Unmanned Aircraft Missile Using RFID

ABSTRACT
In the present day war fields, RADAR systems are being widely used. RADAR
(Radio Detection and Ranging) is something that is in use all around us, to detect obstacles,
although it is normally invisible. They are used to detect enemy aircrafts, missiles, ships etc.,
and also for detecting heights of planes, clouds, and for weather forecasts.
RFID or Radio Frequency identification is a technology that enables the tracking or

identification of objects using IC based tags with a RF circuit and antenna. Using these two
technologies, we built this project. In this system we are simulating the RADAR function
with optical beam. We are providing an IR transmitter and receiver in place of RF transmitter
and receiver. If any object, reflecting the IR rays back to receiver can be detected. The IR
transmitter and receiver are placed on a rotating antenna to detect angle of the object. And we
are placing an RFID tags at each plane of our origin.
INDEX
S.NO CONTENTS Page. NO

1 INTRODUCTION OF WIRELESS 1-2
COMMUNICATION
1.1 Introduction to wireless communication 1
1.2 Overview of wireless communications 1
1.3 Organization of thesis 2
2 LITERATURE SURVEY 3-4

2.1 Literature survey 3
2.2 Existing system 3
2.3 Proposed system 4
3 AIM, OBJECTIVES AND DEFINATIONS 5-7

3.1 Aim 5
3.2 Objectives 5
3.3 Definitions 5
3.3.1. Zigbee key features 5
3.4 Zigbee characteristics 6
3.5 RFID 7
4 DESCRIPTION OF BLOCK DIAGRAM AND 8-25

WORKING
4.1 Block diagram of transmitter section 8
4.2 Block diagram of receiver section 8
4.3 Schematic representation of block diagram 9
4.3.1. Schematic representation of transmitter section 9
4.3.2. Schematic representation of receiver section 10

4.4.1. Power supply 10
4.4.2. Transformer 11
4.4.3. Rectifier 11
4.4.4. Filter 11
4.4.5. Voltage regulator 12
4.5 Liquid crystal display 12
4.5.1. Pins functions 13
4.5.2. LCD screen 14
4.5.3. LCD basic commands 14
4.5.4. LCD connection 16
4.5.5. LCD initialization 17
4.6 Motor drivers 19
4.6.1. Dc motor 19
4.7 L293D 19
4.7.1. Introduction of L293D 19
4.7.2. Description 20
4.7.3 Pin description 21
4.7.4. Pin diagram 22
4.8 Ultrasonic sensor 22
4.8.1. Application ideas 24
4.9 Zigbee architecture 24
4.10 Working 25
5 MICROCONTROLLER 26-41
5.1 Definition of a microcontroller 26

5.2 ATMEGA8 27
5.3 Key features 27
5.4 Pin diagram of ATMEGA8 29
5.5 ATMEGA8 sleep modes 30
5.6 Block diagram of ATMEGA8 32
5.6.1. Status register 33
5.6.2. Global interrupt enable 33
5.6.3. General purpose register file 34
5.6.4. Memory 35
5.6.5. SRAM data memory 36
5.7 RFID working process 37
5.8 Types of RFID 37
5.8.1. RFID module 38
5.9 RFID frequencies 41
5.10 RFID applications 41
66 6 FIRMWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECT 42-49

D DESIGN
6.16 6.1 Firmware implementation 42
6.2 AVR studio overview 42
6.3 Assembling 46
6.4 Flash programming 47
7 SOURCE CODE 50-59
7.1 Source code 50

8 RESULTS AND OUTPUTS 60-65
8.1 Sample outputs 60
9 APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAGES, 66-67

LIMITATIONS
9.1 Applications 66
9.2 Advantages 66
9.3 Limitations 67
10 CONCLUSION, FUTURE SCOPE 68
10.1 Conclusion 68
10.2 Future scope 68
REFERENCES 69
APPENDIX 70-72
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 Block diagram of transmitter section
Figure 4.2 Block diagram of receiver section
Figure 4.3 Schematic representation of transmitter

section
Figure 4.4 Schematic representation of receiver section
Figure 4.5 Components of power supply
Figure 4.6 LCD display
Figure 4.7 Power supply connections of LCD
Figure 4.8 Algorithm for initialization of 8-bit LCD
Figure 4.9 5 volts and 12 volts motor
Figure 4.10 Pin diagram of L293D
Figure 4.11 Ultrasonic sensor signal transmission and

echo receiving
Figure 4.12 Zigbee stack architecture
Figure 5.1 A typical microcontroller device and its

different subunits
Figure 5.2 Pin diagram of ATMEGA8
Figure 5.3 Block diagram of ATMEGA8
Figure 5.4 AVR Status Register

Figure 5.5 General purpose registers
Figure 5.6 RFID PCB
Figure 5.7 RFID Reader
Figure 5.8 RFID module
Figure 5.9 Active tag and passive tag
Figure 8.1 Overview of RFID of system
Figure 8.2 Receiver section of the RFID system
Figure 8.3 Transmitter section of RFID system
Figure 8.4 Runway
Figure 8.5 Display the output as permission granted for

an authorized plane
Figure 8.6 Display the output as un-authorized plane as

entered
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 Pin description of LCD
Table 4.2 LCD command description
Table 4.3 Pin description of L239D

ABBREVATIONS
FFD FULL FUNCTION DEVICE
RFD REDUSED FUNCTION DIODE
IEEE INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERS
MAC MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL
PHY PHYSICAL LAYER
NWK NETWORK AND SECURITY LAYER
EPROM ERASABLE PROGRAMABLE READ ONLY

MEMORY
EEPROM ELECTRICALLY ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE
READ ONLY MEMORY
ADC ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER
ALU ARTHEMATIC AND LOGIC UNIT
RFID RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION
AVR AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATION
DTL DIODE TRANSISTOR LOGIC
TTL TRANSISTER TRANSISTER LOGIC
TX / RX TRANSMITTER / RECEIVER
LCD LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY
DC DIRECT CURRENT
CCTV CLOSED-CIRCUIT TELEVISION
PC PROGRAM COUNTER
UWB ULTRA WIDE BAND

Unmanned Anti Aircraft Missile using RFID
1.1. INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

Wireless communication involves the transmission of information over a distance without
the help of wires, cables or any other forms of electrical conductors. Wireless communication is
a broad term that incorporates all procedures and forms of connecting and communicating
between two or more devices using a wireless signal through wireless communication
technologies and devices.
1.2. OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

Wireless communications is, by any measure, the fastest growing segment of the
communications industry. As such, it has captured the attention of the media and the imagination
of the public. Cellular systems have experienced exponential growth over the last decade and
there are currently around two billion users worldwide. Indeed, cellular phones have become a
critical business tool and part of everyday life in most developed countries, and are rapidly
supplanting antiquated wireless systems in many developing countries. In addition, wireless local
area networks currently supplement or replace wired networks in many homes, businesses, and
campuses. Many new applications, including wireless sensor networks, automated highways and
factories, smart homes and appliances, and remote telemedicine, are emerging from research
ideas to concrete systems. The explosive growth of wireless systems coupled with the
proliferation of laptop and palmtop computers indicate a bright future for wireless networks, both
as stand-alone systems and as part of the larger networking infrastructure. However, many
technical challenges remain in designing robust wireless networks that deliver the performance
necessary to support emerging applications. In this introductory chapter we will briefly review
the history of wireless networks, from the smoke signals of the pre-industrial age to the cellular,
satellite, and other wireless networks of today. We then discuss the wireless vision in more detail,
including the technical challenges that must be overcome to make this vision a reality. We
describe current wireless systems along with emerging systems and standards. The gap between
current and emerging systems and the vision for future wireless applications indicates that much
work remains to be done to make this vision a reality.
Dept. of ECE, SBIT-KMM 1

1.3. ORGANIZATION OF THESIS
CHAPTER-1: This chapter gives a brief introduction about wireless communications. It
Also gives an overview of wireless communications.
CHAPTER-2: This chapter contains the literature survey which explains about different
Changes undertaken in the advancement of defense weapons like, UAVs,
UGVs etc using the technologies like RFID. It also gives an account on
Existing and proposed techniques.
CHAPTER-3: This chapter contains the main aim an objective of the develop project. It
Also provides information about some technical definitions and technical
Concepts that are use in the development of the project.
CHAPTER-4: This chapter gives the definition of the microcontroller and also provides
A deep explanation about it along with the block diagram.
CHAPTER-5: This chapter provides explanation for the block diagrams of transmitter
And receiver sections. It also gives information about the functioning of
Some of the components used in the development of the project.
CHAPTER-6: This chapter explains about the firmware implementation of the system.
CHAPTER-7: This chapter contains the source code of the project.
CHAPTER-8: This chapter contains the final result, and output of the project.
CHAPTER-9: This chapter includes the conclusion, advantages, applications and the future
Scope of the developed project.

2.1. LITERATURE SURVEY
Extensive development efforts have been invested in unmanned systems, which are
gradually being integrated into modern welfare. Many companies displayed unmanned systems
technologies at Eurosatory 2006, including small and miniature aerial vehicles (UAVs),
unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) of various sizes. Developers exhibited models of both types
designed for carrying remotely operated systems, sensors and weapons. The exhibition provided
a venue to introduce several new systems. This principal unmanned ground system (UGSs)
system used by the US military is the AN/GSR-8 i.e. Remotely Monitored Battle field Sensor
System (REMBASS II), which detects, classifies and determines the direction of movement of
intruding aircrafts and vehicles.
Unmanned anti air craft missile is another application that is used to differentiate the
enemy aircrafts and to protect our own aircrafts by alerting the army. RFID technology has been
around for about 60 years and was originally developed for improving warfare technologies. The
first application was developed by Britain as the Identify Friend or Foe (IFF) system, which was
used to distinguish friendly aircraft from enemy aircraft during World War II (Landt, 2001). The
second era of RFID technology began with the commercial activities in the 1960s. An early
application was the development of electronic article surveillance (EAS) equipment to counter
theft in retail stores. EAS as an early forerunner to RFID uses a ‘1-bit’ signal to represent the
presence or absence of a tag (Landt, 2005). The third era of RFID technology started in 1999,
when the Auto-ID Centre was established at MIT to investigate new ways for improving bar
code technology and implementing RFID technology in various commercial applications. The
1990's were a significant decade for RFID because of increased commercialization of RFID
systems and the standardization activities on RFID technologies.
2.2. Existing technique
• In the existing system the telescope methodology is used in which human resource was
required.
• In this efficiency is low.
• The person can’t identify that the plane is authorized or unauthorized.

2.3. Proposed technique
• In this project we are using zigbee module its having transmitting distance is more than
that of existing system.
• In this ATMEGA8 microcontroller is used.
• If any unauthorised plane is entered into the circle to detect the ultrasonic sensor which
sends the information to the airport.
• Then it checks the plane details through zigbee by using RFID.
• If the plane details mismatches then the gun shooter gets on and then the plane will be
destroyed.

3.1. AIM
The main aim of project is used to differentiate the enemy aircrafts and our own aircrafts
by using RFID.
3.2. OBJECTIVES
This project is developed in order to help the border security system to avoid human
losses by controlling with wireless communication. To face new challenges in present day
situation in the military applications unmanned systems are more accurate, flexible and reliable.
3.3. DEFINITIONS
3.3.1. ZIGBEE KEY FEATURES
1. Low Power
The benefits of simple, cost-effective, low-power wireless connectivity that ZigBee

technology provides address a variety of markets, including industrial and home monitoring,
control and automation, as well as health care diagnostics. Free scale provides all the building
blocks used in a complete ZigBee compliant platform solution: the RF transceiver, MAC and
ZigBee software, microcontrollers and sensors. The development hardware and reference designs
provide developers with the tools they need to easily and quickly implement these building
blocks. One solution, one provider built, tested, compatible and ready for integration.
2. Robust
802.15.4 Provides a robust foundation for ZigBee, ensuring a reliable solution in noisy
environments. Features such as energy detection, clear channel assessment and channel selection
help the device pick the best possible channel, avoiding other wireless networks such as Wi-Fi.
Message acknowledgement helps to ensure that the data was delivered to its destination. Finally,
multiple levels of security ensure that the network and data remain intact and secure.

3. Mesh Networking
The ability to cover large areas with routers is one of the key features of ZigBee that
helps differentiate itself from other technologies. Mesh networking can extend the range of the
network through routing, while self healing increases the reliability of the network by re-routing
a message in case of a node failure.
4. Interoperability
The ZigBee Alliance helps ensure interoperability between vendors by creating testing
and certification programs for ZigBee devices. Users can be assured the devices that go through
certification testing and use the ZigBee logo will work with other devices based on the same
applications. This provides end customers with the customers with peace of mind while creating
brand awareness of products with the ZigBee logo.
3.4. ZIGBEE CHARACTERISTICS
The focus of network applications under the IEEE 802.15.4 / ZigBee standard include the
features of low power consumption, needed for only two major modes (Tx/Rx or Sleep), high
density of nodes per network, low costs and simple implementation.
These features are enabled by the following characteristics:
• 2.4GHz and 868/915 MHz dual PHY modes. This represents three license-free bands: 2.4-
2.4835 GHz, 868-870 MHz and 902-928 MHz the number of channels allotted to each frequency
band is fixed at sixteen (numbered 11-26), one (numbered 0) and ten (numbered 1-10)
respectively.
• Low power consumption, with battery life ranging from months to years.
• Maximum data rates allowed for each of these frequency bands are fixed as 250 kbps @2.4.
GHz, 40 kbps @ 915 MHz, and 20 kbps @ 868 MHz.
• High throughput and low latency for low duty cycle applications (<0.1%).
• Channel access using Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA - CA).

3.5. RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is the wireless non-contact use of radio-

frequency electromagnetic fields to transfer data, for the purposes of automatically identifying
and tracking tags attached to objects. The tags contain electronically stored information. Some
tags are powered by and read at short ranges (a few meters) via magnetic fields (electromagnetic
induction). Others use a local power source such as a battery, or else have no battery but collect
energy from the interrogating EM field, and then act as a passive transponder to emit
microwaves or UHF radio waves (i.e., electromagnetic radiation at high frequencies). Battery
powered tags may operate at hundreds of meters. Unlike a bar code, the tag does not necessarily
need to be within line of sight of the reader, and may be embedded in the tracked object.
This tool retransmitted the incident radio waves along with audio information. Sound
waves vibrated diaphragm that altered the shape of resonator, modulating reflected sound
frequencies. This tool was not identification tag but a secret listening device. But it is still
considered as predecessor of the RFID technology due to it being energized, passive and
stimulated by outside electromagnetic waves.

4.1. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSMITTER SECTION
Figure 4.1: Block diagram of transmission section
4.2. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF RECEIVER SECTION
Figure 4.2: Block diagram of receiver section

4.3. SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF BLOCK DIAGRAM
4.3.1. Schematic representation of transmitter section
Figure 4.3: Schematic representation of transmitter section

4.3.2. Schematic of representation receiver section
Figure 4.4: Schematic representation of receiver section
4.4. PARAMETERS USED
4.4.1. POWER SUPPLY

The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The A.C input i.e.,
230V from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier. The
output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to get a pure d.c voltage,
the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components present even
after rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure constant dc
voltage.

Courtesy: IEEE Explore
Fig 4.5: Components of power supply
4.4.2. TRANSFORMER
Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and these
voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c input
available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required voltage level. This
is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the voltage to a
required level.
4.4.3 RECTIFIER
The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating
D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is
used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification.
4.4.4. FILTER
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier
and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and
load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this
point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.

4.4.5. VOLTAGE REGULATOR

As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator is an
electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this project,
power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain these voltage levels, 7805 and 7812.
4.5. LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY
LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. LCD is finding wide spread use replacing LEDs
(seven segment LEDs or other multi segment LEDs) because of the following reasons:
1. The declining prices of LCDs.

2. The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in contrast to LEDs,
which are limited to numbers and a few characters.
3. Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, thereby relieving the CPU of the
task of refreshing the LCD. In contrast, the LED must be refreshed by the CPU to keep
displaying the data.
4. Ease of programming for characters and graphics.
These components are “specialized” for being used with the microcontrollers, which
means that they cannot be activated by standard IC circuits. They are used for writing different
messages on a miniature LCD.
Figure 4.6: LCD display
A model as shown in figure 7.3 here is for its low price and great possibilities most
frequently used in practice. It is based on the HD44780 microcontroller (Hitachi) and can display
messages in two lines with 16 characters each. It displays all the alphabets, Greek letters,
punctuation marks, mathematical symbols etc. In addition, it is possible to display symbols that

user makes up on its own. Automatic shifting message on display (shift left and right),
appearance of the pointer, backlight etc. are considered as useful characteristics.
4.5.1. PINS FUNCTIONS
There are pins along one side of the small printed board used for connection to the
microcontroller. There are total of 14 pins marked with numbers (16 in case the background light
is built in). Their function is described in the table 6.1 below:
Pin Logic
Function Name Description
Number State
Ground 1 VSS - 0V
Power supply 2 VDD - +5V
Contrast 3 VEE - 0 – VDD
D0 – D7 are interpreted as
0
4 RS commands
1
D0 – D7 are interpreted as data
Write data (from controller to

0 LCD)
Control of 5 R/W
1 Read data (from LCD to
operating
controller)
0 Access to LCD disabled

1 Normal operating
6 E
From 1 to Data/commands are transferred
0 to LCD
7 D0 0/1 Bit 0 LSB
8 D1 0/1 Bit 1
Data / commands 9 D2 0/1 Bit 2
10 D3 0/1 Bit 3
11 D4 0/1 Bit 4

12 D5 0/1 Bit 5
13 D6 0/1 Bit 6
14 D7 0/1 Bit 7 MSB
Table 4.1: Pin description of LCD

4.5.2. LCD SCREEN
LCD screen consists of two lines with 16 characters each. Each character consists of 5x7
dot matrix. Contrast on display depends on the power supply voltage and whether messages are
displayed in one or two lines. For that reason, variable voltage 0-VDD is applied on pin marked
as VEE. Trimmer potentiometer is usually used for that purpose the connections are as shown in
figure 6.4. Some versions of displays have built in backlight (blue or green diodes). When used
during operating, a resistor for current limitation should be used (like with any LE diode).
Figure 4.7: Power supply connection to LCD
4.5.3. LCD BASIC COMMANDS

All data transferred to LCD through outputs D0-D7 will be interpreted as commands or
as data, which depends on logic state on pin RS:
• RS = 1 - Bits D0 - D7 are addresses of characters that should be displayed. Built in

processor addresses built in “map of characters” and displays corresponding symbols.

Displaying position is determined by DDRAM address. This address is either previously

defined or the address of previously transferred character is automatically incremented.
• RS = 0 - Bits D0 - D7 are commands which determine display mode. List of commands
which LCD recognizes are given in the table 6.2 below:
Command RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 Execution Time
Clear display 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.64mS
Cursor home 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 X 1.64mS
Entry mode set 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 I/D S 40uS
Display on/off control 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D U B 40uS
Cursor/Display Shift 0 0 0 0 0 1 D/C R/L X X 40uS
Function set 0 0 0 0 1 DL N F X X 40uS
Set CGRAM address 0 0 0 1 CGRAM address 40uS
Set DDRAM address 0 0 1 DDRAM address 40uS
Read “BUSY” flag (BF) 0 1 BF DDRAM address -
Write to CGRAM or DDRAM 1 0 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS
Read from CGRAM or DDRAM 1 1 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS
Function Value Operation
I/D 1 Increment by 1
0 Decrement by 1
S 1 Display shift on
0 Display shift off
D 1 Display on
0 Display off
U 1 Cursor on
0 Cursor off
B 1 Cursor blink on
0 Cursor blink off
R/L 1 Shift right
0 Shift left
DL 1 8-bit interface

0 4-bit interface
N 1 Display in two lines
0 Display in one line
F 1 Character format
5x10 dots
0 Character format
5x7 dots
D/C 1 Display shift
0 Cursor shift
Table 4.2: LCD command description
4.5.4. LCD CONNECTION

Depending on how many lines are used for connection to the microcontroller, there are 8-
bit and 4-bit LCD modes. The appropriate mode is determined at the beginning of the process in
a phase called “initialization”. In the first case, the data are transferred through outputs D0-D7 as
it has been already explained. In case of 4-bit LED mode, for the sake of saving valuable I/O
pins of the microcontroller, there are only 4 higher bits (D4-D7) used for communication, while
other may be left unconnected.
Consequently, each data is sent to LCD in two steps: four higher bits are sent first (that
normally would be sent through lines D4-D7), four lower bits are sent afterwards. With the help
of initialization, LCD will correctly connect and interpret each data received. Besides, with
regards to the fact that data are rarely read from LCD (data mainly are transferred from
microcontroller to LCD) one more I/O pin may be saved by simple connecting R/W pin to the
Ground. Even though message displaying will be normally performed, it will not be possible to
read from busy flag since it is not possible to read from display.

4.5.5. LCD INITIALIZATION

Once the power supply is turned on, LCD is automatically cleared. This process lasts for
approximately 15mS. After that, display is ready to operate. The mode of operating is set by
default. This means that:
1. Display is cleared.
2. Mode
DL = 1 Communication through 8-bit interface.
N = 0 Messages are displayed in one line.
F = 0 Character font 5 x 8 dots.
3. Display/Cursor on/off
D = 0 Display off.
U = 0 Cursor off.
B = 0 Cursor blink off.
4. Character entry
ID = 1 Addresses on display are automatically incremented by 1.
S = 0 Display shift off.
Automatic reset is mainly performed without any problems. If for any reason power
supply voltage does not reach full value in the course of 10mS, display will start perform
completely unpredictably. If voltage supply unit cannot meet this condition or if it is needed to
provide completely safe operating, the process of initialization by which a new reset enabling
display to operate normally must be applied.
Algorithm according to the initialization is being performed depends on whether
connection to the microcontroller is through 4- or 8-bit interface. All left over to be done after
that is to give basic commands and of course- to display messages. The algorithm is as shown in
the figure 7.5.

Figure 4.8: Algorithm for initialization of 8-bit LCD
CONTRAST CONTROL
To have a clear view of the characters on the LCD, contrast should be adjusted. To adjust
the contrast, the voltage should be varied. For this, a preset is used which can behave like a
variable voltage device. As the voltage of this preset is varied, the contrast of the LCD can be
adjusted.
POTENTIOMETER
Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals connected. This
arrangement is normally used to vary voltage, for example to set the switching point of a circuit
with a sensor, or control the volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit. If the terminals at the ends
of the track are connected across the power supply, then the wiper terminal will provide a
voltage which can be varied from zero up to the maximum of the supply.

4.6. MOTOR DRIVERS

4.6.1. DC MOTOR (Electric Motor)
An electric motor is an electromechanical device that converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy.
Figure 4.9: 5 volts and 12 volts motor
Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-
carrying conductors to generate force. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from
mechanical energy, is done by generators such as an alternator or a dynamo; some electric
motors can also be used as generators, for example, a traction motor on a vehicle may perform
both tasks. Electric motors and generators are commonly referred to as electric machines.
Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and
pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives.
4.7. L293D (DUAL H-BRIDGE MOTOR DRIVER IC)
4.7.1. INTRODUCTION OF L293D
• 600 mA Output current capability per channel.

• 1.2A Peak output current (non repetitive) per channel.
• Enable facility.
• Over temperature protection.

• Logical "0" input voltage up to 1.5 V.

• High noise immunity.
• Internal clamp diodes.
4.7.2. DESCRIPTION
The Device is a monolithic integrated high voltage, high current four channel driver
designed to accept standard DTL or TTL logic levels and drive inductive loads (such as relays
solenoids, DC and stepping motors) and switching power transistors. To simplify use as two
bridges each pair of channels is equipped with an enable input. A separate supply input is
provided for the logic, allowing operation at a lower voltage and internal clamp diodes are
included. This device is suitable for use in switching applications at frequencies up to 5 kHz. The
L293D is assembled in a 16 lead plastic package which has 4 center pins connected together and
used for heat sinking The L293DD is assembled in a 20 lead surface mount which has 8 center
pins connected together and used for heat sinking. L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver
integrated circuit (IC). Motor drivers act as current amplifiers since they take a low-current
control signal and provide a higher-current signal. This higher current signal is used to drive the
motors.
L293D contains two inbuilt H-bridge driver circuits. In its common mode of operation,
two DC motors can be driven simultaneously, both in forward and reverse direction. The motor
operations of two motors can be controlled by input logic at pins 2 & 7 and 10 & 15. Input logic
00 or 11 will stop the corresponding motor. Logic 01 and 10 will rotate it in clockwise and
anticlockwise directions, respectively. Enable pins 1 and 9 (corresponding to the two motors)
must be high for motors to start operating. When an enable input is high, the associated driver
gets enabled. As a result, the outputs become active and work in phase with their inputs.
Similarly, when the enable input is low, that driver is disabled, and their outputs are off and in
the high-impedance state.

4.7.3. PIN DESCRIPTION
Pin No Function Name

1 Enable pin for Motor 1; active high Enable 1,2
2 Input 1 for Motor 1 Input 1
3 Output 1 for Motor 1 Output 1
4 Ground (0V) Ground
8 Supply voltage for Motors; 9-12V (up to 36V) VCC 2
9 Enable pin for Motor 2; active high Enable 3,4
15 Input2 for Motor 1 Input 4
16 Supply voltage; 5V (up to 36V)
Table 4.3: Pin description of L239D

4.7.4. PIN DIAGRAM
Figure 4.10: Pin diagram of L293D.
4.8. ULTRASONIC SENSOR

The ultrasonic distance sensor provides precise, non‐contact distance measurements from
About 0.8 to 120 inches.The ultrasonicsensor works by emitting a short ultrasonic burst of sound
(well above human hearing range) and then “listening” for the echo.
The ultrasonic sensor emits short bursts of sound and listens for this sound to echo off of
nearby objects. The frequency of the sound is too high for humans to hear (it is ultrasonic). The
ultrasonic sensor measures the time of flight of the sound burst. A user then computes the
distance to an object using this time of flight and the speed of sound (1,126 ft/s).
This sensor uses ultrasonic sound to measure distance just like bats and dolphins do.
Ultrasonic sound has such a high pitch that humans cannot hear it. This particular sensor sends
out an ultrasonic sound that has a frequency of about 40 kHz.
The sensor has two main parts:

1. A transducer that creates an ultrasonic sound and another listens to its echo.
2. To use this sensor to measure distance, the robot's brain must measure the amount of time
it takes for the ultrasonic sound to travel.
Sound travels at approximately 340 meters per second. This corresponds to about
29.412us (microseconds) per centimeter. To measure the distance the sound has travelled we use
the formula:
Distance = (Time x Speed of Sound) / 2.
The "2" is in the formula because the sound has to travel back and fourth. First the sound
travels away from the sensor, and then it bounces off of a surface and returns back. The easy way
to read the distance as centimeters is use the formula:
Centimeters = ((Microseconds / 2) / 29).
For example, if it takes 100us (microseconds) for the ultrasonic sound to bounce back,
then the distance is ((100 / 2) / 29) centimeters or about 1.7 centimeters.
Figure 4.11: Ultrasonic sensor signal transmission and echo receiving.

4.8.1. APPLICATION IDEAS

• Security systems.
• Interactive animated exhibits.
• Parking assistant systems.
• Robotic navigation.
4.9. ZIGBEE ARCHITECTURE
ZigBee stack architecture follows the standard Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model, ZigBee's protocol stack is structured in layers. The first two layers, physical
(PHY) and media access (MAC), are defined by the IEEE 802.15.4 standard.
The layers above them are defined by the ZigBee Alliance.
The model has five layers namely
• Physical (PHY) layer.

• Media access control (MAC) layer.
• Network (NWK) and security layers.
• Application framework.
Figure 4.12: Zigbee stack architecture. Courtesy: IEEE Explore

Zigbee transmitter: It is used to send or transfer the data from transmitter section to receiver
section by a wireless communication.
Zigbee receiver: ZigBee receiver is used to receive the data from transmitter and it is given to
ATMEGA8 microcontroller the output is displayed on LCD.
4.10. Working
• An ultrasonic sensor is used to detect an object is detected then the information is
displayed on LCD by using microcontroller.
• The plane section act as transmitter it consists of RFID tag, RFID module and
microcontroller
• In order to transmit the information from transmitter to receiver a wireless
communication is used i.e. ZigBee.
• At receiver section wireless receiver (ZigBee) is used to collect the data from transmitter
and plane details are displayed on LCD.
• When an unauthorized RFID tag is used at transmitter then information is carried out to
receiver showing then unauthorized plane is detected.
• Buzzer is used to alert whole system and a gun shooter is used to fire the entered
unauthorized plane.
• Here RFID module is used to read RFID tag.

5.1. DEFINITION OF A MICROCONTROLLER
Microcontroller, as the name suggests, are small controllers. They are like single chip
computers that are often embedded into other systems to function as processing/controlling unit.
For example, the remote control you are using probably has microcontrollers inside that do
decoding and other controlling functions. They are also used in automobiles, washing machines,
microwave ovens, toys etc, where automation is needed.
The key features of microcontrollers include:
• High Integration of Functionality

• Microcontrollers sometimes are called single-chip computers because they have on-chip
memory and I/O circuitry and other circuitries that enable them to function as small
standalone computers without other supporting circuitry.
• Field Programmability, Flexibility
• Microcontrollers often use EEPROM or EPROM as their storage device to allow field
programmability so they are flexible to use. Once the program is tested to be correct then
large quantities of microcontrollers can be programmed to be used in embedded systems.
• Easy to Use
Assembly language is often used in microcontrollers and since they usually follow RISC
architecture, the instruction set is small. The development package of microcontrollers often
includes an assembler, a simulator, a programmer to "burn" the chip and a demonstration
board. Some packages include a high level language compiler such as a C compiler and more
sophisticated libraries.
Most microcontrollers will also combine other devices such as:
• A Timer module to allow the microcontroller to perform tasks for certain time periods.
• A serial I/O port to allow data to flow between the microcontroller and other devices such
as a PC or another microcontroller.
• An ADC to allow the microcontroller to accept analogue input data for processing.

Figure 5.1: A typical microcontroller device and its different subunits.
The heart of the microcontroller is the CPU core. In the past this has traditionally been
based on an 8-bit microprocessor unit. The Figure above shows a typical microcontroller device
and its different subunits.
5.2 ATMEGA8
The Atmel AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working
registers. All the 32 registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU),
allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one
clock cycle. The resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to
ten times faster than conventional CISC microcontrollers.
5.3. KEY FEATURES
• High-performance, Low-power Atmel AVR 8-bit Microcontroller.

• Advanced RISC Architecture.
• 130 Powerful Instructions – Most Single-clock Cycle Execution.
• 32 × 8 General Purpose Working Registers.

• Fully Static Operation Up to 16MIPS Throughput at 16MHz On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier.

• High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments.
• 8Kbytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory.
• 512Bytes EEPROM, 1Kbyte Internal SRAM.
• Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM.
• Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C.
• Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits.
• In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program True Read-While-Write Operation.
• Programming Lock for Software Security.
• Peripheral Features, Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Presale, one Compare
Mode.
• One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Pre scaler, Compare Mode, and Capture Mode.
• Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator.
• Three PWM Channels.
• 8-channel ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package Eight Channels 10-bit Accuracy.
• 6-channel ADC in PDIP package Six Channels 10-bit Accuracy.
• Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface.
• Programmable Serial USART.
• Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface.
• Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator.
• On-chip Analog Comparator.
• Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection.
• Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator.
• External and Internal Interrupt Sources.
• Five Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, and Standby.
• 23 Programmable I/O Lines, 28-lead PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, and 32-pad QFN/MLF.
• 2.7V - 5.5V (ATmega8L), 4.5V - 5.5V (ATmega8).
• Power Consumption at 4 MHZ, 3V, 25°C.

5.4 PIN DIAGRAM OF ATMEGA8
FIGURE 5.2: Pin diagram of ATMEGA8
One of the most important features of ATmega8 microcontroller is that except 5 pins, all
other pins can be used for supporting two signals.
• Pins 9,10,14,15,16,17,18,19 are used for port B, Whereas Pins 23,24,25,26,27,28 and 1
are used for port C and Pins 2,3,4,5,6,11,12 are used for port D.
• Pin 1 is used as Reset pin and on applying low level signal for time longer than minimum
pulse length will generate a reset signal.
• Pins 3 and 2 can also be used in serial communication for USART (Universal
Synchronous and Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter).
• Pin 5 and 4 are used as external interrupts.
• Pins 10 and 9 are used as timer counter oscillators as well as external oscillator where the
crystal is connected directly between the pins.
• Pin 19 is used as slave clock input or master clock output for Serial Peripheral Interface
(SPI) channel.

• Pin 18 is used as slave clock output or master clock input
• Pins 23 to 28 are used for Analog to digital conversion (ADC) channels.
• Pin 12 and 13 are used as Analog Comparator inputs.
• Pins 6 and 11 are used as counter/timer sources.
5.5. ATMEGA8 Sleep Modes
The idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the SRAM, timer/counters, SPI port, and
interrupt system to continue functioning. The power down mode saves the register contents but
freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.
In power-save mode, the asynchronous timer continues to run, allowing the user to maintain a
timer base while the rest of the device is sleeping. The ADC Noise reduction mode stops the
CPU and all I/O modules except asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise
during ADC conversions. In standby mode, the crystal/resonator oscillator is running while the
rest of the device is sleeping. This allows fast start-up combined with low-power consumption.
The microcontroller operates in 5 sleep modes:
POWER SAVE MODE
It is used when Counter/Timer is clocked asynchronously. In general, this mode used for
saving the operational power requirement of microcontroller.
Idle Mode
It stops the functioning of CPU, but allows operation of ADC, TWI, SPI, and interrupts
system and Watchdog. It is achieved by setting SM0 to SM2 bits of Microcontroller Unit register
flag at zero.

Power down Mode
It enables external interrupts, the 2-wire serial interface, and watchdog while disabling the
external oscillator. It stops all generated clocks.
ADC Noise Reduction Mode
It stops the central processing unit but allows the functioning of ADC, timer/counter and
external interrupts.
Stand By mode
In this mode, only oscillator can operate by slowing all other operation of microcontroller.

5.6. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ATMEGA8
Figure 5.3: Block diagram of ATMEGA8
The high-performance Atmel AVR ALU operates in direct connection with all the 32-
general purpose working registers. Within a single clock cycle, arithmetic operations between
general purpose registers or between a register and an immediate are executed. The ALU
operations are divided into three main categories – arithmetic, logical, and bit-functions. Some
implementations of the architecture also provide a powerful multiplier supporting both
signed/unsigned multiplication and fractional format. For a detailed description,

The Status Register contains information about the result of the most recently executed
arithmetic instruction. This information can be used for altering program flow in order to
perform conditional operations. Note that the Status Register is updated after all ALU
operations.
5.6.1. Status Register
The Status Register is not automatically stored when entering an interrupt routine and
restored when returning from an interrupt. This must be handled by software.
Figure 5.4: AVR Status Register
5.6.2. Global Interrupt Enable
The Global Interrupt Enable bit must be set for the interrupts to be enabled. The
individual interrupt enable control is then performed in separate control registers. If the Global
Interrupt Enable Register is cleared, none of the interrupts are enabled independent of the
individual interrupt enable settings. The I-bit is cleared by hardware after an interrupt has
occurred and is set by the RETI instruction to enable subsequent interrupts. The I-bit can also
be set and cleared by the application with the SEI and CLI instructions, as described in the
Instruction Set Reference.
Bit Copy Storage
The Bit Copy instructions BLD (Bit Load) and BST (Bit Store) use the T-bit as source
or destination for the operated bit. A bit from a register in the Register File can be copied into T
by the BST instruction, and a bit in T can be copied into a bit in a register in the Register File
by the BLD instruction.

Half Carry Flag
The Half Carry Flag H indicates a Half Carry in some arithmetic operations. Half Carry
is useful in BCD arithmetic. See the “Instruction Set Description” for detailed information.
Two’s Complement Overflow Flag
The Two’s Complement Overflow Flag V supports two’s complement arithmetic’s.

See the “Instruction Set Description” for detailed information.
Negative Flag
The Negative Flag N indicates a negative result in an arithmetic or logic operation.

See the “Instruction Set Description” for detailed information.
Zero Flag
The Zero Flag Z indicates a zero result in an arithmetic or logic operation. See the
“Instruction Set Description” for detailed information.
Carry Flag
The Carry Flag C indicates a Carry in an arithmetic or logic operation. See the
“Instruction Set Description” for detailed information.
5.6.3. General Purpose Register File
The Register File is optimized for the AVR Enhanced RISC instruction set. In order to
achieve the required performance and flexibility, the following input/output schemes are
supported by the Register File:
• One 8-bit output operand and one 8-bit result input.
• Two 8-bit output operands and one 8-bit result input.
• Two 8-bit output operands and one 16-bit result input.

• One 16-bit output operand and one 16-bit result input.
AVR CPU General Purpose Working Registers
Figure 5.5: General purpose registers
Most of the instructions operating on the Register File have direct access to all
registers, and most of them are single cycle instructions as shown in Figure, each register is also
assigned a Data memory address, mapping them directly into the first 32 locations of the user
Data Space. Although not being physically implemented as SRAM locations, this memory
organization provides great flexibility in access of the registers, as the X-pointer, Y-pointer, and
Z-pointer Registers can be set to index any register in the file.
5.6.4. MEMORY
This section describes the different memories in the Atmel AVR ATmega8. The AVR
architecture has two main memory spaces, the Data memory and the Program Memory
space. In addition, the ATmega8 features an EEPROM Memory for data storage. All three
memory spaces are linear and regular.

Most of the instructions operating on the Register File have direct access to all
registers, and most of them are single cycle instructions As shown in Figure, each register is
also assigned a Data memory address, mapping them directly into the first 32 locations of the
user Data Space. Although not being physically implemented as SRAM locations, this memory
organization provides great flexibility in access of the registers, as the X-pointer, Y-pointer, and
Z-pointer Registers can be set to index any register in the file.
In-System Reprogrammable Flash memory
The ATmega8 contains 8Kbytes On-chip In-System Reprogrammable Flash memory

for program storage. Since all AVR instructions are 16-bits or 32-bits wide, the Flash is
organized as 4K × 16 bits. For software security, the Flash Program memory space is divided
into two sections, Boot Program section and Application Program section. The Flash memory
has an endurance of at least 10,000 write/erase cycles. The ATmega8 Program Counter (PC) is
12 bits wide, thus addressing the 4K Program memory locations. The operation of Boot
Program section and associated Boot Lock Bits for software protection are described in detail
in “Boot Loader Support – Read-While-Write Self-Programming”.
5.6.5. SRAM DATA MEMORY
The lower 1120 Data memory locations address the Register File, the I/O Memory, and
the internal data SRAM. The first 96 locations address the Register File and I/O Memory, and
the next 1024 locations address the internal data SRAM.
The five different addressing modes for the Data memory cover: Direct, Indirect with
Displacement, Indirect, Indirect with Pre-decrement, and Indirect with Post-increment. In the
Register File, registers R26 to R31 feature the indirect addressing pointer registers. The direct
addressing reaches the entire data space. The Indirect with Displacement mode reaches 63
address locations from the base address given by the Y-register or Z-register. When using
registers indirect addressing modes with automatic pre-decrement and post-increment, the
address registers X, Y and Z are decremented or incremented.
Early exhibition of the reflected power RFID tags, semi passive and passive was
presented by Robert Freyman, Steven Depp and Alfred Koelle.

This portable system used around 12-bit tags and worked at 915 MHz And the first patent
associated with abbreviation of RFID was approved to Mr. Charles Walton in the year 1983.
5.7. RFID WORKING PROCESS
Basic RFID consists of an antenna, transceiver and transponder. The working of a typical
RFID system is as explained below.
Antenna emits the radio signals to activate tag and to read as well as write information to
it. Reader emits the radio waves, ranging from one to 100 inches, on the basis of used radio
frequency and power output. While passing through electronic magnetic zone, RFID tag detects
activation signals of reader.
Powered by its internal battery or by the reader signals, the tag sends radio waves back to
the reader. Reader receives these waves and identifies the frequency to generate a unique ID.
Reader then decodes data encoded in integrated circuit of tags and transmits it to the computers
for use.
5.8. TYPES OF RFID
Active and passive RFID are different technologies but are usually evaluated together.
Even though both of them use the radio frequency for communication between tag and reader,
means of providing power to tags is different. Active RFID makes use of battery within tag for
providing continuous power to tag and radio frequency power circuitry. Passive RFID on the
other hand, relies on energy of radio frequency transferred from reader to tag for powering it.
Passive RFID needs strong signals from reader but signal strength bounced from tag is at
low levels. Active RFID receives low level signals by tag but it can create higher level signals to
readers. This type of RFID is constantly powered, whether in or out of the reader’s field. Active
tags consist of external sensors for checking humidity, temperature, motion as well as other
conditions.

5.8.1. RFID MODULE
Figure 5.6: RFID PCB
An RFID reader’s function is to interrogate RFID tags. The means of interrogation is

wireless and because the distance is relatively short; line of sight between the reader and tags is
not necessary. A reader contains an RF module, which acts as both a transmitter and receiver of
radio frequency signals. The transmitter consists of an oscillator to create the carrier frequency; a
modulator to impinge data commands upon this carrier signal and an amplifier to boost the signal
enough to awaken the tag. The receiver has a demodulator to extract the returned data and also
contains an amplifier to strengthen the signal for processing. A microprocessor forms the control
unit, which employs an operating system and memory to filter and store the data. The data is
now ready to be sent to the network.

Figure 5.7: RFID Reader
RFID Reader Module, are also called as interrogators. They convert radio waves
returned from the RFID tag into a form that can be passed on to Controllers, which can make use
of it. RFID tags and readers have to be tuned to the same frequency in order to communicate.
Figure 5.8: RFID module
An RFID system consists of two separate components: a tag and a reader. Tags
are analogous to barcode labels, and come in different shapes and sizes. The tag contains an
antenna connected to a small microchip containing up to two kilobytes of data. The reader, or
scanner, functions similarly to a barcode scanner; however, while a barcode scanner uses a laser
beam to scan the barcode, an RFID scanner uses electromagnetic waves. To transmit these
waves, the scanner uses an antenna that transmits a signal, communicating with the tags antenna.
The tags antenna receives data from the scanner and transmits its particular chip information to
the scanner.

The data on the chip is usually stored in one of two types of memory. The most common
is Read-Only Memory (ROM); as its name suggests, read-only memory cannot be altered once
programmed onto the chip during the manufacturing process. The second type of memory is
Read/Write Memory; though it is also programmed during the manufacturing process, it can later
be altered by certain devices.
Figure 5.9: Active tag and passive tag.
The RFID tag consists of a powered or non powered microchip and an antenna. The
Three different types of tags are described below.
Passive tags are the simplest, smallest and cheapest version of an RFID tag as they do
not contain a built-in power source and consequently cannot initiate communication with a
reader. As the available power from the reader field diminishes rapidly with distance, passive
tags have practical read ranges that vary from about 10 mm up to about 5 meters.
Semi-passive tags have built-in batteries and do not require energy from the reader field
to power the microchip. This allows them to function with much lower signal power levels and
act over greater distances.

5.9. RFID FREQUENCIES
Just like you can tune a radio in various frequencies for listening to different channels,
RFID readers and tags need to be tuned in to a same frequency for communication. RFID system
uses various frequencies but most common and popularly used frequency is low, high and ultra
high frequency.
Low frequency is around 125 KHz, high is around 13.56 MHz and ultra high varies
between 860-960 MHz Some applications also make use of microwave frequency of 2.45 GHz.
It is imperative to choose right frequency for an application as radio waves work different at
various frequencies.
5.10. RFID APPLICATIONS
The role of RFID is not just confined to Aircraft identification anymore; it is also lending
a hand in various commercial uses. Asset tracking is one of the most popular uses of RFID.
Companies are using RFID tags on the products that might get stolen or misplaced. Almost each
type of Radio frequency Identification and Detection system can be used for the purpose of asset
management.
Manufacturing plants have also been using RFID from a long time now. These systems
are used for tracking parts and working in process for reduction of defects, managing production
of various versions and increasing output. The technology has also been useful in the closed
looped supply chains for years. Not just manufacturers but retailers also are using this RFID
technology for proper placement of their products and improvements in the supply chain.
RFID also plays an important role in the access and security control. The newly
introduced 13.56 MHz RFID systems provide long range readings to the users. The best part is
that RFID is convenient to handle and requires low maintenance at the same time.

6.1. FIRMWARE IMPLEMENTATION

The firmware programmed in LPC2148 is designed to communicate with Finger print
and operates according the commands received from the Switches. Therefore, the main firmware
programmed can be divided into three parts:
1. Receive the Data from Finger print and processing and validating.
2. And take the data from switches and comparing with the data base and updating
the data base.
3. And display the command and display the result with respect to the switch
operations.
AVR STUDIO Is Used for the Development Ultrasonic based Distance Measurement.
6.2. AVR STUDIO Overview
AVR Studio, the popular Software, combines Project Management, Source Code Editing,
Program Debugging, and Flash Programming in a single, powerful environment.
• Project Management, Device Setup and Tool Configuration.

• Editor facilities for Creating, Modifying and Correcting Programs.
• Target Debugging or CPU & Peripheral Simulation.

Open the AVR Studio from the start menu.
Creating a new Project
Click on the New Project button.

 Selecting the compiler and creating the project name and click on the next button.
 Choose AVR simulator from the left list and controller from the right list and press finish.

 Writing the source code.

Save the program by pressing ctrl + S or choosing save from the file menu
6.3. ASSEMBLING
To convert your program to machine language press F7 or select build from the Build
menu or click the build icon in the toolbar.

See the Build window. The window shows if your program has syntax error or not. By looking at
the window, you can see the amount of memory which is used by your program.
6.4. FLASH PROGRAMMING
PROGISP is a way for, in system programming of micro controllers in controlled way.

Its development credit goes to Chi Feng Technology Co., Ltd, which engages in the design of
embedded systems products, sharing and free software developing.
PROGISP ver1.68 supports for nearly 110 CPUs with on board by default fuse bits selection for
every controller. Friendly user interface with required graphics.
Step 1:
Open the tool

Step 2:
Selecting the fuse bits and click on write button.
Step 3:
Click on Erase

Step 4:
Click on load flash
Step 5:
Click on write flash and verify flash in command mode

7.1. SOURCE CODE
#define F_CPU 8000000UL // Set Clock frequency to 8Mhz
#include <avr/io.h>
#include <util/delay.h>
#include <avr/interrupt.h>
#include "lcd.h"
#define relay_on PORTD|=(1<<PD4);
#define relay_of PORTD&=~(1<<PD4)f;
unsigned int f,count=0;
unsigned char
no_1[10]={"0002868456"},no_2[10]={"0002927831"},no_3[10]={"0002927825"},no_4[10]={"
0002868462"},dat=0,a[15],k=0,l=0,i=0;
unsigned int compare();
void Init_USART()
UBRRL=0x33;
UCSRB=(1<<TXEN)|(1<<RXEN);
UCSRC=(1<<URSEL)|(0<<UMSEL)|(0<<UPM1)|(0<<UPM0)|(0<<USBS);
void tx_string(unsigned char *str)
while ((*str)!='\0')
if(*str==0x0d)

tx(' ');
else
tx(*str);
str++;
unsigned char rx()
while(!(UCSRA&(1<<RXC)));
return(UDR);
unsigned char tx(unsigned char ch)
UDR=ch;
while(!(UCSRA&(1<<TXC)));
_delay_ms(50);
return(0);
void uart_int(unsigned int num)
char str[5]={0,0,0,0,0};

int i=4,j=0;
while(num)
str[i]=num%10;
num=num/10;
i--;
for(i=j;i<5;i++)
tx(48+str[i]);
ISR(USART_RXC_vect)
dat=UDR;
if(dat=='$')
PORTD&=~(1<<PD3);PORTD&=~(1<<PD2);
k=rx();
l=0;
while(k!=0x0d)
a[l]=k;

l++;
k=rx();
compare();
unsigned int card=0;
unsigned int compare()
unsigned int m=0,count=0;
for(m=0;m<10;m++)
if(no_1[m]==a[m])
count++;
if(count>9)
card=1;
count=0;
for(m=0;m<10;m++)

if(no_2[m]==a[m])
count++;
if(count>9)
card=2;
count=0;
for(m=0;m<10;m++)
if(no_3[m]==a[m])
count++;
if(count>9)
card=3;
count=0;

for(m=0;m<10;m++)
if(no_4[m]==a[m])
count++;
if(count>9)
card=4;
count=0;
return card;
unsigned int ultra(unsigned char pin1,unsigned char pin2)
unsigned int value;
DDRB = (0<<PB0)|(1<<PB1); //echo low trigr high
PORTB &= 0x00 ;
TCCR1B = 0 ;
TCNT1 &= 0;
PORTB= (1<<pin1); //echo high
_delay_ms(10);

PORTB = (0<<pin1); //echo LOW
while((PINB & pin2) == 0x00); //trigger 0
if((PINB & pin2) == pin2)
TCCR1B = 0x02;
while((PINB & pin2) == pin2);
value = TCNT1 ;
return (value);
int main(void)
int i;
DDRD=0xfe;
DDRC=0xff;
InitLCD(0);
_delay_ms(100);
LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Initialising...");
_delay_ms(5000);
LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Welcome to ");
LCDWriteStringXY(0,1,"Radar system ");
_delay_ms(2000);
sei()

if(f<60)
cli ();
LCDClear ();
_delay_ms(10);
LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Obj Detect:");
_delay_ms(10);
LCDWriteIntXY(10,0,f,4);
_delay_ms(10);
//
if (card==1)
cli();
card=0;
LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Authorised");
LCDWriteStringXY(0,1,"Flight 1 - allow");
relay_of;
_delay_ms(5000);
//sei();
else if (card==2)
cli();

card=0;
LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Authorised ");
LCDWriteStringXY(0,1,"Flight 2 - allow ");
relay_of;
_delay_ms(5000);//sei();
else if (card==3)
cli();
card=0;
LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Authorised ");
LCDWriteStringXY(0,1,"Flight 3 - allow ");
relay_of;
else if (card==4)
cli();

card=0;
LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Un-Authorised ");
LCDWriteStringXY(0,1,"Shoot ");
relay_on;
relay_of;

8.1. SAMPLE OUTPUTS
Figure 8.1: Overview of RFID of system

Fig 8.2: Receiver section of the RFID system

Fig 8.3: Transmitter section of RFID system

Fig 8.4: Runway

Fig 8.5: Display the output as permission granted for an authorized plane

Fig 8.6: Display the output as un-authorized plane as entered

9.1. APPLICATIONS
Military area
• Radar, RFID tags have got wide application in military operations there are used in air,
naval and ground for defense purposes. Fire control and missile guidance is usually
employed.
Air craft Navigation
• These provide the safety to aircraft from potential collision with other aircraft.
• Secure restricted areas for only authorized employee’s objects.
SHIP BASED ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILES
• These are also considered to be SAMs, although in practice it is expected that they would
be more widely used against sea skimming missiles rather than aircraft.
9.2. ADVANTAGES
• Unlike barcodes, tags can store more information. Moreover it follows

instructions/commands of reader.
• It provides location to the reader along with its ID.
• RFID tags are used for tracking luggage as well as for monitoring health history of
patients in the hospitals.
• RFID technology is versatile in nature and hence smaller and larger RFID devices are
available as per application.
• Tags can be read only as well as read/write unlike barcodes.
• The technology is used for security and attendance purpose in schools, colleges as well as
office establishments. The time-in and time-out is recorded it the database of the server.

9.3. LIMITATIONS
• Active RFID is costly due to use of batteries.

• The coverage range of RFID is limited which is about 3 meters.
• RFID devices need to be programmed which requires enough amount of time.

10.1. CONCLUSION
There are many wireless monitoring and control applications for industrial and home
markets which require longer battery life, lower data rates and less complexity than available
from existing wireless standards like Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. So, there was a need for a standard
based, interoperable wireless technology that addresses the unique needs of low data rate
wireless control and sensor-based networks. In this regard, ZigBee was poised to become the
global control/sensor network standard.
Zigbee promises to put wireless sensors in everything from factory automation systems to
home security systems to consumer electronics. Zigbee is a new standard that still needs to pass
through the circles or rigorous technology critics and establish its own place in the industry. The
next ZigBee challenge will be devising the proposed extension to the 802.15.4 standard,’4a’
which could be based on ultra-wideband (UWB).
10.2. FUTURE SCOPE
To defeat modern and future threats, a wide range of options must be available to counter
the many scenarios in which drones can be employed. One option is left-of-launch capabilities:
Using cyber or electronic warfare to render enemy. A second option is to use directed energy
weapons, such as laser or microwave weapons, to bring down drones that pose a direct or
indirect threat to ground forces.
Directed energy weapons are promising, however, they are expensive to develop and the
technology is still being tested. More traditional forms of anti-air weapons, resembling the C-
RAM, relay on twin or revolver guns to fire either buckshot or head ammunition, providing a
cost-effective means to disable UAS. Many options for weapons carried by individual soldiers
are emerging, such as shoulder-fired net or jammer guns. To face new challenges in present day
situation in the military applications unmanned systems are more accurate, flexible and reliable.

REFERENCES
• http://www.arcic.army.mil/App_Documents/Army-CUAS-Strategy.pdf.
• http://www.rucker.army.mil/usaace/uas/US%20Army%20UAS%20RoadMap%202010
%202035.pdf.
• http://www.arcic.army.mil/App_Documents/Army-CUAS-Strategy.pdf.
%202035.pdf.
%202035.pdf.
• http://www.defensenews.com/articles/dod-weapons-designer-swarming-teams-of-
drones-will-dominate-future-wars.
• “C-UAS Briefing to the C-UAS Conference” by Col. Douglas E. White.
• http://usacac.army.mil/CAC2/MilitaryReview/Archives/English/MilitaryReview_201512
31_art012.pdf.
• http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-39277940.
• https://www.usnews.com/opinion/blogs/world-report/2014/04/04/russia-hacks-a-us-
drone-in-crimea-as-cyberwarfare-has-gone-wireless.
• http://breakingdefense.com/2017/04/boeing-upgrades-air-defense-vs-russians-avenger-
shorad/.
• http://asc.army.mil/web/portfolio-item/ms-c-ram_lpws/.
• http://news.lockheedmartin.com/2017-03-16-Lockheed-Martin-to-Deliver-World-
Record-Setting-60kW-Laser-to-U-S-Army?_ga=2.95440988.175385181.1497367101-
1134391669.1497367101.
• http://www.israeldefense.co.il/en/content/iai-unveils-drone-guard-drone-detection-and-
disruption-counter-uav-systems.
• “Countering the Unmanned Aircraft Systems Threat” by Col. Matthew Tedesco.

APPENDIX
SURFACE-TO-AIR-MISSILE
A surface-to-air missile (SAM), or ground-to-air missile (GTAM), is a missile designed

to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft or other missiles. It is one type of anti aircraft
system in modern armed forces, missiles have replaced most other forms of dedicated antiaircraft
weapons, with anti-aircraft guns pushed into specialized roles.
The first serious attempts at SAM development took place during World War II,
although no operational systems were introduced. Further development in the 1940s and 1950s
led to the first operational systems being introduced by most major forces during the second half
of the 1950s. Smaller systems, suitable for close-range work, evolved through the 1960s and
1970s, to modern systems that are man-portable. Ship borne systems followed the evolution of
land-based models, starting with long-range weapons and steadily evolving toward smaller
designs to provide a layered defense that have pushed gun-based systems into the shortest-range
roles.
MOBILITY & RANGE
Missiles able to fly longer distances are generally heavier, and therefore less mobile.
This leads to three "natural" classes of SAM systems; heavy long-range systems that are fixed or
semi-mobile, medium-range vehicle-mounted systems that can fire on the move, and short-
range man-portable air-defense systems (MANPADS).
Modern long-range weapons include the Patriot and S-300 (missile) systems, which have
effective ranges on the order of 150 km, and offer relatively good mobility and short unlimbering
times. These compare with older systems with similar or less range, like the MIM-14 Nike
Hercules or S-75 Dvina, which required fixed sites of considerable size. Much of this
performance increase is due to improved rocket fuels and ever-smaller electronics in the
guidance systems. Some very long-range systems remain, notably the Russian S-400, which has
a range of 400 km.
Medium-range designs, like the Rapier and 2K12 Kb, are specifically designed to be
highly mobile with very fast, or zero, setup times. Many of these designs were mounted on

armored vehicles, allowing them to keep pace with mobile operations in a conventional war.
Once major groups onto itself, medium-range designs have seen less development since the
1990s, as the focus has changed to unconventional warfare.
SHIP BASED ANTI AIRCRAFT MISSILES
These are also considered to be SAMs, although in practice it is expected that they
would be more widely used against sea skimming missiles rather than aircraft. Virtually all
surface warships can be armed with SAMs, and naval SAMs are a necessity for all front-line
surface warships. Some warship types specialize in anti-air warfare e.g. Ticonderoga-
class cruisers equipped with the Aegis combat system or Kirov class cruisers with the S-
300PMU Favorite missile system. Modern Warships may carry all three types (from long-range
to short-range) of SAMs as a part of their multi-layered air defense.
GUIDANCE SYSTEMS
SAM systems generally fall into two broad groups based on their guidance systems,
those using radar and those using some other means.
Longer range missiles generally use radar for early detection and guidance. Early SAM
systems generally used tracking radars and fed guidance information to the missile using radio
control concepts, referred to in the field as command guidance. Through the 1960s, the semi-
active radar homing (SARH) concept became much more common. In SARH, the reflections of
the tracking radar's broadcasts are picked up by a receiver in the missile, which homes in on this
signal. SARH has the advantage of leaving most of the equipment on the ground, while also
eliminating the need for the ground station to communicate with the missile after launch.
Smaller missiles, especially MANPADs, generally use infrared homing guidance

systems. These have the advantage of being "fire-and-forget", once launched they will home on
the target on their own with no external signals needed. In comparison, SARH systems require
the tracking radar to illuminate the target, which may require them to be exposed through the
attack. Systems combining an infrared seeker as a terminal guidance system on a missile using
SARH are also known, like the MIM-46 Mauler, but these are generally rare.

TARGET ACQUISITION
Long-range systems generally use radar systems for target detection, and depending on
the generation of system, may "hand off" to separate tracking radar for attack. Short range
systems are more likely to be entirely visual for detection.
Hybrid systems are also common. The MIM-72 Chaparral was fired optically, but
normally operated with a short range early warning radar that displayed targets to the operator.
This radar, the FAAR, was taken into the field with a Gama Goat and set up behind the lines.
Information was passed to the Chaparral via a data link. Likewise, the UK's Rapier system
included simple radar that displayed the rough direction of a target on a series of lamps arranged
in a circle. The missile operator would point his telescope in that rough direction and then hunt
for the target visually.

Unmanned Aircraft Missile Using RFID

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Unmanned Aircraft Missile Using RFID

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

ABSTRACT

RFID or Radio Frequency identification is a technology that enables the tracking or

S.NO CONTENTS Page. NO

1.1 Introduction to wireless communication 1

1.2 Overview of wireless communications 1

1.3 Organization of thesis 2

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 3-4

2.2 Existing system 3

2.3 Proposed system 4

3 AIM, OBJECTIVES AND DEFINATIONS 5-7

3.3.1. Zigbee key features 5

3.4 Zigbee characteristics 6

4 DESCRIPTION OF BLOCK DIAGRAM AND 8-25

4.2 Block diagram of receiver section 8

4.3 Schematic representation of block diagram 9

4.3.1. Schematic representation of transmitter section 9

4.3.2. Schematic representation of receiver section 10

4.4.5. Voltage regulator 12

4.5 Liquid crystal display 12

4.5.1. Pins functions 13

4.5.2. LCD screen 14

4.5.3. LCD basic commands 14

4.5.4. LCD connection 16

4.5.5. LCD initialization 17

4.6 Motor drivers 19

4.7.1. Introduction of L293D 19

4.7.3 Pin description 21

4.7.4. Pin diagram 22

4.8 Ultrasonic sensor 22

4.8.1. Application ideas 24

4.9 Zigbee architecture 24

5.1 Definition of a microcontroller 26

5.3 Key features 27

5.4 Pin diagram of ATMEGA8 29

5.5 ATMEGA8 sleep modes 30

5.6 Block diagram of ATMEGA8 32

5.6.1. Status register 33

5.6.2. Global interrupt enable 33

5.6.3. General purpose register file 34

5.6.5. SRAM data memory 36

5.7 RFID working process 37

5.8 Types of RFID 37

5.8.1. RFID module 38

5.9 RFID frequencies 41

5.10 RFID applications 41

66 6 FIRMWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECT 42-49

6.2 AVR studio overview 42

6.4 Flash programming 47

7 SOURCE CODE 50-59

7.1 Source code 50

8.1 Sample outputs 60

9 APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAGES, 66-67

10 CONCLUSION, FUTURE SCOPE 68

10.2 Future scope 68

Figure 4.1 Block diagram of transmitter section

Figure 4.2 Block diagram of receiver section

Figure 4.3 Schematic representation of transmitter

Figure 4.4 Schematic representation of receiver section

Figure 4.5 Components of power supply

Figure 4.6 LCD display

Figure 4.7 Power supply connections of LCD

Figure 4.8 Algorithm for initialization of 8-bit LCD

Figure 4.9 5 volts and 12 volts motor