Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
S. Wang
Juming Tang
F. Younce
Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, U.S.A.
INTRODUCTION (e.g., epoxy, glass, stainless steel) and are in the form of
beads, rods, probes, and disks. Sensors can be made as
Temperature is a principle parameter that needs to be small as 0.1 mm in diameter to give short response time.
monitored and controlled in most food processing Glass and stainless steel-sheathed probes between 2 mm
operations such as heating, cooling, drying and storage. and 3 mm are widely used. In measurement, a thermistor is
Temperature sensors have been developed based on connected to one leg of a Wheatstone bridge to yield a
different temperature-dependent physical phenomena resolution as precise as 0.00058C.[3] Accuracy of a
including thermal expansion, thermoelectricity, electrical thermistor sensor is often limited by the readout device
resistance, and thermal radiation.[1,2] Temperature sensors with a resolution of only ^ 0.18C. Nonlinearity in
used in agricultural and food industries and research vary electrical resistance output limits application of a
from simple liquid-in-glass thermometers to sophisticated thermistor to relatively narrow temperature ranges (e.g.,
and state-of-art thermal imaging. This article focuses only within 1008C). Long-term output stability is another
on temperature sensors that generate digital signals readily common problem of thermistor probes.
used for on-line monitoring and automatic temperature The RTD uses metal materials (e.g., platinum) as the
control purposes. The article focuses on the commonly sensing element. Electrical resistance in a metal changes in
used temperature sensors, principles, precision, response a predictable manner with temperature. A general
time, advantages, and limitations for agricultural and food relationship is used to convert electrical resistance R to
engineering applications. temperature T:
RT ¼ R0 ð1 þ aT þ bT 2 þ cT 3 þ · · ·Þ ð2Þ
PRINCIPLES AND PROPERTIES
where RT is the electrical resistance at temperature T, R0
is the electrical resistance at a reference temperature,
Resistance Thermometers
usually 08C, and a, b, and c are material constants. The
number of terms used in Eq. 2 depends on the material used
Resistance thermometers measure temperature of an
in the sensor, the temperature range to be measured, and the
object based on changes in electrical resistance of the
accuracy required. In many cases, only constant, a, is used
sensing element. Two types of resistance thermometers are
to provide satisfactory accuracy over limited temperature
commonly used: thermistors and resistance temperature
ranges. Fig. 1 shows the temperature range and the output
devices (RTD).
resistance ratio of the three commonly used metals:
A thermistor uses a semiconductor as the sensing
platinum, nickel, and copper. The RTD has a small positive
element. The electrical resistance of the semiconductor,
temperature resistance coefficient of 0.0039 V V21 8C21
made mostly from metallic oxides (e.g., NiO), decreases
for a platinum RTD at 258C as compared with a high
sharply as the temperature increases. Response follows the
negative temperature resistance coefficient of about
general relationship[3]:
20.045 for a thermistor with a b value of 4000.
R ¼ R0 e bð1=T21=T 0 Þ ð1Þ
The most widely used RTD is a platinum resistance
sensor, which is measured to be 100 V and 139 V
where R is the electrical resistance (V) at temperature T corresponding with 0 and 1008C, respectively. Lead wire
(K), R0 is the electrical resistance at a reference resistance and changes in lead wire resistance with
temperature, T0. b is a constant for specific materials (K) temperature may have significant effects on the resistance
and is in the order of 4000. The reference temperature, T0, readings. In application, RTD resistance is transformed
is generally taken as 298K (258C). into voltage and measured in a bridge circuit connected by
The sensing elements of commercially available two, three, or four wires according to application
thermistors are protected by noncorrosive materials objectives and the need to minimize the influence of lead
wire resistance. The RTD can be applied to measure solid, junction is maintained at a known reference temperature
liquid, and gas substances at temperatures between 2200 (Tref) while the other is positioned for temperature
and 8008C. A major problem with RTD sensors is the measurement. The temperature to be measured (T) is
relatively slow response time due to the protective sheath converted from thermoelectric voltage V according to:
(ceramic, glass, or stainless steel). Sensor accuracy of the
order of 0.28C can be reached with careful calibration in V
T ¼ T ref þ ð3Þ
specific temperature ranges. a
Fig. 3 Typical voltage – temperature relationship for common thermocouple materials when the reference temperature is 08C.
Sonic Thermometer
(0.3 mm – 0.72 mm) and a portion of the infrared region A Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) consists of two
(0.72 mm – 40 mm). A radiation thermometer may use parallel reflective surfaces that form a cavity resonator.
either a thermal detector or photon detectors as its sensing The space separating these two surfaces, also called the
element. Thermal detectors are blackened elements FPI cavity (1 –2 wavelengths deep), varies with tempera-
designed to absorb incoming radiation at all wavelengths ture. Changes in temperature result in the change of optical
radiating from the measured object. Temperature rise of length (refractive index multiplied by cavity depth) of this
the detector caused by the absorbed radiation is measured resonator, even though the actual physical thickness of the
by specially made RTDs, thermistors, or thermopiles film exhibits no measurable changes. Changes in the FPI
(consisting of up to 30 thermocouples). cavity path, or in the optical path length of the resonators
Another type of thermal detector is the pyroelectric for light from a white-light source, are measured to
detector that is based on pyroelectric crystals (e.g., lithium determine the temperature of the sensing element.
tantalate crystals). Pyroelectric thermal detectors have A fiber-optic sensor based on absorption shift of
shorter response times than the thermal detectors using a semiconductor crystals relies on the temperature-depen-
RTD, thermistor, or thermopiles and are responsive to a dent light absorption/transmission characteristics of
wide radiation range between x-ray (0.001 mm) and far- gallium arsenide (GaAs). A unique feature of this crystal
infrared (1000 mm). is that when temperature increases, the crystal trans-
The radiation thermometers can measure the targeted mission spectrum shifts to higher wavelengths (Fig. 5).
surface temperature from a distance, so there is no contact The position of the absorption shift indicates the
between the thermometer and the object. As the infrared temperature measurement of the sensing element.[7]
sensors measure an object temperature at a distance, there is Probe size of fiber-optic sensors is generally small
no limitation on the thermal tolerance of materials used to (as small as 0.8 mm in diameter, Fisco Technologies, Inc.,
make the sensor. The time constant of radiation Quebec, Canada). Fiber-optic temperature sensors provide
thermometers is short, often in the range between several accuracy comparable to thermocouples. They generally
microseconds to a few seconds. Radiation thermometers, have short response times (from 0.05 sec to 2 sec in liquid
however, only read the temperature information at the foods) and are well suited to relatively fast microwave or
surface of a relatively opaque material. It cannot be used to radio frequency heating, or in applications with strong
measure the transparent materials because the sensor will influence of electromagnetic fields.
detect surface temperatures behind the object. Radiation
thermometers require information on emissivity of the
measured body surface and an internal or external reference
temperature to provide accurate temperature information. SENSOR CALIBRATION AND
RESPONSE TIME
The sighting path and optical elements of the radiation Florida). Probes are available as flexible thermocouple
detectors must be kept clean. Fiber-optic thermometers can wire, rigid plastic bodies, and as metal “needle” types. A
be used in very strong electromagnetic fields. needle type is mechanically stronger, but it can conduct
Even for the same type of temperature probe, a large heat along its length and lead to inaccurate results. For
variety of styles is available for use in food and viscous food with low thermal conductivity, a plastic
agricultural engineering applications. Precautions are probe is preferred. Placement of a probe in the can
needed in selecting appropriate probe style to match requires consideration of can geometry and food material
mechanical, chemical, and sanitation requirements. Some properties to ensure that the critical point (cold spot) is
styles directly expose the sensing element to the measured. For more viscous products heated by
environment while others are protected with a sheath or conduction, the critical point is generally the geometric
thermal well for durability and maintaining a seal. Heat center of the container. But for those less viscous, and
sink paste should be used with thermal wells to increase therefore heated by internal convection, the critical point
heat transfer to the thermometer and avoid offsets and may be closer to the bottom of the container.[10]
thermal time lags. Thermal wells and sheaths should be Selection of temperature probes also includes selection
selected to protect the thermometer, but not add excessive of compatible signal conditioning equipment. Common
mass and create thermal lags. bench-top display units or PC based equipment for the
For measuring the temperature of fluid in a pipe, a laboratory may be entirely unsuitable for use in
probe in a sheath may by swaged into a bore-through style processing. It is important to select probes styles that
compression fitting. Care must be taken when selecting can be connected to suitable cables or enclosures for
and installing exposed thermocouples or those in grounded signal conditioners and transmitters that are protected
metal sheaths. When an exposed or grounded style from possible heat, moisture, chemical, and mechanical
thermocouple contacts highly conductive materials such as damages. Transmitters should be selected according to
metal piping or the food itself, “ground loops” may the type of temperature sensor, precision, range, and type
produce signal noise and inaccurate readings in the of output required. Although standards such as 4 mA –
measuring system. In such cases, it is advisable to use an 20 mA d.c. analog signals are still commonly used,
ungrounded or electrically isolated probe construction. modern temperature sensors are now being interfaced to
Government regulations must also be considered in measurement and process control systems using highly
selection of temperature probe type and documentation of sophisticated technologies such as Ethernet, Field Bus,
probe calibration. For example, USDA regulations require and most recently, wireless networks.
that each retort system (for canning) be equipped with at
least one mercury-in-glass thermometer having readable
0.58C divisions as the reference for the process, even when REFERENCES
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