1.

FLOW OF LIQUID THROUGH THE ORIFICES

1.1 The purpose of the laboratory tests

In engineering practice, the issue of liquid outflow through the orifices accompanies various problems
related to, for example, the exploitation of liquid tanks.
The purpose of the laboratory tests is to determine the value of the liquid flow coefficient through an
orifice in the tank wall. The flow coefficient has been introduced in order to obtain better compatibility
between the actual and theoretical value of the flow rate of liquid flowing out of the tank. The task is solved
on the basis of a one-dimensional model of liquid flow and Bernoulli equation.

1.2 Theoretical introduction

1.2.1 The flow of liquid through the orifices

Orifice is a small opening of any cross-section on the side or at the bottom of a tank, through which a
fluid is flowing. It is used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid.
Orifices may be classified on the basis of:
- size of orifice and head of the liquid,
- shape of the cross-sectional areas,
- shape of upstream edge of the orifice,
- nature of discharge.

The movement of liquid flowing through the orifices is described depending on changes in flow
parameters over time. The flow of the liquid is:
- stationary (steady): the flow in which the flow parameters as velocity and pressure of the fluid at a particular
fixed point does not change over time,
- non-stationary (unsteady): the flow in which the flow parameters as velocity and pressure of the fluid at a
particular fixed point does change over time.
When flowing out of the orifice in the tank, the liquid moves in stationary flow when the position of the
liquid level in the tank is constant (eg the tank is fed by an external stream) and the non-stationary flow when
the position of the liquid level changes over time (e.g. emptying the tank).

The orifices are classified as small orifice or large orifice depending upon the size of orifice and head of
liquid from the centre of the orifice. If the head of the liquid from the centre of orifice is more than five times
the depth of the orifice, the orifice is called small orifice. And if the head of the liquid is less than five times
the depth of orifice, it is known as large orifice.
Classification of orifices for small and large depends on the description of the distribution of flow parameters
in their cross-sections:
- small orifices: openings in which the flow parameters (pressure, speed) are constant at each point of the
flow cross-section,
- large orifices: openings in which the flow parameters (pressure, speed) are various at each point of the flow
cross-section.

On the basis of their cross-sectional areas orifices are classified as: circular, triangular, rectangular and
square orifices.

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 Depending upon the nature of discharge, orifices are classified taking into account the position of the
liquid level outside the orifice:
- free discharging orifices (non submerged orifices): the liquid level outside the orifice is below its upper
edge, the liquid from the orifice flows into the atmosphere and the discharge is free;
- partially submerged orifices: the liquid level outside the orifice is between its upper and lower edge,
- fully submerged orifices (drowned orifices): the liquid level outside the orifice is above its upper edge.

Figure 1.1 shows the outflow through the small orifices.

Fig.1.1 Small orifices a) free discharging orifice (non submerged orifice) b) partially submerged orifice
c) fully submerged orifice

1.2.2 Bernoulli's Equation

Bernoulli's equation can be presented in the form

(1.1)

where:
U - velocity [m/s],
P(p) - pressure function p determined by the expression ,
- the potential of the mass force field.

The Bernoulli equation expresses the principles of conservation of the momentum and the principle of
conservation of energy while meeting the simplifying assumptions:
- inviscid fluid dynamic viscosity coefficient =0,
- barotropic fluid = (p),
- stationary (steady) flow flow that is not a function of time, ,
- potential field of mass forces , where is the density mass forces distribution.

The Bernoulli equation is valid in five cases: along the streamline, along the vortex line, for the helical flow,
for the irrotational flow and in the absence of flow (U = 0 in the hydrostatic situation).

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In the case of incompressible fluid flow =const in the gravitational field with the described potential =gz,
we obtain the Bernoulli equation in the form:

(1.2)

or in the form:

(1.3)

where:
p – pressure [Pa],
– density [kg/m3],
g – gravitational acceleration [m/s2],
z – height relative to the reference level [m].

The left side of equations 1.2 and 1.3 presents the components of mechanical energy: kinetic energy, pressure
energy and potential energy of the liquid, the right side of const expresses constancy of mechanical energy.
The Bernoulli equation (1.2) says that the sum of the kinetic energy of the fluid, the pressure energy and the
potential energy is constant. Otherwise (1.3) the sum of the height of the velocity (ie the height from which
the fluid element will gain U velocity), the height of pressure (ie the height at which the liquid column will
rise at pressure p) and the geometric height is constant.

1.2.3 Analysis of the simplifying assumptions

p1
1
h
z1

2 p2
z2

N N

Fig.1.2 Liquid outflow from the tank through an orifice

In the case of the analyzed experiment, the analysis of simplifying assumptions concerns the assumption
about fluid's non-viscosity and incompressibility, flow stationarity and the potentiality of gravitational forces.
The assumption of fluid non-viscosity is a significant simplification of reality. This is one of the reasons
for the lack of compatibility between the theoretically determined quantities and the measured quantities.

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 The assumption of stationarity of the flow is closely related to the liquid level in the tank (Figure 1.2).
With continuous filling up the liquid in the tank (maintaining the constant flow), the flow can be considered
stationary, i.e. the flow parameters will not change over time. If the liquid level in the tank decreases, the
flow stationarity is estimated by estimating Strouhal number:

 (1.4)

where:
Sh – Strouhal number [-],
 – discharge coefficient (volume outflow rate coefficient) [-],
A1 – cross-sectional area of the tank [m2],
A2 –cross-sectional area of the orifice [m2],
h1 –initial liquid level in the tank [m],
t – total emptying time of the tank [s],
U1 – initial velocity of the liquid outflow from the orifice [m/s].

Analyzing the Strouhal number, it can be seen that the smaller the cross-sectional area of the orifice A2 in
relation to the cross-sectional area of the tank A1, the smaller the value of Strouhal number and the smaller is
the significance of the non-stationarity of the flow.

The assumption, which concerns fluid incompressibility and the potentiality of gravitational forces, is
fully justified in the case of the considered experiment. The liquid flowing out of the tank undergoes so small
changes in pressure that the density of the liquid can be considered constant. The Earth's gravitational field is
potential.

1.2.4 Theoretical velocity of liquid outflow from the orifice

The orifice (the opening) in the tank wall can be regarded as small when the outflow velocity is constant
at each of its cross-section points (i.e. the orifice dimensions are small compared to its distance from the free
liquid surface in the tank). This means that the velocity of the liquid outflow at the upper edge of the opening
is close to the velocity of the liquid outflow at its lower edge and equal to the average flow velocity U. This
hole or opening is called an orifice.

The velocity of the liquid outflow was determined based on the Bernoulli’s equation (1.3). The flow of
the stream flowing from the free surface in the tank to the outflow through the orifice along the selected
stream line was analyzed. The Bernoulli’s equation was determined by assuming the constancy of mechanical
energy for levels 1 (free surface of liquid in the tank) and level 2 (the orifice).

(1.5)

The mass conservation equation (the continuity equation) was determined for the flow:
(1.6)
where:
– volume flow rate [m3/s],
A – cross-section [m2].

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For levels 1 and 2, the equation (1.6) takes the form:
(1.7)

The system of equations based on the Bernoulli’s equation (1.5) and the mass conservation equation
(continuity equation) (1.7) has the form:

(1.8)

From the system (1.8) the velocity U2 of the outflow of liquid from the orifice was determined

(1.9)

Simplification of the equation (1.9) refers to the pressures at levels 1 and 2 as well as the ratio of the cross-
sections of the orifice A2 and the tank A1. At the level equal to the filling level of the tank 1 and near the level
of the outflow through the orifice 2, the pressure p1 = p2 is equal to the atmospheric pressure. The pressure
difference p1-p2 relative to the specific gravity of the liquid g is negligibly small compared to the difference
in height z1-z2. In addition, the cross-section of the orifice A2 is much smaller than the cross section of the
tank A1 (A2≪A1), which means that the ratio of these sections is negligibly small. Dependence (1.7)
simplifies itself into a form called the Torricelli formula:

(1.10)
where:
h=z1-z2[m] is the immersion depth of the orifice under the free surface of the liquid in the tank.
Torricelli's formula says that the theoretical velocity of the liquid outflow through the orifice in the wall or
bottom of the tank depends only on how deeply the orifice is immersed.

The theoretical volume flow rate is given in the form:

(1.11)

1.2.5 The discharge coefficient

In fact, the actual volume flow is less than the one determined on the theoretical path. This is due to the
existence of viscous forces and mass forces occurring in the flows of real fluids. Consideration of the
simplified flow model is corrected by the discharge coefficient . This coefficient is the ratio of the actual
volume flow rate to the theoretical volume flow rate and is described by the relationship:

 (1.12)

Taking into account dependencies on the actual and theoretical volume flow, we obtain:

 (1.13)

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where:
- coefficient of contraction [-],
- coefficient of velocity [-].

Coefficient of contraction describes the so-called the phenomenon of contraction accompanying the flow
of liquid through sharp-edged orifices. The stream contraction (vena contracta) results from the inertia
forces. In the section in which there is contraction, the flow velocity is greater than the velocity which results
from the geometry of the orifice and the cross-sectional area of the stream is smaller than the cross sectional
area of the orifice. Liquid flowing from the tank to the orifice from all directions is accelerated near the
orifice, and streams of liquid flowing near the walls cannot change rapidly the values and direction of the
velocity vector. The liquid streams are deflected and form a narrowed stream with a cross-sectional area
smaller than that resulting from the cross-sectional area of the orifice. It is only at a short distance from the
orifice that the flow conditions are established (ie the flow parameters such as pressure and velocity are set,
the velocity vectors are parallel throughout the entire cross-section of the stream) and the full narrowing of
the liquid stream is established. Vena contracta is shown in Fig.1.3.

The phenomenon of contraction is described by the coefficient of contraction of a given relationship:

(1.14)

Ar
A2

Fig.1.3 Vena contracta

The numerical value of the contraction coefficient depends on the shape of the orifice, the rounding (sharpness)
of the edges, the roughness of its walls, the wall thickness of the tank and its filling. The phenomenon of
contraction is most evident in the case of sharp-edged orifices. The coefficient of contraction is in the range
of 0,61÷0,64 and in such cases the difference between the actual and theoretical volume flow is on the order
of 40%.

The actual velocity of the liquid outflow from the tank is less than the theoretical velocity determined by
the Torricelli formula. The reduction in velocity is related to the viscosity of the liquid and the loss of energy
caused by internal friction between the moving layers of liquid. The ratio of the mean real velocity Ur to the
theoretical velocity U2 is called the coefficient of velocity :

(1.15)

The velocity coefficient j is less than 1 and assumes values for water and other liquids with similar
viscosity within limits 0,96÷0,99. Its value depends on the viscosity of the liquid, on the size of the orifice
and the filling height of the tank.

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1.3 Experimental research
1.3.1 Test stand

The test stand shown in Figure 1.4 consists of a tank (1) with an outlet nozzle, to which the replaceable
orifices (2) are mounted successively. The flow is regulated by a valve (3). A glass piezometric tube (4) with
a millimeter scale is used to measure the depth of immersion of the orifice under the water level in the tank.
The pump (5) fills the tank to the desired height. The water temperature is measured with a thermometer (6),
atmospheric pressure with a barometer. The discharge time is measured using a stopwatch.

4
1

3 2

5
6

Fig.1.4 Test stand

Orifices are mounted on the stand. The shapes of the orifices are: 1 – sharp-edged cylindrical orifice, 2 –
sharp-edged convergent orifice (confusor), 3 – sharp-edged divergent orifice (diffuser), 4 – rounded-edge
cylindrical orifice The shapes of the orifices are shown in Fig.1.5.

1 2 3 4

Fig.1.5 The shapes of the orifices

1 – sharp-edged cylindrical orifice 2 – sharp-edged convergent orifice (confusor)
3 – sharp-edged divergent orifice (diffuser) 4 – rounded-edge cylindrical orifice

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1.3.2 The course of experimental research

After installing the appropriate orifice (2) and closing the valve (3), start the pump (5) by filling the tank
to a certain height. After preparing the test stand station, open the valve (3) allowing free flow of water from
the tank through the orifice. The measurement consists in determining the time of descent of the water level
in the tank with heights determined by the teacher. The measurement is repeated for subsequent orifices,
setting the same initial conditions each time (the same initial filling level of the tank). The water temperature
is measured using a thermometer and the atmospheric pressure is read from the barometer. The qualitative
assessment of the experiment involves the observation of the water discharge range at specific tank filling
levels for each of the tested orifices. The character of the flowing water stream (compact, diffuse) should also
be assessed.
The measurement results should be placed in the measurement table.

1.4 Experimental research results

1.4.1 Calculations

Discharge coefficient  is determined based on the dependence on the instantaneous volume flow:

(1.16)

where:
V - volume of liquid [m3],
t - time [s].

During time specified by dt, we treat the flow as steady and determine the change in the position of the liquid
level in the tank dh. The liquid level in the tank decreases by dh as shown in Figure 1.6.

A1
dh
h

A2

U2

Fig.1.6 Auxiliary scheme

Thus, the change in liquid volume dV in the tank is:

(1.17)
The "minus" sign used for dependence (1.17) means the loss of liquid volume in the tank.

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Converting the relationship (1.16) to the form and expressing the volume flow using the
dependence

   (1.18)
an expression is obtained in the form:

 (1.19)
After ordering and integrating the equation (1.19), we get the expression allowing the determination the value
of the discharge coefficient  in the form:

 (1.20)

where:
h1 - the initial distance of the orifice axis from the water level in the tank [m],
h2 - final distance of the orifice axis from the water level in the tank [m],
t - time of descent of the water level in the tank from the height h1 to the height h2 [s].

After calculations for each shape of the orifice an absolute error  of the discharge coefficient  should be
determined. The error  is determined by the exact differential. The relationship (1.18) is differentiated with
respect to h1, h2 and t, assuming the remaining quantities as constants. The absolute error  of the
discharge coefficient  is given in the form:

 (1.21)

where:
h - an absolute error reading height h1 and h2 [m],
t- an absolute error reading time t[s].

The average values of the discharge coefficient  and the error of determining this coefficient are
arithmetic averages of partial values. The results of calculations should be placed in the table.

The diameter of the tank D = 0.25 m and the diameter of the orifice d = 0.005 m should be taken into
account for the calculation.

Table 1 Table of calculations

Shape of the h1 h2 ∆t µ  ∆µ
orifice [m] [m] [s] [-] [-] [-] [-]

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1.4.2 Laboratory test report

The laboratory test report should contain the following elements:

- title page according to the given pattern,
- theoretical introduction containing in particular the characteristics of the determined value and description
of the measurement method,
- determination of the purpose of laboratory tests,
- test stand scheme,
- a summary of the formulas and dependencies used in the calculations with explanations,
- a summary of the measurement results in the form of an attached measurement card,
- a summary of calculation results with detailed calculations (including substitutions to formulas) for one
measurement together with the analysis of measurement errors,
- final remarks and conclusions regarding: the shape of the flowing water stream (compact, diffused), the
range of water discharge, the values of discharge rates for each orifice shape, selection of the best orifice
shape with justification.

1.5 Questions on the test

1. Discuss the simplifying assumptions of the Bernoulli equation.

2. Discuss the discharge coefficient.

Bibliography
[1] Duckworth R.A.: Mechanika płynów, WNT, Warszawa 1983
[2] Gryboś R.: Podstawy mechaniki płynów. Warszawa: PWN 1998
[3] Prosnak W.J.: Mechanika płynów. Warszawa: PWN 1971
[4] Puzyrewski R., Sawicki J.: Podstawy mechaniki płynów i hydrauliki. Warszawa: PWN 1998
[5] Tesch K.: Mechanika płynów. Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo PG 2008

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