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Energy density
SI unit J/m3
In SI base units kg·m−1s−2
Derivations from
U = E/V
other quantities
Energy density is the amount of energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit volume.
Colloquially it may also be used for energy per unit mass, though the accurate term for this is specific energy.
Often only the useful or extractable energy is measured, which is to say that inaccessible energy (such as rest
mass energy) is ignored.[1] In cosmological and other general relativistic contexts, however, the energy
densities considered are those that correspond to the elements of the stress–energy tensor and therefore do
include mass energy as well as energy densities associated with the pressures described in the next paragraph.
Energy per unit volume has the same physical units as pressure, and in many circumstances is a synonym: for
example, the energy density of a magnetic field may be expressed as (and behaves as) a physical pressure, and
the energy required to compress a compressed gas a little more may be determined by multiplying the
difference between the gas pressure and the external pressure by the change in volume. In short, pressure is a
measure of the enthalpy per unit volume of a system. A pressure gradient has the potential to perform work on
the surroundings by converting enthalpy to work until equilibrium is reached.
Contents
• 1 Introduction to energy density
• 1.1 Energy densities of common energy storage materials
• 2 Energy density in energy storage and in fuel
• 2.1 Energy densities ignoring external components
• 3 Energy density of electric and magnetic fields
The following is a list of the thermal energy densities (that is to say: the amount of heat energy that can be
extracted) of commonly used or well-known energy storage materials; it doesn't include uncommon or
experimental materials. Note that this list does not consider the mass of reactants commonly available such as
the oxygen required for combustion or the energy efficiency in use. An extended version of this table is found
at Energy density#Extended Reference Table.
The following unit conversions may be helpful when considering the data in the table: 1 MJ ≈ 0.28 kWh ≈
0.37 HPh.
Automotive engine
Lead-acid battery Electrochemical 0.17 0.56
ignition
Electrical 0.01-0.036[9][10] 0.05-0.06[9][10]
Supercapacitor (EDLC) Electronic circuits
(electrostatic) [11][12][13][14] [11][12][13][14]
Electrical 0.00001- 0.00001-0.001[15]
Electrostatic capacitor Electronic circuits
(electrostatic) 0.0002[15] [16][17]
The greatest energy source by far is mass itself. This energy, E = mc2, where m = ρV, ρ is the mass per unit
volume, V is the volume of the mass itself and c is the speed of light. This energy, however, can be released
only by the processes of nuclear fission (.1%), nuclear fusion (1%),[citation needed] or the annihilation of
some or all of the matter in the volume V by matter-antimatter collisions (100%). Nuclear reactions cannot be
realized by chemical reactions such as combustion. Although greater matter densities can be achieved, the
density of a neutron star would approximate the most dense system capable of matter-antimatter annihilation
possible. A black hole, although denser than a neutron star, does not have an equivalent anti-particle form, but
would offer the same 100% conversion rate of mass to energy in the form of Hawking radiation. In the case of
relatively small black holes (smaller than astronomical objects) the power output would be tremendous.
The highest density sources of energy aside from antimatter are fusion and fission. Fusion includes energy
from the sun which will be available for billions of years (in the form of sunlight) but so far (2016), sustained
fusion power production continues to be elusive. Power from fission of uranium and thorium in nuclear power
plants will be available for many decades or even centuries because of the plentiful supply of the elements on
earth,[30] though the full potential of this source can only be realised through breeder reactors, which are,
apart from the BN-600 reactor, not yet used commercially.[31] Coal, gas, and petroleum are the current
primary energy sources in the U.S.[32] but have a much lower energy density. Burning local biomass fuels
supplies household energy needs (cooking fires, oil lamps, etc.) worldwide.
Energy density (how much energy you can carry) does not tell you about energy conversion efficiency (net
output per input) or embodied energy (what the energy output costs to provide, as harvesting, refining,
distributing, and dealing with pollution all use energy). Like any process occurring on a large scale, intensive
energy use impacts the world. For example, climate change, nuclear waste storage, and deforestation may be
some of the consequences of supplying our growing energy demands from hydrocarbon fuels, nuclear fission,
or biomass.
No single energy storage method boasts the best in specific power, specific energy, and energy density.
Peukert's Law describes how the amount of useful energy that can be obtained (for a lead-acid cell) depends
on how quickly we pull it out. To maximize both specific energy and energy density, one can compute the
specific energy density of a substance by multiplying the two values together, where the higher the number,
the better the substance is at storing energy efficiently.
Many researches proposed new options for energy storage to increase energy density and decrease charging
time.[33][34][35][36]
Gravimetric and volumetric energy density of some fuels and storage technologies (modified from the
Gasoline article):
Note: Some values may not be precise because of isomers or other irregularities. See Heating value for
a comprehensive table of specific energies of important fuels.
Note: Also it is important to realise that generally the density values for chemical fuels do not include
the weight of oxygen required for combustion. This is typically two oxygen atoms per carbon atom, and
one per two hydrogen atoms. The atomic weight of carbon and oxygen are similar, while hydrogen is
much lighter than oxygen. Figures are presented this way for those fuels where in practice air would
only be drawn in locally to the burner. This explains the apparently lower energy density of materials
that already include their own oxidiser (such as gunpowder and TNT), where the mass of the oxidiser in
effect adds dead weight, and absorbs some of the energy of combustion to dissociate and liberate
oxygen to continue the reaction. This also explains some apparent anomalies, such as the energy density
of a sandwich appearing to be higher than that of a stick of dynamite.
Energy densities ignoring external components
This table lists energy densities of systems that require external components, such as oxidisers or a heat sink
or source. These figures do not take into account the mass and volume of the required components as they are
assumed to be freely available and present in the atmosphere. Such systems cannot be compared with self-
contained systems. These values may not be computed at the same reference conditions.
Energy densities of energy medium
Specific Specific
Energy density Energy density
energy energy Peak Practical
Storage type recovery recovery
(MJ/L) (Wh/L)
(MJ/kg) (Wh/kg) efficiency % efficiency %
Polyethylene
46.3[42] 42.6 12,861.1 11,833.3
plastic
Crude oil
(according to the
definition of ton
46.3 37[40] * 12,861.1 10,277.8
of oil equivalent)
Residential
heating oil[41]
46.2 37.3 * 12,833.3 10,361.1
(combustion
toxic, but flame
retardant)
Iron (burned to
4.9 38.2 1,361.1 10,611.1
iron(II) oxide)
ANFO 3.7 1,027.8
Battery, zinc-
1.59 6.02 441.7 1,672.2
air[57]
Liquid
nitrogen[clarifica 0.77[58] 0.62 213.9 172.2
tion needed]
Compressed air at
>50%[citation
300 bar (potential 0.5 0.2 138.9 55.6
needed]
energy)
Latent heat of
fusion of
0.335 0.335 93.1 93.1
ice[citation
needed] (thermal)
Water at 100 m 85-90%
dam height 0.001 0.001 0.277 0.3 [citation
(potential energy) needed]
Storage type Energy Energy density Specific Energy density Peak Practical
density by volume energy (Wh/L) recovery recovery
by mass (MJ/L) (Wh/kg) efficiency % efficiency %
(MJ/kg)
* Technically the actual value of the fuel alone is half the number indicated, because in order to burn the fuel
must be mixed with 2 parts oxygen to 1 part fuel. In an oxygen-free environment the actual value is 0 as the
fuel will not burn at all.
Divide joule metre−3 by 109 to get MJ/L. Divide MJ/L by 3.6 to get kWh/L.
Energy density Extended Reference Table
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is extended version of energy density table from the main page energy density:
Energy densities table
Practical
Specific energy Energy density Peak recovery
Storage type recovery
(MJ/kg) (MJ/L) efficiency %
efficiency %
depends on
Arbitrary Antimatter 89,875,517,874
density
Deuterium-tritium fusion 338,000,000
Uranium-235 used in nuclear
144,000,000 1,500,000,000
weapons
Natural uranium (99.3% U-238, 0.7%
86,000,000
U-235) in fast breeder reactor
Reactor-grade uranium (3.5% U-235)
3,456,000 30%
in light water reactor
Pu-238 α-decay 2,200,000
Hf-178m2 isomer 1,326,000 17,649,060
Natural uranium (0.7% U235) in
443,000 30%
light water reactor
Ta-180m isomer 41,340 689,964
Metallic hydrogen (recombination
216[1]
energy)
battery, Lithium-air 43.2
Specific orbital energy of Low Earth
33.0
orbit (approximate)
Beryllium + Oxygen 23.9[2]
23.75[citation
Lithium + Fluorine
needed]
15.8[citation
Hydrogen + Oxygen
needed]
Octaazacubane potential explosive 22.9[3]
Dinitroacetylene explosive -
9.8
computed[citation needed]
Octanitrocubane explosive 8.5[4] 16.9[5]
Tetranitrotetrahedrane explosive -
8.3
computed[citation needed]
Heptanitrocubane explosive -
8.2
computed[citation needed]
Sodium (reacted with chlorine)
7.0349
[citation needed]
Hexanitrobenzene explosive 7[6]
Tetranitrocubane explosive - 6.95
Practical
Specific energy Energy density Peak recovery
Storage type recovery
(MJ/kg) (MJ/L) efficiency %
efficiency %
computed[citation needed]
Ammonal (Al+NH4NO3 oxidizer)
6.9 12.7
[citation needed]
Tetranitromethane + hydrazine
bipropellant - computed[citation 6.6
needed]
Nitroglycerin 6.38[7] 10.2[8]
ANFO-ANNM[citation needed] 6.26
Octogen (HMX) 5.7[7] 10.8[9]
TNT [Kinney, G.F.; K.J. Graham
(1985). Explosive shocks in air.
4.610 6.92
Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-15147-
8.][citation needed]
Copper Thermite (Al + CuO as
4.13 20.9
oxidizer)[citation needed]
Thermite (powder Al + Fe2O3 as
4.00 18.4
oxidizer)
Hydrogen peroxide decomposition
2.7 3.8
(as monopropellant)
95%
battery, Lithium ion nanowire 2.54 [clarification
needed][10]
battery, Lithium Thionyl Chloride
2.5
(LiSOCl2)[11]
Water 220.64 bar, 373.8°C[citation
1.968 0.708
needed][clarification needed]
Kinetic energy penetrator
1.9 30
[clarification needed]
battery, Fluoride ion[citation needed] 1.7 2.8
battery, Hydrogen closed cycle H
1.62
fuel cell[12]
Hydrazine (toxic) decomposition (as
1.6 1.6
monopropellant)
Ammonium nitrate decomposition
1.4 2.5
(as monopropellant)
Thermal Energy Capacity of Molten
1[citation needed] 98%[13]
Salt
Molecular spring
1
approximate[citation needed]
1.23[citation
battery, Sodium Sulfur .72[14] 85%[15]
needed]
battery, Lithium-manganese[16][17] 0.83-1.01 1.98-2.09
battery, Lithium ion[18][19] 0.46-0.72 0.83-3.6[20] 95%[21]
battery, Lithium Sulphur[22] 1.80[23] 1.80
battery (Sodium Nickel Chloride),
0.56
High Temperature
battery, Silver-oxide[16] 0.47 1.8
Practical
Specific energy Energy density Peak recovery
Storage type recovery
(MJ/kg) (MJ/L) efficiency %
efficiency %
Flywheel 0.36-0.5[24][25]
5.56 × 45 mm NATO
0.4 3.2
bullet[clarification needed]
battery, Nickel metal hydride
(NiMH), low power design as used in 0.4 1.55
consumer batteries[26]
battery, Zinc-manganese (alkaline),
0.4-0.59 1.15-1.43
long life design[16][18]
Liquid Nitrogen 0.349
Water - Enthalpy of Fusion 0.334 0.334
battery, Zinc Bromine flow (ZnBr)
0.27
[27]
battery, Nickel metal hydride
(NiMH), High Power design as used 0.250 0.493
in cars[28]
battery, Nickel cadmium (NiCd)[18] 0.14 1.08 80%[21]
battery, Zinc-Carbon[18] 0.13 0.331
battery, Lead acid[18] 0.14 0.36
0.09[citation
battery, Vanadium redox 0.1188 70-75%
needed]
battery, Vanadium Bromide redox 0.18 0.252 80%–90%[29]
0.050[citation
Capacitor Ultracapacitor 0.0199[30]
needed]
0.01[citation 80%–
Capacitor Supercapacitor 39%–70%[31]
needed] 98.5%[31]
Superconducting magnetic energy
0.008[32] >95%
storage
Capacitor 0.002[33]
Neodymium magnet 0.003[34]
Ferrite magnet 0.0003[34]
Spring power (clock spring), torsion
0.0003[35] 0.0006
spring
Energy density Practical
Energy density Peak recovery
Storage type by volume recovery
by mass (MJ/kg) efficiency %
(MJ/L) efficiency %