass distribution function:
r
ρ(r) = ρo f ( )
ro
Here f (x) is some universal function.

ZR
r 4πr2 dr
M (R) = ρo ro3 f( )
ro ro2 ro
0

1
∴ ρo ∝
ro
Thus, central brightness is greater for compact galaxies with a small equivalent radius ro

For spiral galaxies, the surface density is given by,

Z
µ(r) = µo ro2 2πxf (x)dx

It is observed that surface brightness at the centre of spiral galaxies is almost equal to 21.65 Bmag / arcsec2

5
5. Explain the concepts of stellar relaxation time and crossing time for stellar for systems and state their
order of magnitude values for a typical elliptical galaxy.

Answer:
Stars in a galaxy constitute a collisionless dynamic ensemble. If two stars pass within 1-2 pc, a significant
deviation of stellar trajectories can occur. This change in trajectory can cause a change in energy. We define
a relaxation time Trelax , which is the time in which all ‘memory’ of initial conditions is lost. Mathematically,
time of relaxation is given when
ΣdE = E
If all stars initially have same mean velocity V,

V3
Trelax =
8πnG2 m2 Log10 (R/b)

Where R is the radius of the galaxy, b is the impact parameter.

Crossing time(tc ) is the time it takes a star to cross a galaxy.

R
tc =
V
tc ≈ 108 years

The relaxation time can also be estimated using the formula,

N
Trelax ≈ 0.2 tc
Log10 N
Typically, N ≈ 1010

∴ Trelax ≈ 1017 years

Thus, collisions have no significant impact on stellar dynamics in galaxies.

6
6. What is the epicyclic approximation in a disk galaxy and how is it useful for understanding Lindblad
Resonances?

Answer:
A disk galaxy can be considered to have a flattened, axis symmetric gravitational potential. It is reasonable
to consider stars to be in circular orbits. This will be our zeroth order approximation. We consider small
perturbations about this zeroth order orbit to be in the form of epicycles. Let x be the radial deviation
from R, and y be the azimuthal deviation.

r =R+x
θ = Ωt + y
Here, Ω is the angular velocity of the circular path.

1 ∂U (R, θ)
Ω2 =
R ∂R

In polar coordinates, the equations of motion are written as,

∂U
r̈ − θ˙2 r = −
∂r
rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇ = 0
∂U
z̈ = −
∂z

Taylor expanding U (r, z),

∂U (R, θ) ∂U (R, 0) ∂ 2 U (R, 0) ∂ 2 U (R, 0))

= +x + z
∂R ∂R ∂R2 ∂R2

7
Because of the symmetry above and below the plane of the disk,
∂U
=0
∂z
By linearisation of the equations of motion to the first order, and by integrating,

∂ 2 U (R, 0)
ẍ − 2Ω(a − 2xΩ) − Ω2 x = −x
∂r2

ẍ − K 2 (x − x0 ) = 0
Where, K is the epicyclic frequency and is given by,

∂ 2 U (R, 0)
K 2 = 3Ω2 +
∂r2
Stars rotate with an angular velocity,
Ω0 = Ω − ΩP
Ω0 is a privileged angular frequency

If epicycle frequency closes up after m lobes, we get Lindblad resonance which forms m spiral arms,

ILR - Inner Lindblad Resonance

OLR - Outer Lindblad Resonance
CR - Co-Rotation

These Lindblad resonances can be used to explain the presence of spiral arms and inner and outer ring
structures.

8
7. Explain the concept of dynamical friction and state the formula for the resultant force.

Answer:
Dynamical Friction is also known as gravitational drag. It is the loss of momentum and kinetic energy of
a body, through gravitational interactions with the surrounding matter in space. The analytical expression
for dynamical friction was first derived by Chanrashekar.

Consider a massive body [P] of mass M. As it penetrates a distribution of stars, these stars are gravi-
tationally deviated. These deviated stars accumulate in a trail behind P(M) and their gravitational force
slows P down.

dVM 16π 2
= −VM lnΛG2 M ρ
dt 3
Where, Λ is given by

Vo2 bmax
Λ= ≈1
G(m + M )

b is the impact parameter

bmax is approximately equal to the size of the galaxy

∴ F ∝ ρM 2 VM

9
8. What is the evidence for the co-evolution of galaxies and the supermassive black hole at its nucleus?

Answer:
If one studies the rotation curve of a galaxy, paying close attention to the central 50 pc, the features in the
curve lead us to believe that there must be between 109 − 1010 M concentrated within this radius. This con-
centration of mass could only be a Super Massive Black Hole (SMBH) or a cluster of Neutron starts. AGNs
fluctuate with a very small time period, suggesting that the accretion region is very small. By studying
keplerian orbits of stars about the centre of the galaxy, one can confirm the presence of a SMBH at the centre.

One of the most accepted theories of galactic formation is the Hierarchical merging of galaxies. This merging
of galaxies peaked at z = 2 when galaxies were much closer together and merged in large numbers.

The Faber-Jackson relation relates the luminosity of galaxies to velocity dispersion. Also, due to the mass
luminosity relation, we can write,

M ∝ σ4
A similar relation has been modelled for accretion around black holes.

MBH ∝ σ n , n = 3.8 − 5
Thus we can write,

MBH ∝ M n−4

10
In AGNs, Seyfert galaxies, accretion triggers and also limits star formation. If a lot of accretion has occurred,
no matter is depleted in the galactic core and star formation rate is low. On the other hand, accretion and
mergers of galaxies can lead to intense star formation (starburst). Thus, the rate of accretion is critical to
the evolution of galaxies. The primary parameter controlling accretion rate is the mass of the central SMBH.

Due to this feedback mechanism, galaxies must evolve at the same rate as the SMBHs. Another point
to note is that galaxies must have started with primordial black holes of mass ≈ 104 − 105 M without which
these models would not work.

11
9. Explain the basic concept of chemical evolution of the universe. What are the problems with the model
of closed box evolution of a galaxy?

Answer:

As old stars leave the main sequence and new stars form, the chemical composition of the Interstellar
Medium changes. Many features of this chemical evolution can be explained using the Closed Box M odel.

The closed box model assumes that gas in the galaxy is well mixed, massive starts return their nuclear
products to ISM rapidly, no gas escapes or leaves the galaxy an that all elements heavier than He maintain
the same proportion relative to each other.

Mg (t) → mass of gas

Ms (t) → mass in lower mass stars, white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes
Mh (t) → mass of metals

let us define metallicity as

Mh (t)
Z(t) =
Mg (t)
In time t , 4Ms low mass stars are formed
The mass of metals returned to ISM is p4Ms

∴ 4Mh = p4Ms − Z4Ms

also,

4Mh = Z4Mg + Mg 4Z

p4Ms − Z(4Ms + 4Mg )

∴ 4Z =
Mg
If no gas enters or leaves the system 4Ms + 4Mg = 0

4Z p
∴ =−
4Mg Mg
If p is independent of Z, we can solve the above equation

 
Mg (0)
Z(t) = Z(0) + pln
Mg (t)
 
−(Z − Z(0))
∴ Mg (< Z) = Mg (0)exp
p

∴ Ms (< Z) = Mg (0) − Mg (< Z)

  
−(Z − Z(0))
∴ Ms (< Z) = Mg (0) 1 − exp
p
 
dMs Mg (0) −(Z − Z(0))
∴ =− exp
dZ p p

12
This model predicts that the distribution of the metallicity should fall off exponentially as shown in the
solid curve in the above figure.

Observations contradicts the distribution expected in the closed box model. There is found to be a lack
of large number of low metallicity stars. This is known as the G dwarf problem. This discrepancy can be
explained by prompt initial enrichment, perhaps through mergers.

13
10. What is Eddington Luminosity? Derive the expression LEdd = 4πGM mp c/σT in the case of accretion
of ionized hydrogen gas by a compact object of mass M. What is the numerical value for M = 1010 M ?

Answer:
Eddington luminosity is the maximum luminosity a body can have and still accrete matter. At equilibrium,
the gravitational force on protons is balanced by the radiation force. Radiation pressure is in the form of
thompson scattering on electrons, which in turn drag away protons, electromagnetically. For accretion to
occur, the gravitational force should dominate.

The gravitational force is given by:

GmM
Fgrav =
R2
Radiation pressure at R is given by:
L 1
Prad =
c 4πR2
For mass m and opacity K the radiation force is given by:

Frad = Prad mK

Balancing the two forces, gives

GmM LKm
2
=
R 4πR2 c
4πGM c
∴L=
K
If σT is the Thomson cross section and mp in the mass of the proton, Opacity is given by:
σT
K=
mp

Thus, Eddington Luminosity [LEdd ] is given by:

4πGM mp c
LEdd =
σT
also,
M
LEdd ≈ 1038 erg/s
M
If, M = 1010 M

LEdd ≈ 1048 erg/s

14