Chapter5-NetworkLayer (Compatibility Mode)

11/22/2011
The Network Layer
Chapter 5
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
Network Layer Design Issues
• Store-and-forward
Store and forward packet switching
• Services provided to transport layer
• Implementation of connectionless service
• Implementation of connection-oriented service
• Comparison of virtual-circuit
virtual circuit and datagram
networks
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Store-and-Forward Packet Switching
ISP’s equipment
The environment of the network layer protocols.
Services Provided to the Transport Layer
1. Services independent of router technology

1 technology.
2. Transport layer shielded from number, type,
topology of routers.
3. Network addresses available to transport
layer use uniform numbering plan
– even across LANs and WANs
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Implementation of Connectionless Service

ISP’s equipment
A’s table (initially) A’s table (later) C’s Table E’s Table
Routing within a datagram network

Implementation of
Connection-Oriented Service
ISP’s equipment
A’ss table
A C’s
C s Table E’s
E s Table
Routing within a virtual-circuit network

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Comparison of Virtual-Circuit
and Datagram Networks
Comparison of datagram and virtual-circuit networks

Routing Algorithms (1)
• Optimality principle
• Shortest path algorithm
• Flooding
• Distance vector routing
• Link state routing
g
• Routing in ad hoc networks
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Routing Algorithms (2)
• Broadcast routing
• Multicast routing
• Anycast routing
• Routing for mobile hosts
• Routing in ad hoc networks
Fairness vs. Efficiency
Network with a conflict between fairness and efficiency.
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The Optimality Principle
(a) A network. (b) A sink tree for router B.
Shortest Path Algorithm (1)
The first five steps used in computing the shortest path from A
to D. The arrows indicate the working node
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...
Dijkstra’s algorithm to compute the shortest path through a graph.


...
...

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...

Distance Vector Routing
(a) A network.
(b) Input from A, I, H, K, and the new routing table for J.
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The Count-to-Infinity Problem
The count-to-infinity problem
Link State Routing

1. Discover neighbors, learn network addresses.
2
2. Set distance/cost metric to each neighbor.
neighbor
3. Construct packet telling all learned.
4. Send packet to, receive packets from other routers.
5. Compute shortest path to every other router.
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Learning about the Neighbors (1)
Nine routers and a broadcast LAN.
Learning about the Neighbors (2)
A graph model of previous slide.
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Building Link State Packets
(a) A network. (b) The link state packets for this network.
Distributing the Link State Packets
The packet buffer for router B in previous slide
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Hierarchical Routing
Hierarchical routing.
Broadcast Routing
Reverse path forwarding. (a) A network. (b) A sink tree.

(c) The tree built by reverse path forwarding.
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Multicast Routing (1)
(a) A network. (b) A spanning tree for the leftmost router. (c) A
multicast tree for group 1. (d) A multicast tree for group 2.
Multicast Routing (2)
(a) Core-based tree for group 1.

(b) Sending to group 1.
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Anycast Routing
(a) Anycast routes to group 1.

(b) Topology seen by the routing protocol.
Routing for Mobile Hosts
Packet routing for mobile hosts
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Routing in Ad Hoc Networks
The shaded nodes are

(a) Range of A’s broadcast. new recipients. The
(b) After B and D receive it. dashed lines show
(c) After C, F, and G receive it. possible reverse routes.
(d) After E, H, and I receive it. The solid lines show the
discovered route.
Congestion Control Algorithms (1)
• Approaches to congestion control

• Traffic-aware routing
• Admission control
• Traffic throttling
• L d shedding
Load h ddi
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Congestion Control Algorithms (2)
When too much traffic is offered, congestion sets in and

performance degrades sharply.
Approaches to Congestion Control
Timescales of approaches to congestion control
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Traffic-Aware Routing
A network in which the East and West parts

are connected by two links.
Traffic Throttling (1)
(a) A congested network. (b) The portion of the network that is

not congested. A virtual circuit from A to B is also shown.
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Traffic Throttling (2)
Explicit congestion notification
Load Shedding (1)
A choke packet that affects only the source..

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Load Shedding (2)
A choke packet that affects each hop it passes through.

Quality of Service
• Application requirements
• Traffic shaping
• Packet scheduling
• Admission control
• I t
Integrated
t d services
i
• Differentiated services
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Application Requirements (1)
How stringent the quality-of-service requirements are.
Categories of QoS and Examples
1. Constant bit rate

• Telephony
2. Real-time variable bit rate
• Compressed videoconferencing
3. Non-real-time variable bit rate
• Watching a movie on demand
4. Available bit rate
• File transfer
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Traffic Shaping (1)
(a) Shaping packets. (b) A leaky bucket. (c) A token bucket
Traffic Shaping (2)
(a) Traffic from a host. Output shaped by a token bucket of rate

200 Mbps and capacity (b) 9600 KB, (c) 0 KB.
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Traffic Shaping (3)
Token bucket level for shaping with rate 200 Mbps and capacity
(d) 16000 KB, (e) 9600 KB, and (f) 0KB..
Packet Scheduling (1)
Kinds of resources can potentially be

reserved for different flows:
1. Bandwidth.
2 Buffer space.
2. space
3. CPU cycles.
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Round-robin Fair Queuing
(a) Weighted Fair Queueing.

(b) Finishing times for the packets.
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Admission Control (1)
An example flow specification
Admission Control (2)
Bandwidth and delay guarantees with token buckets and WFQ.
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Integrated Services (1)
(a) A network. (b) The multicast spanning tree for host 1.

(c) The multicast spanning tree for host 2.
Integrated Services (2)
(a) Host 3 requests a channel to host 1. (b) Host 3 then

requests a second channel, to host 2.
(c) Host 5 requests a channel to host 1.
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Differentiated Services (1)
Expedited packets experience a traffic-free network
Differentiated Services (2)
A possible implementation of assured forwarding
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Internetworking
• How networks differ

• How networks can be connected
• Tunneling
• Internetwork routing
• P k t fragmentation
Packet f t ti
How Networks Differ
Some of the many ways networks can differ
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How Networks Can Be Connected
(a) A packet crossing different networks.

(b) Network and link layer protocol processing.
Tunneling (1)
Tunneling a packet from Paris to London.
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Tunneling (2)
Tunneling a car from France to England
Packet Fragmentation (1)

Packet size issues:
1. Hardware
2. Operating system
3. Protocols
4
4. C
Compliance
li with
ith (i
(inter)national
t ) ti l standard.
t d d
5. Reduce error-induced retransmissions
6. Prevent packet occupying channel too long.
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(a) Transparent fragmentation.

(b) Nontransparent fragmentation
Fragmentation when the elementary data size is 1 byte.

(a) Original packet, containing 10 data bytes.
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Fragmentation when the elementary data size is 1 byte

(b) Fragments after passing through a network
with maximum packet size of 8 payload bytes plus header.
Fragmentation when the elementary data size is 1 byte

(c) Fragments after passing through a size 5 gateway.
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Path MTU Discovery
The Network Layer Principles (1)
1.
1 Make sure it works
2. Keep it simple
3. Make clear choices
4. Exploit modularity
5
5. Expect heterogeneity
...
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The Network Layer Principles (2)
...
6. Avoid static options and parameters
7. Look for good design (not perfect)
8. Strict sending, tolerant receiving
9 Think about scalability
9.
10. Consider performance and cost
The Network Layer in the Internet (1)
• The IP Version 4 Protocol

• IP Addresses
• IP Version 6
• Internet Control Protocols
• Label Switching and MPLS
• OSPF A Interior
OSPF—An I t i Gateway
G t Routing
R ti Protocol
P t l
• BGP—The Exterior Gateway Routing Protocol
• Internet Multicasting
• Mobile IP
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The Network Layer in the Internet (2)
The Internet is an interconnected collection of many networks.
The IP Version 4 Protocol (1)
The IPv4 (Internet Protocol) header.
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The IP Version 4 Protocol (2)
Some of the IP options.
IP Addresses (1)
An IP prefix.
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IP Addresses (2)
Splitting an IP prefix into separate networks with subnetting.
IP Addresses (3)
A set of IP address assignments
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IP Addresses (4)
Aggregation of IP prefixes
IP Addresses (5)
Longest matching prefix routing at the New York router.
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IP Addresses (6)
IP address formats
IP Addresses (7)
Special IP addresses
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IP Addresses (8)
Placement and operation of a NAT box.
IP Version 6 Goals
• Support billions of hosts

• R d
Reduce routing
ti ttable
bl size
i
• Simplify protocol
• Better security
• Attention to type of service
• Aid multicasting
• Roaming host without changing address
• Allow future protocol evolution
• Permit coexistence of old, new protocols. . .
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IP Version 6 (1)
The IPv6 fixed header (required).
IP Version 6 (2)
IPv6 extension headers
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IP Version 6 (3)
The hop-by-hop extension header for

large datagrams (jumbograms).
IP Version 6 (4)
The extension header for routing.
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Internet Control Protocols (1)
The principal ICMP message types.
Internet Control Protocols (2)
Two switched Ethernet LANs joined by a router
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Label Switching and MPLS (1)
Transmitting a TCP segment using IP, MPLS, and PPP.
Label Switching and MPLS (2)
Forwarding an IP packet through an MPLS network
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OSPF—An Interior Gateway

Routing Protocol (1)
An autonomous system

A graph representation of the previous slide.
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The relation between ASes, backbones, and areas in OSPF.

The five types of OSPF messages
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BGP—The Exterior Gateway

Examples
p of routing
g constraints:
1. No commercial traffic for educat. network

2. Never put Iraq on route starting at Pentagon
3. Choose cheaper
p network
4. Choose better performing network
5. Don’t go from Apple to Google to Apple

Routing policies between four Autonomous Systems
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Propagation of BGP route advertisements
Mobile IP
Goals
1. Mobile host use home IP address anywhere.
2. No software changes to fixed hosts
3. No changes to router software, tables
4. Packets for mobile hosts – restrict detours
5. No overhead for mobile host at home.
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End
Chapter 5
48

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11/22/2011

The Network Layer

Network Layer Design Issues

Store-and-Forward Packet Switching

The environment of the network layer protocols.

Services Provided to the Transport Layer

1. Services independent of router technology

Implementation of Connectionless Service

Routing within a datagram network

Routing within a virtual-circuit network

Comparison of datagram and virtual-circuit networks

Routing Algorithms (1)

Routing Algorithms (2)

Fairness vs. Efficiency

Network with a conflict between fairness and efficiency.

The Optimality Principle

(a) A network. (b) A sink tree for router B.

Shortest Path Algorithm (1)

Shortest Path Algorithm (2)

Dijkstra’s algorithm to compute the shortest path through a graph.

Shortest Path Algorithm (3)

Dijkstra’s algorithm to compute the shortest path through a graph.

Shortest Path Algorithm (4)

Dijkstra’s algorithm to compute the shortest path through a graph.

Distance Vector Routing

The Count-to-Infinity Problem

The count-to-infinity problem

Link State Routing

Learning about the Neighbors (1)

Nine routers and a broadcast LAN.

Learning about the Neighbors (2)

A graph model of previous slide.

Building Link State Packets

Distributing the Link State Packets

The packet buffer for router B in previous slide

Reverse path forwarding. (a) A network. (b) A sink tree.

Multicast Routing (1)

Multicast Routing (2)

(a) Core-based tree for group 1.

(a) Anycast routes to group 1.

Routing for Mobile Hosts

Packet routing for mobile hosts

Routing in Ad Hoc Networks

The shaded nodes are

Congestion Control Algorithms (1)

• Approaches to congestion control

Congestion Control Algorithms (2)

When too much traffic is offered, congestion sets in and

Approaches to Congestion Control

Timescales of approaches to congestion control

A network in which the East and West parts

Traffic Throttling (1)

(a) A congested network. (b) The portion of the network that is

Traffic Throttling (2)

Explicit congestion notification

Load Shedding (1)

A choke packet that affects only the source..

Load Shedding (2)

A choke packet that affects each hop it passes through.

Application Requirements (1)

How stringent the quality-of-service requirements are.

Categories of QoS and Examples

1. Constant bit rate