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© SACMA 2005
Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
2
GEOLOGY AND EXPLORATION
Evaluate or design
Marketability of a given type of coal
Ore resource to reserve delineation technique for a given coal
resource
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© SACMA 2005
Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
Most major coal deposits occur in the Middle Ecca group, with
overburden thickness varying from 30-150m, in a series of seams,
some of which are not necessarily economic or of suitable quality to
mine. The rock or waste overlying these seams is typically
sandstones and shales of variable thickness. It is the thickness of
this waste, combined with the thickness of the coal seam(s) below
that dictate to a large degree if surface strip mining can be used.
Major reserves of coal and operating surface strip coal mines are
located throughout South Africa, but centered mostly in the
provinces of Mpumulanga, (northern) Free State, Gauteng and
Limpopo.
South African coals have been formed from a wide variety of plants
varying from the simplest forms through ferns to large trees, but
rather different from the plants of today. Fossils of a wide variety of
plants are found in the coal seams and the associated shale beds.
The dominant plants contributing to the formation of coal in South
Africa were rather different from those of the northern hemisphere.
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© SACMA 2005
Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
For the formation of coal seams, peat (where plants grow in swampy
conditions, although decay also occurs, the biochemically altered
plant material does not disappear but forms peat) had to subside
and become covered with water; and then layers of clay, silt and
sand were deposited above the peat. Over time, more and more
sediments covered the peat beds, and under the influence of
pressure, enhanced temperature, the second stage of alteration
from the original plant material began. In the peat stage of
transformation, usually referred to as the biochemical stage, the rate
of reaction was rapid and a wide variety of end products could be
obtained, dependent on the original vegetation present, the
conditions in the swamp, and the number and variety of fungi,
bacteria and other parasitic organisms present. Soon after burial,
bacterial activity ceased, and the further transformation proceeded
at a very much slower pace. The main net effects of the second, or
metamorphic, stage are the reduction in the amount of water held by
the coal, and a decrease in the oxygen content of the coal.
The coal measure strata consist of coal, shale, and sandstone, with
lesser amounts of grit and occasional conglomerates. The classical
succession of deposition consists of seat earth (nearly always
absent in South Africa), coal seam, and shale roof which grades into
sandstone, followed by similar successions for each coal seam.
These deposits are formed due to the gradual subsidence of the
strata, so that new beds form by deposition from inflowing water.
The coalfields of South Africa were laid down in horizontal beds, and
all the important coalfields have virtually remained so. There are
minor rolls in the floor causing local dip variations, and some shallow
basins occur, either because of being so deposited, or due to later
consolidation of underlying beds through the pressure of the
overburden. The slopes in these areas seldom exceed 6°-10°. In
certain parts of the coalfields extensive faulting has occurred, nearly
always as a result of the intrusion of molten igneous rocks (dolerite)
into the coal measures. These intrusions cause displacement of the
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© SACMA 2005
Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
Sub-bituminous This is a black coal, but does not contain the glistening
coal bright bands found in bituminous coal. It is lower in
moisture content and higher in heating value than lignite
Bituminous coal This stage is subdivided into high, medium and low
volatile groups, indicating increase in rank. The heating
value increases with decreasing moisture content, and
for the higher rank bituminous coals up to anthracite,
remains fairly constant. Coking properties are present
in the bright coals over most of the range of rank, being
absent in the least mature coals, and in South Africa
also in low volatile bituminous coals
Lean coal This is a high rank coal with volatile matter content
between those of low volatile bituminous coal and
anthracite. This coal burns with very little smoke.
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© SACMA 2005
Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
WITBANK COALFIELD
This coalfield extends a considerable distance southwards towards
the Free State border. The coal seams are numbered from No. 1 to
No.5 upwards and identified by these numbers.
The No.1 Seam consists typically of dull coal, but in certain areas
contains a fair amount of bright coal. At its best development the
seam is about 2m thick and has less than 15% ash. The seam is
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© SACMA 2005
Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
The No.2 Seam generally contains bright coal at the bottom, and
has bright bands at other levels, but still consists mainly of dull coal.
It is normally over 6m thick, and is the most widespread seam of the
coalfield. It is undoubtedly the main economic seam, and has been
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© SACMA 2005
Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
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© SACMA 2005
Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
WATERBERG COALFIELD
This coalfield is characterised by coal bearing zones in the shallower
part of the field and discrete seams in the deeper portions. The
zones, up to 30m thick, consist of narrow coal seams closely
interspersed with waste bands. Up to twelve such seams may be
identified. The raw ash content of the whole zone can be up to 50%
and the ash content of the coal is high, as it contains closely
intergrown mineral matter. On washing the zone, to get blend
coking coal of 10% ash, the yield is low. In the seams below the
zones, much higher yields, of 60-70%, of low ash coal are found,
with generally less well developed coking properties.
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© SACMA 2005
Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
Mineral matter is the inert solid material in coal, and like moisture it
reduces the heating value of coal by dilution. On burning coal, the
mineral matter remains behind in a slightly altered form as ash.
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Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
Ash content - the residue after burning the coal under controlled
conditions.
Rank may also be assessed based on the Fuel Ratio, i.e., the ratio
of fixed carbon to volatile matter on a dry, ash-free (daf) basis. The
volatile matter is taken as the gas and vapour, less water. Thus;
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© SACMA 2005
Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
eye; the fixed carbon ranges from 47% to 84%, the moisture is low
(3 - 11%) and volatile matter, high (12 - 40%).
Vitrain which forms the black, shiny bands in the coal that are up
to 1 cm wide. So-called bright coals have a high proportion of
vitrain.
Fusain is soft and charcoal - like. The ash content is high and
the coal is typically friable and has a tendency to cause dust.
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© SACMA 2005
Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
The grade of coal supplied depends on the market and South Africa
mines in the order of 285Mt “run-of-mine” (ROM) coal to produce
some 220Mt product for various markets. This product is typically
2Mt pseudo-anthracite and 218Mt bituminous coal, 66Mt of which
was export coal. Currently, mined coal in South Africa is consumed
by power production (mainly Escom, 59%), petrochemical
manufacture (Sasol, 26%), various industrial (8%), metallurgical use
(largely Iscor, 4%), and domestic sales (3%). Figure 2.2 illustrates
the role of coal in South Africa’a energy market (size of primary
supply relative to market share) and the various resource end-uses.
Pipeline
Sasol
Export
“ Processing” Road/Rail
Coal y
Coal
Eskom
and Others Electricity
Transmission
Hydro Wires
Nuclear Koeberg
Consumers require consistent quality coal of high CV, low ash and
in precise size ranges. These needs, when set out against the
actual properties of coal as mined, mean that some sort of coal
preparation is usually required. This preparation must be
engineered to meet the difference between the quality of the coal
produced from the mining operation – run-of-mine (ROM) and the
needs of the consumers supplied by the mine. There is no
preparation pattern that can be applied to every mine, and poorly
controlled mining makes preparation of the coal problematic and
inefficient.
The major local consumer of coal in South Africa are power stations.
They require small coal, usually less than 25mm in size, with not too
much fines content. If the coal has to be transported considerable
distances, e.g. to the Cape, then high CV coals must be supplied, to
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© SACMA 2005
Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
In general terms, power station coal should have a raw coal calorific
value up to 26 MJ/kg - coal with a higher calorific value has a higher
value in other markets. The volatile matter should not exceed about
20% and sulphur should be less than 1% (to avoid excessive air
pollution). A minimum ash deformation point of 1 200°C is desirable
in order to avoid clogging of burners, together with other specific
requirements such as abrasiveness limits, swelling index, etc.
Industrial users of coal other than power stations require coals that
are in fairly close size ranges and of high calorific value. The volatile
matter must also be of a certain value (though this cannot, to a great
extent, be controlled by the washing process). Hence mines
supplying such markets must have either raw coal of the required
CV or (more likely) a preparation (washing) plant
Table 2.3 summarises the size ranges of coals sold whilst Table 2.4
gives the quality of coals sold on the South African market. The
figures are only indicative of average sales weighted values, and
certain grades may be marketed which are outside the values given.
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Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
Duff -6,3
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© SACMA 2005
Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
EXPLORATION
RESULTS
MINERAL
RESOURCES
INFERRED INDICATED MEASURED
MINERAL
RESERVES
PROBABLE PROVED
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Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
Background study
Literature search
Mining history
Photo geology
Surface mapping
Subsurface investigation
Rotary drilling
Core drilling
Geophysical logging
Geophysical investigation
Seismic reflection
Seismic refraction
Electrical methods
Gravity methods
Magnetic methods
In-situ stress
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Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
Modulus values
Groundwater testing
Vibration
Laboratory testing
Stress-strain
Creep
Strength
Weathering rate
Diggability
Geophysical
Geochemical
Soil testing
Water quality
Reactivity
CV (MJ/kg)
Proximate analysis
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© SACMA 2005
Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
Uneconomic
mineral deposit
Stage 3
Detailed target Detailed
generation study pre-
pre-feasibility study
Prospecting permit
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© SACMA 2005
Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
When very large areas are being studied, hole spacing will vary
greatly and will probably not be in any set pattern. When the
program is narrowed to a regional study, a grid pattern is most
common. Detailed exploration is performed in target areas where
coal is known to exist, and therefore, closer spaced drill patterns are
required.
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Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
Highwall stability
Road design
Water handling
Excavation system
Mined-out areas
Spontaneous combustion
Siting
Structures
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Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
Transport systems
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Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
igneous intrusions and any other features that may affect the
continuity of coal seams.
Mining considerations
Surface Mining Surface Facilities
Transport systems
Cut and fill works
Highwall stability
Facilities siting
Spoil stability
Road design
Structures
Literature search O O F F F S O O S S S F S S
Background
Mining history S S F F F S O O F F F F F S
study
Photo geology O S S F F S R S S S S S S S
Rotary drilling F F F F O F O S O O O O S O
Subsurface Core drilling O O S S S F R S A F F S F O
investigation Geophysical logging O R R S O F F A S O S O S A
Survey old workings S S S F F F O A F F F F F F
Seismic reflection F O R O F F F R F F F S O F
Seismic refraction S O R O O R F R S S F F F F
Geophysical Seismic cross hole F O R O O R O R F S F F F F
investigation Electrical methods F F R F F F F S S S F F R F
Gravity methods O O R F F F F R S F R F R F
Magnetic methods O O R F O O F R S F F F R F
In-situ stress A O O O O S R O S S S S S S
Field testing
Modulus values A S O O A R R O S O R O S R
and
Groundwater testing A S O A S R A F R R O R O O
instumentation
Vibration A S S R S R S R S S F S S F
Stress-strain A O S O O S S S F O O F O F
Creep O F R O O F R O F R F R R F
Strength O S O R O S S O R F F F O F
Weathering rate A R R S O A O F F F O O
Diggability F O A F F O O F O F
Laboratory Geophysical S O S S S F S R R F F F F
testing Geochemical S O S O O O O R O O
Soil testing A R O R R R A A A A F O
Water quality O O A R O O O O O O
Reactivity F F R O F S A O S O
CV (MJ/kg) A F S F
Volatiles A F O
Applicability
Frequently
All areas
Seldom
Importance
Rarely
Often
High A O F S R
Depends on site conditions A O F S R
Low A O F S R
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Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
Mining considerations
Surface Mining Surface Facilities
Transport systems
Cut and fill works
Highwall stability
Facilities siting
Spoil stability
Road design
Structures
Geomorphology S A O F S S S S F F F F F F
Regional
geology
Structural geology A F F O S S S S R R R S S
Stratigraphy and lithology S S S A S A A S R S S
Regional tectonics R S S F S S
Structure A S F S R R R R O O O O O A
Local geology
Unconfined acquifers A A A A A A O A A A A A A
Ground
water
Confined acquifers O O S O O R R O R S O O R R
Aquicludes O O S O O O R O R S O O R R
Effects of fractures A R A A R A O R R R R A
Topography A A A A A A O O O A A A A
characteristics
Surface hydrology A A A A A A A O O O A A A
Surface
Erosion A A S R R A S O O A A A A
Trafficability A R R A A O O A A A A
Man-made alterations A A R A R A A A A A A A A
Existing and probable development A A R S S A A A S S S A A A
Resistance to weathering A A A R R A A S F F O A O A
Rock and soil
Strength A R A R A R A F A A A O A
Time and environmental dependency A A R R A R A F F O A A A
Excavation characteristics A R A S A S A A A O A A A
Trafficability R R R A S S A S S A A S
Erodibility A A S A R A A S A A A A
Applicability
Frequently
All areas
Seldom
Importance
Rarely
Often
High A O F S R
Depends on site conditions A O F S R
Low A O F S R
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Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
Obtain consent
consent from
from mineral
mineral title
holder to prospect
holder to prospect
Obtain
Obtain copies
copies ofof all
all
relevant
relevant title
title deeds
deeds
Prepare
Prepare locality plan of
locality plan of
area
area
Obtain surface
surface access
access rights for
prospecting
prospecting
Submit
Submit
application
Rejected Re-
Re-submit
Re-submit
Approval
Approval for
prospecting
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Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
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Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
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Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
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Surface Strip Coal Mining Handbook
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