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Teaching and Teacher Education xxx (2009) 1–9

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate

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Novice teachers’ perspectives on mentoring: The case of the Estonian 58
4 induction year 59

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5 60
a, * b 61
6 Erika Löfström , Eve Eisenschmidt

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7 62
a
8 Department of Education, University of Helsinki, P. O. Box 9, 00014 Helsinki, Finland 63
b
Q1 Tallinn University, Haapsalu College, Estonia
9 64
10 65
11 66
12 a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t 67

PR
13 68
Article history: This study explores Estonian novice teachers’ perspectives on relationships with mentors and experi-
14 69
Received 2 April 2008 ences of mentoring and mentors’ tasks during their first year of teaching. The induction year with
15 Received in revised form 70
mentoring as one of the support structures was introduced into Estonian teacher education a few years
16 5 December 2008 71
ago. Experiences indicate that this is a valuable support, but there are areas of mentoring that need to be
17 Accepted 9 December 2008 72
Available online xxx
developed. The data are based on thematic interviews with sixteen novice teachers in the second half of
18 their first year of teaching, i.e. the induction year. A content analysis revealed that the novice teachers 73
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19 experienced support for personal development and professional knowledge development, feedback, 74
Keywords:
20 collegiality, reciprocity of the relationship, mentor availability and mutual trust as components of the 75
Estonian teacher education
21 Mentoring mentor–mentee relationship. The study identified undeveloped potential in mentoring related to three 76
22 Teacher induction main areas: 1) facilitation of reflection, 2) mentor training, and 3) integration of mentoring into the 77
23 Novice teacher school community as a whole. The last area also includes matters pertaining to socialization and school 78
Q2 Professional development leadership.
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Ó 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd. 80
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26 81
27 82
28 83
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29 84
30 Q3 1. Introduction challenge is how to increase the attractiveness of the teaching 85
31 profession. It has been difficult to recruit students to teacher 86
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32 The Estonian Teachers’ Standard (Õpetaja V. Teachers’ Standard, education (Kõrghariduse riiklik koolitustellimus, 2008). The problem 87
33 2005) emphasizes the creation of an attitude and understanding of is particularly noticeable among subject area teachers. Several 88
34 the teacher as a reflective practitioner and a life-long learner. The explanations have been offered, among them lack of prestige of the 89
35 goal of facilitating life-long learning and reflection among teachers teaching profession in society and low salaries. Other reasons have 90
36 is also in line with the visions of the recent policy paper Improving been sought in the way teacher education is structured. Subject 91
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37 the quality of teacher education (2007). This paper outlines devel- area students interested in teaching begin studying pedagogy in the 92
38 opment needs in European teacher education. The Estonian fourth year of their studies, that is, in the first year of Master’s 93
39 Induction Year and Mentoring Projects as responses to these studies after completing a Bachelor’s degree in a subject area. This 94
40 mandates are means of creating much-needed support for novice means that prospective teachers may be ‘‘lost’’ due to the long wait 95
41 teachers’ professional development. Teacher education in Estonia actually to get into pedagogical studies and teacher education (Eesti 96
42 has for some years focused on developing support structures for Õpetajahariduse strateegia, 2008). As a consequence of the lack of 97
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43 novice teachers in the early stages of their career. In 2004, the new entrants into the teaching profession, the work force is ageing, 98
44 induction year program was initiated in Estonia as part of teacher and this will soon result in the retirement of those experienced 99
45 education. The induction year is an attempt to meet, simulta- teachers on a large scale. Another challenge is how to support the 100
46 neously, the challenges facing teacher education and the teaching teacher education students throughout their studies and early 101
47 profession. career challenges as they enter the profession (Õpetajate puudus 102
48 In Estonia, there is a shortage of new teachers entering the üldhariduskoolides, 2004). 103
49 profession, especially in rural areas (Statistical Yearbook, 2007). A The Estonian induction year is an attempt to meet these chal- 104
50 lenges. Pre-service, induction year and in-service teacher education 105
51 form a unified entity including support structures that continue all 106
52 * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ358 50 415 0150. the way to in-service training (Eesti Õpetajahariduse strateegia, 107
53 E-mail address: erika.lofstrom@helsinki.fi (E. Löfström). 2008; Eisenschmidt, 2006). In order to encourage prospective 108
54 109
0742-051X/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.tate.2008.12.005

Please cite this article in press as: Löfström, E., Eisenschmidt, E., Novice teachers’ perspectives on mentoring: The case of the Estonian induction
year, Teaching and Teacher Education (2009), doi:10.1016/j.tate.2008.12.005
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2 E. Löfström, E. Eisenschmidt / Teaching and Teacher Education xxx (2009) 1–9

110 students to enter teacher education and the teaching profession, adjustment to the organization, and to promote the development of 175
111 support systems can send a positive signal. Research (Rots, Aelter- their professional skills through reflection. In Estonia, the respon- 176
112 man, Vlerick, & Vermeulen, 2007) indicates that support structures sibility for the induction year program is shared among four 177
113 influence the decision of teacher education graduates to enter the stakeholders: (1) school principals, whose responsibility is to 178
114 teaching profession. One such support is the use of mentoring facilitate an environment that supports the novices’ professional 179
115 during the induction year. We believe that the fact that mentoring development and to appoint mentors; (2) mentors, who work 180
116 is available to novice teachers in their induction year could send directly with the novice teachers, supporting their professional 181
117 a positive signal to students considering teacher education. development and socialization in a school context; (3) novice 182
118 In order to provide data upon which to build improvements in teachers themselves, who are ultimately responsible for main- 183
119 mentoring, this study was aimed at understanding novice teachers’ taining professional development; and (4) university induction 184
120 experiences of mentoring during the induction year. The results are year centers, where mentor training and seminars of the support 185
121 intended to inform mentors and educational planners, to provide program for novice teachers (10–15 novices per group) take place. 186
122 them with insights into novice teachers’ experiences and to allow The first launching of the induction year in the entire country 187

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123 them to explore further the boundaries of the induction year included evaluation of the implementation model and empirical 188
124 support structure and the mentor’s role. It is beyond the scope of analysis. The outcomes of the evaluation enabled identification of 189
125 this study to draw conclusions about the relationships between strengths and weaknesses in the Estonian induction year model. 190
126 recruiting potential applicants to teacher education and providing Supporting novice teachers’ professional and personal develop- 191
127 mentoring support in the induction year. Yet, encouraged by the ment, and adjustment and socialization to the school organization 192

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128 research of Rots et al. (2007), indicating a relationship between emerged as the most crucial objectives of mentoring (Eisenschmidt, 193
129 support structures and entry into the teaching profession, we 2006). 194
130 believe that mentoring could be a means of tackling this difficult Research shows that the induction year of Estonian novice 195
131 situation and making entry into teacher education more attractive teachers is a period of adaptation into the school organization, and 196
132 by providing professional development support in the early stages the main focus of the novice teacher is on coping with challenges in 197
133
134
135
of a teacher’s career. This could have an impact on novice teachers’
appreciation of their professional knowledge and contribute to
a more positive public image of the profession, raising its attrac-
DP the classroom (Poom-Valickis, 2007). During the first quarter of the
school year the novice teachers are occupied with questions con-
cerning teaching, including lesson planning, using different
198
199
200
136 tiveness. Therefore, it is vital that experiences gained from men- teaching methods and assessing student learning. After the first 201
137 toring are documented and used to inform policy making and months the focus shifts towards class management, and finally 202
138 practice. towards the pupils’ needs and their learning, implying develop- 203
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139 ment of knowledge structures and the maturing of pedagogical 204
140 2. Mentoring and the Estonian induction year thinking. Mentors visit their mentees’ classes at least twice each 205
141 academic term in order to observe and analyze the novice teacher’s 206
142 To become a teacher today, a Master’s degree is required. It is work and professional growth in collaboration with the mentee. 207
143 estimated that between 75 and 80% of comprehensive school The induction year finishes with an evaluation of the novice 208
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144 teachers have a university degree in pedagogy. The remaining teacher’s performance in terms of the competencies described in 209
145 percentage includes teachers who have lengthy teaching experi- the teacher’s professional standard (Õpetaja V. Teachers’ Standard, 210
146 ence and education other than a degree in pedagogy (cf. Kõr- 2005). 211
147 ghariduse riiklik koolitustellimus, 2008). Teacher education is Eisenschmidt’s (2006) findings support those of Furlong and 212
148 provided in the form of degree studies regulated by the Framework Maynard (1995), according to whom the induction year is 213
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149 guidelines for teacher education (2000). These framework guidelines a learning process during which the novice teachers develop their 214
150 set out general and special requirements for teacher education, teaching strategies, competencies and professional identities. The 215
151 induction year, i.e. the first year in service, and in-service training Estonian novice teachers appeared to adjust to the school during 216
152 throughout the career. Teacher education for all school-levels the first year in service, but their level and depth of their under- 217
153 consists of three parts: (1) general studies (comprising 25% of the standing of the school as an organization may not have been 218
154 program of study); (2) speciality studies (25% of program of study); markedly high. The school environment appears to be a central 219
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155 and (3) pedagogical studies, including foundation studies in factor influencing judgments concerning professional skills such as 220
156 educational science, psychological and didactic studies, and prac- collaboration, self-analysis and professional development. School 221
157 tical training (50% of program of study). The general studies focus leaders in schools with a co-operative school culture value highly 222
158 on the development of the teacher’s overall cultural, communica- the induction year as a time for learning. Mentors are appointed by 223
159 tive, and social competencies, whereas speciality studies provide school principals, who generally take substantial care in consid- 224
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160 subject-related knowledge and skills based on current require- ering potential mentors’ personal characteristics, participation in 225
161 ments for the profession. An important aspect is to provide the supervisory training, and prior experience of mentoring. The 226
162 skills for combining this knowledge with an understanding of schools receive guidance material meant to support the principals 227
163 the human being and the surrounding environment and society. in the selection of mentors. Mentors lacking formal preparation are 228
164 The foundation studies in educational science, psychological and offered training. The emphasis and actual realization of the men- 229
165 didactic studies, and practical training aim at providing the toring relationship in practice depends on the school context, the 230
166 teachers with skills to apply the content-related, didactic and attitudes towards mentoring and leadership of the school, and the 231
167 psychological knowledge. This means that graduates have the personal and professional qualities of the mentor. 232
168 knowledge and skills to organize and manage the classroom, as In Estonia, focus is on developing schools as learning organi- 233
169 well as team work skills. zations, and school leaders’ competence is regarded as crucial. The 234
170 After the first stage in 2004, involving all novice teachers who induction year is one opportunity to reinforce and support devel- 235
171 started working in comprehensive schools, the induction year was opment towards teachers’ workplace learning and cooperation 236
172 extended to involve pre-school and vocational school teachers in inside the school community. This is a national priority, and since 237
173 2005. The purpose of the induction year program is to support 2006 a self-evaluation system that supports this goal has been 238
174 novices in becoming members of the teaching community and their implemented. 239

Please cite this article in press as: Löfström, E., Eisenschmidt, E., Novice teachers’ perspectives on mentoring: The case of the Estonian induction
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E. Löfström, E. Eisenschmidt / Teaching and Teacher Education xxx (2009) 1–9 3

240 3. Mentor-supported induction a particular context. The goal of mentoring in the critical 305
241 constructivist perspective is to transform teaching by engaging 306
242 Mentoring is a means to facilitate professional development and novice teachers and mentors in collaborative inquiry with equal 307
243 provide emotional support to the novice members of the school participation. 308
244 community (Little, 1990; Wang & Odell, 2002). A number of studies Also Orland-Barak and Klein (2005) identify three approaches to 309
245 have addressed the characteristics, skills, and competencies of mentoring: a therapeutic, an apprenticeship, and a reflective 310
246 mentors. Based on prior research, Harrison, Dymoke, and Pell approach. In the therapeutic approach emphasis is on personal 311
247 (2006) summarise the required skills of mentors as guiding, growth, which can be facilitated through a common understanding 312
248 leading, advising, and supporting; coaching, educating, and of the mentee’s experiences. The apprenticeship or instructional 313
249 enabling; organizing and managing; and counseling. Rippon and approach regards mentoring as a modelling of various behaviors to 314
250 Martin (2006) identify approachability, teaching credibility, be developed by the mentee. The mentor’s role is primarily 315
251 professional knowledge, authority and motivational skills as instructive and prescriptive. The reflective approach is characterized 316
252 important characteristics of the mentor. According to McNamara’s by an inter-subjective process, in which the asymmetrical relation- 317

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253 (1995) study, school-based mentors were one of the main influ- ship between the mentor and the mentee is acknowledged, but is 318
254 ences on novice teachers’ actions in the classroom. The reasons why harnessed to facilitate dialogue and development on multiple levels. 319
255 novice teachers regard their mentors as significant providers of Mentors tend to move from a more prescriptive approach of telling, 320
256 support included mentor characteristics such as being encouraging coaching, and guiding towards a more reflecting approach (Harri- 321
257 and positive; providing a consistent source of help and support; son, Lawson, & Wortley, 2005), which may be indicative of 322

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258 being easily accessible, available and organized; and providing a conscious shift based on scaffolding. Sometime tensions and 323
259 subject matter expertise (Harrison et al., 2006). A good mentor is conflicts between a mentor’s perception of his or her mentoring and 324
260 someone with whom to cooperate and discuss pupils’ work; a role the actual realization of the mentoring in practice are inevitable. 325
261 model for the planning, organization and delivery of the teaching; Mentors’ representations of mentoring convey a more collaborative 326
262 a good listener, flexible, someone who enables reflection, creates and democratic view than the prescriptive and controlling forms 327
263
264
265
266
opportunities, and recognises novice teacher’s pressure points
(Harrison et al., 2006).
Harrison et al. (2006) have identified best practices in mentor-
ing. These include embracing challenge and risk-taking within
DP exhibited in practice (Orland-Barak & Klein, 2005).
Norman and Feiman-Nemser (2005) distinguish between
‘‘educative mentoring’’, technical advice and emotional support as
forms of support for individualized professional development. In
328
329
330
331
267 a supportive school environment, with a systematic implementa- the educative approach mentoring addresses the varying and 332
268 tion of the induction phase and strong emphasis on professional changing needs of novice teachers while encouraging the mentees 333
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269 development. In addition they propose two goals for mentoring: 1) to go beyond the mere accumulation of teaching methods and 334
270 a long-term relationship which facilitates development in terms of practical hints in order to reflect on the foundations of their own 335
271 career aspirations and psycho-social functions, and 2) a short-term pedagogical thinking and how that affects their teaching and their 336
272 relationship which facilitates the accomplishment of particular pupils’ learning. Exploring values, principles and one’s own expe- 337
273 competences and standards. In the Estonian induction year rience can help the novice to create his or her working theory, 338
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274 emphasis has been on the latter type of relationship with focus on which informs the teacher in daily work. The meanings one 339
275 developing the competences of the novice teacher. However, the attaches to the teacher’s work are influenced by the individual’s 340
276 psycho-social aspect of the support cannot be overlooked in ability to identify the core task and to explore the underlying value- 341
277 a short-term relationship since the novice teachers’ development bases and principles that underpin the work. 342
278 during the first year in service appears to be a holistic process, as In addition to a time of intensive personal and professional 343
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279 proposed by Poom-Valickis (2007). Schaverien and Cosgrove (1997) competence development, the novice teachers’ induction year is 344
280 provide an illuminating example of a process in which the mentor a process of adjustment and socialization into the profession, the 345
281 supports the mentee during the experience of questioning the basis organization and the school culture (Lacey, 1987). Newcomers may 346
282 of her teaching and a growing need for concepts and theoretical function as catalysts for scrutiny of the current state of the school 347
283 knowledge. The mentee identifies the underlying principles of her community. During the induction year the novice teacher forms 348
284 teaching, and eventually articulates her own practical working collegial relationships, acquires membership in the teaching 349
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285 theory. profession, consolidates knowledge, acquires skills, and accepts or 350
286 Mentoring may be pursued with different types of goals and rejects the norms and values of the school. Socialization takes place 351
287 objectives in mind, and it may be approached from various on two levels simultaneously: (1) socialization into the organiza- 352
288 perspectives. Gold (1996) identifies on the one hand a personalized tion (workplace), and (2) socialization into the profession. These 353
289 approach to mentoring, where the novice teacher is encouraged to processes can be influenced by the behaviors, opinions and atti- 354
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290 develop his or her self-efficacy and to come to terms with personal tudes of more experienced teachers, but also the newcomer with 355
291 and professional needs as well as learning to address these, and on a fresh perspective may help to raise awareness and question the 356
292 the other hand a technical and experiential approach, which status quo. The mentor’s task is to facilitate the novice teacher’s 357
293 focuses on technical skills and relies on an apprenticeship model of socialization into the existing school culture and simultaneously to 358
294 learning where the mentor is considered the key person. Wang and encourage the novice to question existing practice (Achinstein & 359
295 Odell (2002) define the approaches in terms of a humanistic, sit- Athanases, 2005). Similarly, McNamara proposes that while teacher 360
296 uated apprenticeship and a critical constructivist approach. Each, education needs to be rooted in practice it must also extend and 361
297 with its roots in major conceptions of learning, considers the goals transcend current conceptions of what is considered good practice. 362
298 of mentoring, the role of mentors, mentors’ expertise and mentor The mentor can function as a bridge between the novice teacher 363
299 Q4 training (Wang & Odell, 2002). The humanistic perspective focuses and the organization, facilitating the novice teacher’s socialization 364
300 on helping novices to overcome challenges on a more personal into the community, but ultimately the roles mentors adopt depend 365
301 level, and to feel comfortable in the teaching profession. Mentoring much on school culture (Stokking, Leenders, Jong, & Tartwijk, 366
302 with a situated apprentice perspective emphasizes the adjustment 2003). 367
303 to the school culture and the prevailing norms of teaching, and In our study, we have mainly utilized Orland-Barak and Klein’s 368
304 supports the development of techniques and skills necessary in (2005) approaches to mentoring described above as an analytical 369

Please cite this article in press as: Löfström, E., Eisenschmidt, E., Novice teachers’ perspectives on mentoring: The case of the Estonian induction
year, Teaching and Teacher Education (2009), doi:10.1016/j.tate.2008.12.005
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4 E. Löfström, E. Eisenschmidt / Teaching and Teacher Education xxx (2009) 1–9

370 tool for understanding the novice teachers’ experiences of the engagement in deeper and more critical reflection of their own 435
371 approaches taken by mentors in the Estonian induction year experiences. This was also the interpretation of the interviewer, 436
372 context. who felt that she was able to engage in deeper conversations with 437
373 these three interviewees perhaps as a result of a pre-existing trust 438
374 4. Method between interviewer and interviewees. To reduce the potential of 439
375 coercion, no teacher–student or other formal relationship existed 440
376 The aim of the study was to analyze novice teachers’ experi- between the interviewer and the interviewees at the time of the 441
377 ences of mentoring and their mentors as a support during the interviews. No inducements were used. Participation was based on 442
378 induction year. Mentoring in the Estonian induction year has been voluntary and informed consent without any kind of reward being 443
379 in place for 4.5 years, and at this point feedback on the experiences used to encourage participation. Anonymization of the data meant 444
380 of novice teachers is important for further development of the that after the interviews numeric codes, and later pseudonyms 445
381 support structure. A qualitative approach was chosen in order to were assigned to each interviewee in order to protect identities. To 446
382 interpret mentoring experiences in terms of the meanings the assure confidentiality interview transcripts were accessible only to 447

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383 novice teachers themselves bring to it (cf. Denzin & Lincoln, 2000) the authors of the article and a translator translating interview 448
384 instead of imposing pre-established program criteria. The mean- material from Estonian to English. 449
385 ings each novice teacher gave to the different aspects of mentoring The data consisted of the novice teachers’ interviews, 450
386 were personal and interwoven into the contexts in which they were addressing their perception of the mentor and their relationship 451
387 experienced. In investigating the novice teachers’ experiences our with the mentor, the topics discussed with the mentor, and the 452

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388 aim was broader than just assessing a set of program criteria. The type and adequacy of the support received from the mentor. The 453
389 approach we utilized allowed us to go beyond mere program novices were asked to rely on their own experiences from their 454
390 criteria and identify unexpected outcomes. relationship with a mentor in their responses. An inductive 455
391 The study utilizes a thematic, semi-structured interview with content analytical procedure was applied in order to interpret the 456
392 volunteering novice teachers. The sixteen novice teachers inter- data and to produce descriptive categories of the meanings given 457
393
394
395
viewed, all female, were in their first year of work as full-time
teachers in 2004–2005 at different school-levels. Interviews took
place between February and April in the induction year. The aim
DP to the novice–mentor relationship by the novice teachers them-
selves. In content analysis, the researcher’s intention is to describe
phenomena in a condensed and general form by producing cate-
458
459
460
396 was not to generalize, but to identify the diverse range of men- gories or concepts that describe the phenomena (Marshall & 461
397 toring experiences of novice teachers. The main criterion for Rossman, 1995; Weber, 1985). Content analysis is particularly 462
398 sampling was to interview as diverse a group as possible. The heads suitable for analyzing unstructured, qualitative data, such as dia- 463
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399 of the university support program were asked to provide the names ries, narratives, and reports. The procedures of content analysis 464
400 of novice teachers who, according to their intuitive assessment, were deemed appropriate as the data were elicited through broad 465
401 varied in confidence and attitudes towards their professional interview questions, rendering the information fairly unstruc- 466
402 development. This was simply used as a guideline for diversity for tured. The questions were general in nature in order not to steer 467
403 the heads to go by when identifying candidates for the interviews. the responses. The interviews contained much information about 468
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404 This kind of recruitment strategy may potentially lead to over- the novice teachers’ experiences of the induction year, but for the 469
405 representation of respondents with positive experiences. In order purpose of this article, sequences related to experiences of the 470
406 to avoid such a phenomenon, it was necessary to emphasize that mentor or mentoring were chosen for interpretation. The main 471
407 diversity in respondent characteristics as well as experiences was questions presented to the novice teachers were: Who is a mentor 472
408 desired. From a pool of names provided by the heads, novice in your opinion? What are the roles/tasks/characteristics of 473
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409 teachers representing different school-levels (primary school, basic a mentor? What kind of help do you expect? What kind of support 474
410 school, and gymnasium), teacher education institutions (Tallinn did you get from the mentor? Was the support you received 475
411 University and Tartu University), areas of specialization (subject adequate? Interviewees were encouraged to elaborate on each 476
412 teachers and primary school teachers), and geographical locations question, and help questions were used to facilitate a dialogical 477
413 (rural areas and cities) were approached. The desirable sample size situation. The units of analysis consisted of interview excerpts that 478
414 was set at 15–20. In order to involve teachers representing as many contained references to mentoring and appeared to form 479
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415 combinations of the background variables as possible, approxi- a coherent thought or idea. The expressions were then abbreviated 480
416 mately sixteen teachers would need to be interviewed. Sixteen into condensed descriptions, which were grouped together 481
417 potential candidates were thus approached with an interview according to thematic un-predefined categories. Once formed, the 482
418 request, and all sixteen agreed to participate. An overview of the categories were related to the approaches to mentoring identified 483
419 interviewees is presented in Table 1. The option of additional data by Orland-Barak and Klein (2005). 484
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420 collection provided the opportunity to complement the data, but The second author made the initial data analysis by selecting 485
421 the reappearance of certain themes indicated that a saturation sequences from the interviews describing the novices’ experiences 486
422 point had been achieved. of mentoring. The first author identified themes in these extracts, 487
423 Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim to increase and formed categories based on what appeared to be the core 488
424 the likelihood of valid and reliable interpretation of the data (cf. issues (i.e., provision of feedback, reciprocity, availability and 489
425 Kvale, 1996). The interviews, all made by the second author, lasted mutual trust etc.) These were verified by the second author to 490
426 between 45 and 90 min. The interviewer was not familiar with assure the reliability of interpretations (cf. Kvale, 1996). For those 491
427 thirteen, that is the majority, of the interviewees in advance, but categorizations on which the authors disagreed, negotiation was 492
428 had been a teacher at the university to the remaining three. Social pursued until consensus was reached. The first author, who made 493
429 desirability (Morgeson & Campion, 1997; Tuckman, 1972) is always the initial categorization participated neither in recruiting partici- 494
430 a potential feature in interviews, and may have increased the pants nor in interviewing. She had no contact with the participants 495
431 interviewees’ attempts to present themselves in a desirable light at any stage before, during or after the research. In this way the first 496
432 due to the fact that a relationship had been established between the author had only the interview data to rely on, which may serve to 497
433 interviewer and three of the interviewees prior to the interview. provide, if not an objective, at least an external perspective on the 498
434 Simultaneously, the existing relationship may have facilitated data. 499

Please cite this article in press as: Löfström, E., Eisenschmidt, E., Novice teachers’ perspectives on mentoring: The case of the Estonian induction
year, Teaching and Teacher Education (2009), doi:10.1016/j.tate.2008.12.005
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E. Löfström, E. Eisenschmidt / Teaching and Teacher Education xxx (2009) 1–9 5

500 Table 1 565

501 Overview of interviewees. 566
502 Pseudonym School-levels primary, Teacher education institutions: Area of specialisation: Geographical location: 567
503 basic and gymnasium Tallinn University (TLU) and subject teacher and rural areas and cities 568
504 Tartu University (TU) primary school teacher 569
505 1 Triin Basic TU Science Rural 570
506 2 Krista Primary TLU Primary school teacher (all subjects) Rural 571
3 Meriliin Primary TU Primary school teacher City
507 572
4 Sofi Gymnasium TU Maths City
508 5 Lotte Gymnasium TU English City 573
509 6 Tiina Basic TLU English Rural 574
510 7 Auli Primary TLU Primary school teacher Rural 575
8 Heli Primary TU Music City
511 576
9 Mari Gymnasium TLU Estonian City
512 577

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10 Linda Primary TLU Primary school teacher Rural
513 11 Hanna Primary TLU Primary school teacher City 578
514 12 Nina Basic TLU German Rural 579
515 13 Maie Gymnasium TU Maths City 580
14 Kertu Basic TLU English Rural
516 581
15 Kadri Gymnasium TLU Gymnastics Rural
517 16 Reili Basic TU Primary school teacher Rural 582

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518 583
519 584
520 5. Results: novice teachers’ experiences of mentoring expanded the perspectives available to her in working out her own 585
521 solutions to various challenges. Simultaneously she appears to have 586
522 The interviews evolved around the themes of mentor charac- been missing an apprenticeship approach in the mentoring 587
523
524
525
526
teristics, nature of the mentoring relationship and interaction, and
common problems or questions in which the mentors’ advice was
sought. From these themes, the following five categories of support
emerged (number of times brought up in the interviews within
DP relationship.
She [the mentor] gave me support in everything. The only thing
I missed was the support in class teacher activities. I didn’t know
588
589
590
591
how to prevent difficult situations . At the beginning of the
527 parenthesis): personal development and professional knowledge 592
school year you don’t know which person is the one to turn to
528 support (20), feedback (9), collegiality (7), availability and trust (7), 593
for help, but that is the most important time to ask questions
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529 and reciprocity (7). In ten cases out of sixteen the novice teachers 594
about subjects and teaching. In my opinion, the mentor’s role
530 described the mentoring relationship mainly as positively 595
isn’t just to provide moral support. One day I found a better
531 supportive. Five novice teachers reported that the relationship was 596
person for that, and I think it is normal to use other people’s
532 not sufficiently supportive. According to these novice teachers, 597
support too, psychologists’ or teacher colleagues’. This person
533 what they lacked most of all was feedback and support in the daily 598
has to be on the same emotional level as you are.
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534 practice of teaching. One of the teachers, however, could be char- 599
535 acterized as a lone rider neither seeking help nor expecting much One of the primary school teachers, Meriliin, described her 600
536 support from others. In one case the mentor was experienced as mentor as a ‘‘second mother’’. The relationship between the novice 601
537 overbearing. teacher and the mentor appears as a very close one. While striving 602
538 for emotional connection and maintaining a mentoring relation- 603
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539 5.1. Personal development and professional knowledge support ship that could perhaps be characterized as a therapeutic one, it is 604
540 necessary to maintain focus on professional development as well, 605
541 The personal development aspect of the mentoring relationship including professional knowledge acquisition and socialization into 606
542 surfaced in diverse ways in the novice teachers’ interviews. Men- the school context. Providing sufficient support on all levels while 607
543 toring could be seen primarily as support for personal develop- helping the novice teacher to maintain and increase her indepen- 608
544 ment, even separated from the professional knowledge aspect. dence is a delicate balance. There may of course be a risk of 609
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545 Triin’s is one example of a mentoring relationship with a thera- a ‘‘motherly’’ relationship being overbearing. At the same time it 610
546 peutic approach in terms of Orland-Barak and Klein (2005). Triin should be noted that both Meriliin and her mentor were primary 611
547 says: school teachers mostly teaching younger children, and thus the 612
548 mentor may have modeled in the mentoring relationship the kind 613
My mentor is a very supportive person. She gives me strength
549 of teacher role that she exhibited when teaching her young pupils. 614
and inspiration. She has helped me to grow as a person. That
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550 In another teacher, Sofi’s, interview the importance surfaced of 615

was the most important thing for me. Actually it was just
551 the mentor having the ability to reflect upon his or her own 616
encouragement. We didn’t talk about teaching.
552 experiences during the early career as a means of finding a common 617
553 The statement that she did not talk about teaching with her platform for relating to and connecting with the mentee. Sofi 618
554 mentor is likely to refer to the professional knowledge aspect of acknowledges the asymmetrical nature of the mentor–mentee 619
555 teaching not being an issue in her mentoring relationship. It relationship, and points out that ‘‘the mentor is a person who hasn’t 620
556 appears that Triin had not yet incorporated reflection and personal forgotten that time when she needed a mentor herself’’. Sofi’s case 621
557 development as aspects of teaching, but merely sees them as conveys the image of a novice teacher looking for a mentoring 622
558 something related to personal development. Another example of relationship based on a reflective and a therapeutic approach (cf. 623
559 a therapeutic mentoring relationship is the case of Krista and her Orland-Barak & Klein, 2005), but who does not experience the 624
560 mentor. Krista expressed the necessity of connecting on an relationship developing to its full potential in terms of an ‘‘educa- 625
561 emotional level, but saw simultaneously the mentor’s role as an tive’’ relationship. Sofi’s development appears to depend at least as 626
562 open one. She was able to find other resources for working through much on her ability to regulate her learning as her mentors’ actual 627
563 issues of professional knowledge development and daily work in support. The mentor makes herself available, but does not 628
564 the classroom. No doubt, the additional resources will have persuasively offer guidance. 629

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6 E. Löfström, E. Eisenschmidt / Teaching and Teacher Education xxx (2009) 1–9

630 The need for professional development support from a more their own understandings. Against such expectations it can be 695
631 experienced colleague may be stronger at the beginning, with a frustrating experience if not enough room is allowed to let the 696
632 a shift in focus as competence is gained. An apprenticeship or novice arrive at his or her own interpretations and develop his or 697
633 instructional approach to mentoring (cf. Orland-Barak & Klein, her own understanding about the foundations and value basis of 698
634 2005) may be what is needed in order to support positive sociali- teaching. 699
635 zation and to establish a good model for professional work. Kadri 700
636 was supported by an instructional approach at the very beginning 5.2. Provision of feedback 701
637 of her induction year: 702
638 The importance of positive reinforcement is demonstrated by 703
I went to school before the school year started and I met my
639 the urgency with which positive feedback from the mentor, even 704
mentor. She explained to me what I should do.
640 when limited in scope, was brought up in the novice teachers’ 705
641 Eventually, the novice teacher has to begin to rely on her own interviews, as illustrated in the quotes from the two primary school 706
642 judgment instead of expecting directive instructions from the teachers Auli and Heli: 707

OF
643 mentor. Too much direction could have detrimental effects on the 708
She makes suggestions after visiting my lessons . She gives me
644 novice’s developing identity as a teacher (Rippon & Martin, 2006). 709
advice on methodology. Mostly I get positive feedback. My
645 The role of the mentor needs to be attuned to the actual needs of 710
mentor has also said that she has learnt a lot from me too. She
646 the mentee. 711
values my optimism and cheerfulness and is very pleased with
647 A different experience is that of Lotte, who experienced the 712

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me.
648 mentoring relationship through its felt absence in her daily work at 713
She said I’m very accurate and always on time.
649 a city gymnasium. On the one hand, this novice teacher appears not 714
650 to have been ready yet for the degree of independence that her The feedback may or may not have been very significant or 715
651 mentor appeared to expect from her. On the other hand, the mentor important in terms of the novices’ personal or professional devel- 716
652 clearly did not pay attention to Lotte’s need for feedback and opment, yet small, positive remarks appeared to have been anchors 717
653
654
655
support.
Mentor? That is what I lack most! . Of course my mentor helps
DP for a developing teacher identity. An assurance that some things
were done right may have had a comforting effect in the midst of
the day-to-day encounters in the classroom. Particularly the first
718
719
720
me if I ask her. But she doesn’t explain things to me. It is like ‘‘go
656 quote from Auli exhibits a sense of reciprocity, which provides 721
and find out for yourself’’. I would like to have more encour-
657 a fruitful ground for a reflective approach in mentoring. It is 722
agement and moral support.
658 essential that the dialogue following the mentor’s visits to Auli’s 723
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659 This quotation may also be interpreted as an example of class evolved into reflection on what kind of views about teaching 724
660 different levels of sophistication in reflection and reasoning of the and learning the methods suggested by the mentor were based 725
661 mentor and the mentee. Bullough, Young, Hall, Draper, and Smith upon and how these may have fit in with the mentee’s personal 726
662 (2008) suggest that difficulties arise when mentees display more understanding of teaching and learning. Without such discussion, 727
663 sophisticated reasoning than the mentor. The mentee may there is risk of the methods turning into a ‘‘bag of tricks’’ without 728
EC

664 welcome a reciprocal relationship and a reflective approach, while a real vision of how they are expected to facilitate the pupils’ 729
665 the mentor adopts a prescriptive approach, or remains indifferent, learning. 730
666 as appears to have been the case with Lotte’s mentor. The rela- The following quote from Sofi illustrates a case in which the 731
667 tionship may also involve ambiguous experiences, as is demon- mentor did not take an active role in providing feedback, but 732
668 strated in the following quote. Tiina experienced her mentor as provided targeted support when specific questions were raised by 733
RR

669 supportive, even overbearing at times, but the support did not the novice teacher. This works for self-regulating individuals, but 734
670 seem to match the real needs of the novice. Yet the mentor was able may not be sufficient for individuals, such as Meriliin (second 735
671 to facilitate reflection in the novice teacher. For this mentoring quote), who need more direction or reinforcement. 736
672 relationship to develop to its full potential, a more educative 737
I haven’t received any direct feedback. I got very specific
673 approach (cf. Norman & Feiman-Nemser, 2005) and understanding 738
answers to very specific questions.
674 of the novice’s needs would have been necessary. 739
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675
I would like her to visit my lessons more often and analyze my 740
My mentor makes me think, provides me with evaluation, and teaching skills.
676 741
asks questions. Sometimes she forces me to think how I could
677 Meriliin appears to seek an instructional approach in her men- 742
have done things differently . One thing that disturbed me was
678 toring relationship. She looks to her mentor for direction and 743
the excessive support she gave me in my classroom. When there
679 expects her mentor to analyze her teaching, and does not realize 744
was a problem she just got up and asserted herself. I couldn’t do
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680 that in order for her to develop her teaching, she needs to analyze 745
anything. Sometimes my mentor took over the class and started
681 and reflect upon her practice and behavior herself. Essentially, she 746
to give the lesson on her own.
682 needs to arrive at the understanding that her mentor can only help 747
683 Despite the reflective components (‘‘My mentor makes me her in analyzing her teaching, but she must herself commit to 748
684 think’’, and ‘‘asks questions’’), this relationship clearly exhibits reflective practice in order to develop as a professional. In contrast, 749
685 signs of prescriptive mentoring, i.e. an instructional approach in the Tiina, having a more reflective approach, begins to analyze the 750
686 terms of Orland-Barak and Klein (2005). Rippon and Martin (2006) situation that has prompted critical feedback. 751
687 point out that if support structures are on the one hand removed 752
She [the mentor] gives me both sides – both positive and
688 too quickly the novice teacher may be reluctant to ask for help, as 753
negative things. Even if I feel bad afterwards I start to think
689 this could be seen as a sign of weakness. If, on the other hand, the 754
about the lessons and analyze the problem.
690 support continues indefinitely, as in the case quoted above, it may 755
691 have a detrimental effect on the novice teacher, who may interpret It is vital that mentors realize the necessity of providing not just 756
692 the excessive support as a lack of recognition of professional feedback, but also a model for how to provide and receive critical 757
693 growth. In general, the novices wished for support in developing feedback constructively. 758
694 759

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E. Löfström, E. Eisenschmidt / Teaching and Teacher Education xxx (2009) 1–9 7

760 5.3. Teacher collegiality If I have any questions I can always turn to her [the mentor]. 825
761 826
The interviews of primary school teachers Heli and Auli are the
762 The novice teachers described experiences of how the mentor 827
ones which most clearly display the idea of a long-term relation-
763 facilitated their socialization into the school community by intro- 828
ship in the terms of Harrison et al. (2006). The mentoring rela-
764 ducing them to colleagues and talking about the newcomers in 829
tionships appear to facilitate development in terms of career
765 a positive tone in discussions with colleagues. The sharing of 830
aspirations and psycho-social functions, in addition to the accom-
766 contextual knowledge, such as rules and school-specific practices, 831
plishment of particular competences and training standards.
767 was mentioned as an important form of support. For instance, Maie, 832
Experiences in sharp contrast are loneliness and isolation. One
768 a gymnasium mathematics teacher, appreciated the mentor’s effort 833
of the city-school teachers, Hanna, felt left alone to deal with the
769 to establish a place for her in the school community. The appreci- 834
difficulties she experiences with her class. She felt that both her
770 ation by others of her as someone contributing with valuable work 835
mentor and the community of colleagues had abandoned her to
771 in the school was vital for her as a novice developing a teacher 836
deal alone with the challenges. In the quote below she identifies
772 identity: 837

OF
shortcomings in her performance, and describes the lack of support
773 838
She [the mentor] helped me to fit in the teacher community and and understanding from her mentor:
774 839
introduced me to other colleagues . she tries to make other
775 My mentor keeps telling me that I was too kind and gentle. But 840
people realize my worth.
776 how can you be different when nobody has told you how to act 841
777 The feelings of being valued as a colleague and appreciated as in front of the class?! . When she visited my lessons everything 842

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778 a professional are important in shaping the novice teacher’s iden- was fine. The children even behaved. She couldn’t have seen the 843
779 tity and view of themselves as part of a community. The mentor problems I had. They say that eventually you have to be on your 844
780 may even have been the main and perhaps the only connection own. I needed help. Nobody told me how to make rules on the 845
781 which the novice teacher had in the community, as the quotes from first day of September. 846
782 Mari and Heli indicate, and this could negatively influence their 847
The importance of sharing professional knowledge and accept-
783
784
785
786
views of themselves as members of a community of teachers:
I like to work on my own, and I don’t ask questions very often. If I
do I will get support. Actually, sometimes I get nothing. One of
DP ing newcomers into the community becomes all the more
emphasized in situations such as the one described above. The
socialization process is important as it involves the transfer of tacit
848
849
850
851
the supporters is my mentor. knowledge including norms and values.
787 852
I don’t have close relationships with my colleagues. I get support Another teacher, Reili, described how her mentor shared her
788 853
only from my mentor. experiences, but refrained from providing direct feedback. This may
TE
789 854
be a way to support reflection without imposing the mentor’s
790 The limited number of collegial relationships may or may not 855
views. However, the balance between a ‘‘gentle push’’ and too much
791 have been a voluntary choice. In either case, more attention should 856
or too little direction is a delicate one. Mentoring requires good
792 be paid to the mentor’s role as a supporter of the novice teacher’s 857
interpersonal skills and empathic ability. The following quotation
793 socialization into the school community as a whole. One aspect of 858
shows how Tiina received clear instructions from the beginning
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794 the mentor’s tasks is to support novice teachers’ adaptation to the 859
concerning the expectations of the mentor. This is likely to have
795 school as an organization (cf. Poom-Valickis, 2007). In order to 860
helped clear away misunderstanding at the beginning, but it
796 fulfill this aspect of the task, the mentor needs to adopt a holistic 861
appears that expectations and values were not open for discussion
797 approach, taking into consideration the wider school context in 862
and negotiation, as they should be in a reciprocal relationship:
798 which the novice functions. Thus, mentors could to a greater extent 863
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799 use different strategies to support the novices’ socialization into the My mentor told me her expectations and the norms at the very 864
800 school context. One strategy could be to bring the novice teachers’ beginning. My mentor has a very strong personality, and there 865
801 innovative ideas to the teachers’ attention, as in the case of Kertu, were times when I felt that she tried to push through her own 866
802 a basic school teacher in a rural area: opinions. Usually we discussed those things but still I felt 867
803 pressure from her side. 868
My mentor tried to make other people see my worth and value.
804 869
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When she heard that I had some good ideas she started Here the mentor expects her mentee to absorb and replicate the
805 870
a discussion in the teachers’ room. knowledge she as a mentor passes to her. In this case the appren-
806 871
ticeship approach does not include the opportunity of a mutual
807 Newcomers bring fresh perspectives and even innovative ideas 872
learning process. The pedagogical approach appears to be in sharp
808 to the school context. These could be utilized as valuable input for 873
contrast with educative mentoring (Norman & Feiman-Nemser,
809 school development. 874
2005) in which the mentor encourages the mentee to reflect on his
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810 875
or her teaching approach.
811 876
5.4. Mentor availability and mutual trust
812 877
813 5.5. Reciprocity 878
The mentor was often perceived as someone who is available
814 879
and who can be trusted with various questions and concerns. The
815 Reciprocity could take the form of conveying emotions and 880
experiences of Heli, Auli, and Linda, as the following quotes imply,
816 attitudes, as in Nina’s case: 881
are positive and encouraging ones. The first quote conveys a sense
817 882
of on-going dialogue and a reflective approach to mentoring. We have intense cooperation. My mentor said that she has
818 883
learnt a lot from me too. Optimism and happiness. I’ve tried to
819 It doesn’t matter what kind of problem I have, she [the mentor] 884
follow her advice and pay attention to the things that she has
820 always finds time for me. In fact, she has come back to school 885
pointed out.
821 after lessons just to talk with me. I need those regular conver- 886
822 sations to keep my work going. Or it could take the form of sharing materials or advice. The 887
823 It is good to know that I am not a burden beyond her [the actual nature of the sharing, despite a relationship described in 888
824 mentor’s] ordinary work. positive terms, was not always evident, as in the case of Linda: 889

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8 E. Löfström, E. Eisenschmidt / Teaching and Teacher Education xxx (2009) 1–9

890 There can be no better person for that job. She [the mentor] is and approach to teaching and learning. This again is an essential 955
891 very supportive . She shares materials with me and gives really part of professional knowledge development. Without addressing 956
892 useful advice. the competence aspect of a teacher’s professionalism, personal and 957
893 socialization support are not sufficient to facilitate development in 958
The novice teachers appreciated the sharing of viewpoints and
894 a holistic way. Future teachers need to become expert learners 959
working with the mentor on tasks directly related to classroom
895 themselves and be able to conceptualize how expertise is devel- 960
practice. The sharing of materials and practical hints may be useful
896 oped. If teachers are not able to understand how they learn and 961
for the novice teacher, but if these are not open for discussion they
897 make use of their knowledge, they are unlikely to be able truly to 962
are shared merely as a reproductive practice and we can scarcely
898 support the learning of their pupils (Poulou, 2005). Thus, mentor- 963
talk about reciprocity. One of the most concrete descriptions of
899 ing should support the novice teachers’ development both as 964
a reciprocal relationship came from Auli. The collaboration
900 teachers and learners. 965
included planning of teaching and working together with the
901 In mentor preparation focus needs to be directed towards 966
pupils’ parents.
902 developing reflection skills and knowledge about teachers’ 967

OF
903 We have very close cooperation. One particularly good thing is professional development. It is vital that mentors analyze their own 968
904 that we (the novice and the mentor) both have classes for work, question their practices, and develop themselves profes- 969
905 beginners. Therefore, we have the same topics, the same sionally. As demonstrated by the data, mentors adopting a consis- 970
906 subjects and the same work plans. We have planned many tently reflective approach in terms of Orland-Barak and Klein 971
907 events, parent meetings, etc., together. (2005) were not too common, which leaves hopes for improve- 972

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908 ment. Therefore, to encourage educative mentoring (cf. Norman & 973
The fact that this mentor–mentee pair teaches the same level
909 Feiman-Nemser, 2005), teacher education institutions responsible 974
pupils appears to help both parties to take full advantage of men-
910 for mentor training need to support prospective mentors in 975
toring. It allows both parties to focus their cooperation on tasks that
911 developing a holistic view of mentoring. Considering the demands 976
they concretely benefit from. Pairing mentors and mentees
912 on mentors, teacher education programs may benefit from 977
according to the grade level taught is not always possible in prac- DP
913 including a leadership component in their curricula. 978
tice, but it may be an ideal situation worth striving for. This goal
914 The third area in need of development is related to mentoring 979
gains further support when we consider Auli’s entire interview.
915 as an activity concerning the school community as a whole. The 980
Overall, among the novice teachers, Auli appears to be the teacher
916 mentor could be in a position to exercise leadership in terms of 981
exhibiting the most reflective relationship with her mentor. The
917 creating and maintaining a learning community. The induction 982
spirit of working things out together runs throughout the inter-
918 year program and mentoring provide schools with the opportu- 983
view, not only with regard to solving problems as they arise but also
TE
919 nity to scrutinize their culture. First, does it welcome newcomers? 984
as a mutual agreement and a way of working together.
920 There were cases in which the adjustment appeared to be merely 985
921 an adaptive process without opportunities for critical analysis of 986
922 6. Discussion existing ideologies, principles, models, and practices. Mentors 987
923 could clearly have an important role in facilitating the novice’s 988
EC

924 Tasks identified for mentoring in the Estonian induction year are socialization and his or her becoming a fully fledged member of 989
925 supporting school development and the novice teachers’ adjust- the community. Second, does the school culture embrace new 990
926 ment to the school as an organization; observing and supporting perspectives and ideas? Mentoring and support to novice 991
927 the professional development of the novice teacher; providing teachers’ professional development depends on school culture. Is 992
928 feedback; and supporting novice teachers’ self-analysis and the community open to critical analysis, reflective practice, and 993
RR

929 reflection (Eisenschmidt, 2006; Poom-Valickis, 2007). Similar learning? A recent survey of the Estonian Induction program 994
930 topics emerged in the interviews with novice teachers in this study. confirms that perceived mentor support correlates with collegial 995
931 The agreement between the tasks of the mentor and the novice support. Mentoring appears to be more efficient in schools where 996
932 teachers’ experiences indicates that the focus in mentoring gener- the whole organization supports the novice (Eisenschmidt, Poom- 997
933 ally is on core issues, and that the guidelines outlined in the Valickis, & Oder, 2008). Bullough et al. (2008) point out that unless 998
934 induction year program are realized in practice. Nevertheless, institutions commit to mentoring, it will remain as uncritical 999
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935 development needs related to three main areas were identified: 1) support, materials and practical hints, without either the mentor 1000
936 facilitation of reflection, 2) mentor training, and 3) mentoring in the or the mentee questioning the underlying principles of their 1001
937 school community as a whole. The last area includes matters per- teaching and their expectations on what kind of learning they 1002
938 taining to socialization and school leadership. hope to facilitate in their students. Without reflective practice 1003
939 Self-evaluation and reflection as conscious elements in the there is a risk of acclimatisation and contribution to the support of 1004
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940 mentoring relationship surfaced in rare cases. The Estonian prevailing routines without questioning existing ideology (Franke 1005
941 Teachers’ Standard (Õpetaja V. Teachers’ Standard, 2005) empha- & Dahlgren, 1996). The fact that some teachers felt that the 1006
942 sizes the need for supporting teachers as reflective practitioners mentor was their only contact, or one of few contacts with 1007
943 and life-long learners. A constant dialogue between one’s inter- colleagues at the school indicates that the schools may not have 1008
944 pretations of previous and current experiences is necessary in order a particularly collaborative culture, and teachers are left alone to 1009
945 to analyze the underpinnings of one’s behavior and thinking deal with challenges. Attention needs to be directed towards 1010
946 (McAlpine, 1993; McAlpine & Weston, 2000) and is an essential school leaders as it is in their interest to promote a collaborative 1011
947 component of professional growth. The mentor, if taking an culture in which knowledge is shared and developed together. 1012
948 educative approach, is in a key role in raising novice teachers’ Mentoring as a school-based professional learning approach for 1013
949 awareness of the importance of reflection as conscious and inten- novice teachers could even be an essential part of leadership 1014
950 tional activity. What could be the reasons for the difficulties in education. 1015
951 fostering reflective thinking in novice teachers? The data showed 1016
952 that some mentors appeared to adopt an instructive approach to Uncited reference 1017
953 mentoring, which may not encourage reflection and allow enough 1018
954 room for the novice teacher to develop his or her practical theory Õpetajate koolituse raamnõuded, 2000. 1019

Please cite this article in press as: Löfström, E., Eisenschmidt, E., Novice teachers’ perspectives on mentoring: The case of the Estonian induction
year, Teaching and Teacher Education (2009), doi:10.1016/j.tate.2008.12.005
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E. Löfström, E. Eisenschmidt / Teaching and Teacher Education xxx (2009) 1–9 9

1020 Acknowledgements Kõrghariduse riiklik koolitustellimus. (2008). [Government-commissioned higher 1062

education. (2008)]. Riigikontrolli aruanne [National audit office in Estonia].
1021 1063
http://www.riigikontroll.ee/?lang¼en. Accessed 24.08.08.
1022 The authors would like to thank Professor Samuel Mathews of Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews. An introduction to qualitative research interviewing. 1064
1023 the University of West Florida and Dr. Katrin Poom-Valickis of Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 1065
1024 Tallinn University for their valuable comments on earlier versions Lacey, L. (1987). Professional socialization of teachers. In M. Dunkin (Ed.), The 1066
international encyclopedia of teaching and teacher education (pp. 634–645).
1025 of the manuscript. This study was conducted in cooperation Oxford: Pergamon. 1067
1026 between the researchers in two European Union funded projects Little, J. W. (1990). The mentor phenomenon and the social organization of 1068
1027 (project codes 1.0101-0268 and 1.0101-0270) targeted at improving teaching. Review of Research in Education, 16, 297–351. 1069
McAlpine, L. (1993). Learner narrative as an instructional device: developing
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Please cite this article in press as: Löfström, E., Eisenschmidt, E., Novice teachers’ perspectives on mentoring: The case of the Estonian induction
year, Teaching and Teacher Education (2009), doi:10.1016/j.tate.2008.12.005